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The Distance: a cooperative communication game to long-distance players

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The Distance: a cooperative communication game to long-distance players

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THE DISTANCE:
A COOPERATIVE COMMUNICATION GAME
TO LONG-DISTANCE PLAYERS

By
Xian Lu

Master of Fine Arts
Interactive Media & Games Division
School of Cinematic Arts
University of Southern California
May 11, 2018

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Table of Contents
Table of Contents 1
Abstract 2
Introduction 3
Design Philosophy/ Methodology 5
Long-distance relationship and communication 5
Design Principles for Multiplayer Co-op Games 9
Design Patterns for Cooperative Games 9
Dual-perspective Storytelling 11
Prior Works 12
The Distance 16
Project Overview 16
Mechanics 17
Asymmetry Maps and Players 18
Interactions between Players 19
Sharing between worlds 20
Trigger a moving platform in another world 23
Light up the world for each other 24
Synergy Task: Rowing a boat 25
Narrative 27
Level Design 29
Evaluation Method and Analysis 31
Cooperative Performance Metrics (CPMs) 31
Discussion 36
Conclusion 37
References 38

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Abstract
Video games have been increasingly transformed from single, co-located experiences into multi-
played, socially oriented platforms and multiplayer online games that provide the opportunity to
create a social environment for friendships and strengthen the relationships have progressively
gained popularity. There are not many existing games designed for pairs of intimate players,
playing online video games together. However, games can be a good method for long-distance
couples to close the feeling of geographical distance.

The Distance is a 2-player cooperative puzzle platformer designed for geographically separated
couples to foster communication and their relationship. It tells a story of a broken relationship in
a dual-perspective and introduces innovative multiplayer interactions between a pair of players.
With The Distance, the goal is to share my personal understanding of relationship, foster
meaningful communication that may echo from the game world into the real relationships and
create opportunities for a stronger emotional connection between players despite distance.

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Introduction
Video games have also been increasingly transformed from single, co-located experiences into
multi-played, socially oriented platforms (Herodotou, 2009). Multiplayer online games provide
players the opportunity to play games together across vast distance and speak with one another
through an audio interface. This trend is anticipated to continue over the next eight years.

Growing up, I personally love playing multiplayer online games. From MMORPGs where I
made many friends who I have never had chance to meet with in the real life to MOBAs where I
fight with my roommates in countless nights. I love how multiplayer games enable players to
communicate and collaborate in joint game sessions. Whether the activity is about shooting each
other with weapons or arranging virtual weddings, the underlying theme is about togetherness.
In 2015, I came to the U.S for study and I discovered that nothing tests a relationship more than
distance. In the time I’ve been away from my family and my boyfriend, I’ve learnt a lot from my
relationships that I want to share with people through a resonant medium. Also, since then I
started to seeking games for my boyfriend and I to create shared experience that bridges the
geographical gap between us. Surprisingly, I found that despite how popular multiplayer online
games are, it’s very difficult to find a game that we can sit down and play alone on a single night
while talking to each other in a relaxed and proactive environment. There are many massive
multiplayer games in the market striving to attract as many players as possible and keep them for
as long as possible. In contrast, there are only a small number of games designed for fewer but
more intimate players and focus on creating the emotional bond between them. Nevertheless,
research demonstrates that one way many geographically separated couples are already
discovering to close the feeling of distance is through gaming together. Just like me, many of
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them are looking for games with low entrance barrier that allow them to understand one another
through teamwork and give them space for quality shoulder-to-shoulder time.

Throughout my career as a game designer, I always believed that video games have a greater
ability to tell your own story and evoke strong emotional responses than other art forms. It is my
passion to share my personal experience through games to a wider public and my responsibility
to take the human desire and capacity for feeling and turn all that into meaningful interactions
using video games.

With The Distance, my goal was to explore how online multiplayer games can make long-
distance players feel more connected and improve their relationships while sharing my own
insights. The game was designed to encourage meaningful communication with a call &
response dynamic among geographically-separated players to enhance their relationships. These
design goals are approached with interactions among players and the dual-perspective
storytelling throughout the game play.

This thesis document is organized as follows. Chapter 2 discusses theories behind long-distance
relationship, reviews design principles for building a successful multiplayer co-op game, studies
dual-perspective narrative and its use in video games and lists out inspiring prior works of
different genres for references. Chapter 3 introduces The Distance’s game process as well as its
game mechanics and narrative structure based on the research from Chapter 2. Chapter 4
discusses the method we use to measure to what extent the game reaches design goals and
analyze current state of the game. Chapter 5 is the conclusion of this thesis.
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Design Philosophy/ Methodology
Long-distance relationship and communication
The Distance is a game aiming to discuss long-distance(LD) relationships and explore how to
foster communication between geographically separated players to strengthen their relationships.
Thus, before discussing the details of the project itself, it is important to understand LD
relationships, how is it differentiated from other relationships and how intimacy is developed and
maintained via appropriate communication in LD relationships.

LD relationship is an intimate relationship between partners who are geographically isolated
from one another. It is fairly common nowadays due to society’s increasing mobility. People
carry out close relationship in geographic separation due to educational demands, dual-career
pursuits, military deployment, emigration, and other such factors (Stafford, 2005). The best
estimates suggest that there are 3,569,000 married persons in the United States who live apart for
reasons other than marital discord in 2005 (the latest data available).

Most people assume it is challenging to maintain the intimacy of LD relationship. Geographic
separation and lack of face-to-face contact lead to restricted communication, reduced
interdependence, heightened uncertainty about the future and finally, the erosion of intimacy. On
the other hand, recent research suggests that LD relationship is of equal or even more trust and
satisfaction than its geographically close counterpart. (see Figure 1) In order to maintain the
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intimate connection, people in LD relationships tend to have longer, deeper and more meaningful
conversations and have a sense of commitment and responsibility.

Figure 1. People in long-distance relationship feel emotionally connected yet geographically
disconnected.

How do people develop and maintain the intimacy in relationships? Intimacy as an interpersonal
process, according to the interpersonal process model of intimacy (IPMI; Reis & Shaver, 1988),
is derived from transactions of self-disclosure and perceived partner responsiveness. Self-
disclosure generally refers to the communication of personal facts, thoughts, and emotions to
another. Perceived partner responsiveness is the perception that the relationship partner
recognizes, values, and behaviorally supports the core aspects of the self. For LD relationships,
without physical interactions, the key lies in the effective and affective communication.
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Figure 2. The interpersonal process model of intimacy (IPMI; Reis & Shaver, 1988)

Communication, by definition, is the transfer of information from one place to another. In
relationships, communication allows to you explain to someone else what you are experiencing
and what your needs are. The act of communicating not only helps to meet your needs, but it also
helps you to be connected in your relationship. Affective communication is the process through
which people express feelings about things, themselves, and others. Expression of positive and
negative feelings about places, objects, events and ideas are called opinions. The self-disclosures
we mentioned above are also known as expressions of feelings about oneself, which are done
through affective communication. Effective communication is about more than just exchanging
information, but understanding the emotion and intentions behind the information. In
relationships, people need to communicate clearly to avoid misunderstandings that may cause
hurt, anger, resentment or confusion no matter how well they think they know and how much
they love each other. Thus, as well as being able to clearly convey the content of a message, you
need to also listen in a way that gains the full meaning of what’s being said and makes the other
people feel heard and understood, which is the process of giving responsiveness.

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Based on the study of the long-distance relationship, intimacy and communication, The Distance
is designed to capture the feeling of being in the long-distance relationship and explore how to
maintain and strengthen the connections between partners in this situation.
The research literature suggests some of the following principles:
● People in long-distance relationships are facing many challenges and it is normal to have
sense of uncertainty in the relationship.
● Affective and effective communication is essential for maintaining intimacy in long-
distance relationships.
● Misunderstandings and conflicts are usually and arise from the lack of proper
communication.
● Co-create shared experiences with partners and daily updates between partners are
strongly desired for people who are in long-distance relationships.
● Even if the relationship fails in the end, effective and meaningful affective
communication can result in personal growth for each partner.

The goal of The Distance is to provide players an environment where they feel encouraged to
express and respond to one another in terms of the game worlds, narrative contents and even
their own emotions and understandings. The aim is to develop a call & response dynamic
between two players with the game mechanics and narrative elements. In order to do so it is
necessary to study how multiplayer game mechanics and narrative elements in multiplayer
games can enhance communication experiences between players.
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Design Principles for Multiplayer Co-op Games
Cooperative gameplay is a feature in video games that allows players to work together as
teammates. It is distinct from other multiplayer modes, such as competitive multiplayer modes.
Co-op gaming can operate either locally - with players sharing input devices or using multiple
controllers connected to a single console - or over a network, with co-op players joining an
existing game running on a game server via network. As a game designed for geographically
separated players, The Distance is an online co-op game. Designing a cooperative game is
different than a competitive game, which is more commonly seen in the current game market. In
order to foster collaboration between players and enhance gameplay experience through
interactions, there are several factors that need to be taken into account.
Design Patterns for Cooperative Games
Some researchers analyzed a set of cooperative games to develop cooperative game design
patterns. Rocha et al. presented a framework of several cooperative game design patterns. Here
are six cooperative game design patterns identified by him:
● Complementarity
Complementarity between characters that players control is one of the most commonly
used design patterns in cooperative games. In some cases, characters tend to settle better
in one type of role and in other cases, even when you have two different character types
for the same role, they will usually be complementary to one another, as they will have
different abilities that will complement each other in that role.
● Synergies between abilities
Synergy between the abilities of different character type is another common design
pattern. Many examples can be found in MMORPGs.
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● Abilities that can only be used on another player
Sometimes games provide players with abilities that can only be used with another
player. The purpose of these abilities is to encourage cooperation between players.
● Shared Goals
In most cooperative games, a common goal is set for the whole group to encourage
players to work together. The success of a team depends on whether the team can
accomplish a certain goal.
● Synergies between goals (interlaced/intertwined goals)
When players have different goals, one of the design approaches used to force them
cooperate together is to have some sort of synergy between their goals.
● Special Rules for Players of the same Team
Some games have special rules for players of the same team - an action will have a
different effect when done on a friendly player. A good example of this are the special
rules for shooting members of your own team in FPS games.

No matter which design pattern is applied, the ultimate idea behind these patterns is to promote
and facilitate cooperation. Although not all of them are frequently used in two-player cooperative
games, The Distance also learnt from these design patterns and realized some of them in game
mechanics. We apply the following design principles to The Distance:
● A common and clear goal is set for the whole group. Players stay connected in a manner
that each individual cannot succeed unless the entire team passes as a whole.
● Clear statements of activity and individual responsibilities are delivered to enhance
participants’ understanding of the group work and reduce conflicts between players.
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● The game encourages engagement with team communication through information
distribution which means each player has access to different pieces of information and
can effectively share them to one another.
● Players should be both engaged and equally important in completing the game as a team.
The single-player domination effect where one player is solving the puzzle and the other
is simply following orders should be avoid in design.
Dual-perspective Storytelling
Throughout history, storytelling has been one of the most important elements in connecting
human beings. With variant game mechanics, onscreen stories are allowing increasing levels of
audience engagement, transforming the player into an active participant through immersive
stories. In the world of video games, this process is experiencing a revolution; producing entirely
new vehicles for immersive storytelling and narrative techniques. However, a vast majority of
interactive narrative work has focused on single-player experiences and for multiplayer games,
storytelling has been a challenge and largely unexplored. Players normally disregard story in
multiplayer games as it can disrupt gameplay, not to mention sometimes they honestly just don’t
care. To attract players attention, the story needs to be appealing in its structure and content to to
engage and motivate players.

The Distance is considered as a game for two geographically isolated players. To simulate the
way long-distance couples communicate in the life, different contents of narrative were given to
two players and a structure of dual-perspective storytelling was applied. In the game, each player
only follows one character’s point of view to learn a story about a broken relationship from two
different perspectives.
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A dual-perspective storytelling is a form of narrative that tells a story in two different
perspectives, usually two different people. It is an effective technique in literature that can be
used to tell the story of people at two different points in time and show parallels between the
storylines. One challenge in creating dual-perspective narrative is to make each narrative equally
compelling so the reader doesn’t have a sense of disappointment when leaving one storyline to
re-enter the other. This is even more important for us to make sure both readers find stories they
are reading are engaged and interesting in The Distance.
Prior Works
In conceptualizing The Distance as an online co-op game with strong narrative elements and a
focus on emotional experience, it was important to incorporate elements from different genres of
games. In the early phase of the project, some multiplayer co-op games were analyzed in terms
of their gameplay and player experience. In addition to learning from their mechanics, in the
focus of the analysis was how connection between players was established through player-and-
player interactions and what players’ communication pattern was like.
Portal 2 Co-op Mode
- Portal 2 is a first-person puzzle-platform video game developed and published by Valve
Corporation. The game includes a two-player mode, in which the robotic player-
characters Atlas and P-Body are each given a portal gun and are required to work
together to solve puzzles.
- http://www.thinkwithportals.com/index.php
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Ibb&Obb
- ibb&obb is a two-player cooperative game set in a puzzle filled world where gravity goes
up and down. You can only succeed by working closely together. The green creature, ibb,
and the pink creature, obb, travel through a world divided by a thin horizon line; on either
side of the barrier, everything is inverted, and gravity works in opposite directions.
- http://ibbandobb.com/
Journey
- Journey is an interactive parable, an anonymous online adventure to experience a
person’s life passage and their intersections with other’s. In Journey, the player controls a
robed figure in a vast desert, traveling towards a mountain in the distance. Other players
on the same journey can be discovered, and two players can meet and assist each other,
but they cannot communicate via speech or text and cannot see each other’s names.
- http://thatgamecompany.com/journey/
Way
- Way is a 2-player, online game where strangers learn speak and collaborate. In Way,
players are set in a 2D platforming game environment. At first, players navigate the game
area alone, trying to make sense of what the game experience is meant to be. Moments
later, the game reveals that your journey is happening simultaneously with another,
unnamed, random player. Both players can see the movements of the other player but
cannot interact directly. As the game progresses, players will be met with puzzle that they
cannot solve alone. Only the other player can see what path the other player must take to
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progress forward. Both players must use a mixture of gestures and simple, emotional
grunts to guide their now destined partner to a dramatic and uplifting ending.
- https://makeourway.com/
Sunder
- Sunder is a 2D cooperative puzzle-action platformer in which two players view the same
screen but see different world. Through the use of color-filtering glasses, each player
exists in a similar-but-different environment and must communicate verbally in order to
solve puzzles and defeat enemies. The players take the roles of brother and sister as they
navigate the treacherous environments of their imagination.
- http://games.digipen.edu/games/sunder

In considering the narrative elements of The Distance, I also turned to narrative-driven games
with multi-perspective narrative structure for references.
The Cave
- The Cave is a puzzle-platform adventure video game about a cave that lures people to
explore their darker personality traits. Player initially selects three different characters
from a cast of seven to explore the Cave and many of the game’s puzzles require the
three characters to work in coordination to complete. Throughout the game will be
iconographs for each of the three characters, which provide one of several still images
that reveal the character’s back-story.
- http://thecavegame.com/
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A Way Out
- A Way Out is an upcoming action-adventure video game played from a third-person
perspective. The game will only be able to be played in either online or local split screen
co-op between two players, with no single player mode. In the game, players control Leo
and Vincent, two convicted prisoners who must break out of prison and stay on the run
from authorities. As story of both protagonists is told simultaneously, their progress may
not be synchronized, which may result in one player being able to control their character,
while another watching a cutscene. Players need to cooperate with each other in order to
progress, and each situation can be approached differently, with both characters taking
different roles.
- https://www.ea.com/games/a-way-out

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The Distance
Project Overview
Gameplay Experience
The Distance is a 2-player cooperative puzzle platformer purposefully designed for long-distance
players. Players are able to connect via the internet remotely. In the game, players take the role
of two characters and are invited into two mysterious and distinctive worlds where they only see
each other as an abstract representation. They have special abilities to teleport objects in their
own world to each other, and by doing so, they solve puzzle and progress together. As they
navigate this dreamlike environment, their goals are to collect memory fragments that tell a story
about a broken relationship from two different perspectives. Each player only follows one
character’s point of view, and to reveal the complete story, conversations between the players
must be had to fill in the blanks.

Figure 3. Screenshots of The Distance for two players
Target Audience
Primary: casual gamers who are in relationships or passionate with 2-player games (age from 16-
30)
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Secondary: casual gamers who are fans of co-op puzzle games (age from 12-60)
Platforms
PC online & Mac online
Goals
The Distance was developed with the intent of creating a shared experience for geographically
separated players, including couples, family members or close friends in order to help them get
more connected with each other despite the distance. Thus, the game should meet following
design goals:
● Shares my own understanding to relationships and embodies my values that may resonate
with players.
● Fosters effective and meaningful communication between players that may echo from the
game world into their real relationships.
● Creates a call & response dynamic between players which means players are engaged and
equal important in the conversations and both communicate and listen actively.
● Builds a stronger emotional connection between players through interactions and
conversations.
Mechanics
The Distance’s mechanics center around a shared cooperative experience for two players.
Cooperative games design patterns such as Complementarity, Synergies between abilities,
Shared Goals and Synergies between goals are realized through following core mechanics:
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Asymmetry Maps and Players
Upon entering the game, players are invited into two distinct mysterious worlds with an
asymmetry map design: platforms or objects in one world may not exist in another world; while
the land is ascending in one world, it is descending in the other world. The shared goal for two
players is to reach the exit from the start together and with this map setting, none of the player
can progress all alone till the end because of the lack of certain platforms or objects. Another
benefit gained from this asymmetry world design is that communication between players are
forced for players to understand what it is like in the world that is only visible to their partners.

Figure 4. The first level’s level design

Another goal is to simulate the experience of long-distance relationships with this mechanic. In
long-distance relationship, you and your partner are living two different separately and there’s no
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way you can get familiar with your partner’s new life except having frequent updates from
him/her with conversations.

In The Distance, players take the role of a pair of plush toy avatars. These two avatars are
different in appearances and their name, age and story are unknown. Players meet each other at
the Lobby where they invite a friend and wait to connect. Once they enter the official game, the
partner turns into an abstract representation of a glowing spirit. We want to emphasize the sense
of isolation and loneliness with this feature: you are no longer with your partner physically and
although you still feel the companionship, sometimes there’s nothing they can really do for you
in long-distance relationships.

Figure 5. Character design

Interactions between Players
With two asymmetrical worlds, the two players are separated and forced to communicate with
each other in order to progress in the game. But they don’t have any actual in-game interaction at
this stage yet. Real interactions are realized through following mechanics:
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Sharing between worlds
One bridge that links players and two worlds in the game is the special ability of teleporting
objects in their own world to each other. With this ability, players are able to share a platform
with each other to supplement the missing part in another world, or teleport a special item that
help the partner to solve certain problems. The sharing mechanic includes three steps:
1. Player A presses the Share Key down and if there’s any shareable object within the
range, the nearest object is selected and a progress bar shows up.
2. Player A holds down the Share Key for a certain amount of time to fill up the
progress bar and meanwhile, there will particle effects in Player B’s world, indicating
the sharing is happening.
3. Player A releases the Share Key when the progress bar is filled up to complete the
sharing, Player B will get the object immediately.

All objects that can be shared have specific particle effects as suggestions. Players are forbidden
to re-sharing a shared object to eliminate confusion. The exact process might be slightly different
based on what is being shared. Here we describe 3 examples in the game.

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● Platform
The most common case is the sharing of a platform. Since worlds of two characters are
asymmetrical, sharing platforms between the two characters to supplements the missing part for
each. Sharing becomes the only way for players to progress forward together. It is the easiest
puzzle in the game and the most intuitive solution that are purposefully provided for players to
get familiar with core mechanics. In the process of frequently and regularly sharing platforms, an
atmosphere of trust is nurtured and positive emotions among players are quickly cultivated. This
mechanic is also an effective way to make sure two players are stay close with each other. In the
level design, we use this design pattern as a method to force one player wait for the partner.

Figure 6. Process of sharing and receiving a platform for two players
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● Tree Root/Trunk
Tree Root/Trunk is a special item in The Distance with multiple functions. The character can
push and step on it to reach a higher ground, place it atop the trigger to control a moving
platform or use it as a bridge across river. It is also an object that can be shared to the partner in
another world. When to share it and how to use it is the key to puzzle solving in many situations.
Different from platforms, when a Tree Root/Trunk is sent to the other world, it disappear in the
original world. This adds on to the difficulties of the proper use of Tree Root/Trunk in the
puzzle solving.

Figure 7. Screen shot of the avatar pushing a tree root

● Mushroom
The Mushroom is another special item that can be shared. It is a bouncy platform which has
similar attributes with a spring. When players step on it, they can jump much higher than normal
jumps. The Mushroom is used to send players to higher position for certain reasons. Items with
variant attributes such as the Mushroom helps to make the game a rich and diverse experience.

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Trigger a moving platform in another world
Besides the sharing mechanic, players can also take influence on each other with triggers that
control moving platforms in another world. The moving platform is a special type of platform
which moves up and down within a certain range when activated by the corresponding trigger.
Each moving platform is controlled by one and only trigger and moves when the trigger is
stepped on by a player or an object. Therefore, the timing of activation and deactivation plays a
key role in adjusting the position of a moving platform and helping each other to move forward.
When the trigger and the moving platform are separated in two worlds and not both visible to a
player at the same time, the operation is way more difficult and requires much more
communication between players.

The goal of this mechanic is to capture the feeling of trying to understand actual needs of the
partner in a long-distance relationships. This is a very subtle process. Sometimes when you think
you are offering help, you are not really doing a favor because you can’t see the actual problems
your partners are facing and the real needs they have. Again, communication is essential in these
situations. We also want players learn to be patient with their partners during the communication
when every little miscommunicated information leads to the failure of solving the puzzle.

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Figure 8. An example of the use of moving platforms and triggers. Moving platforms are controlled by
triggers of the same color in another world.

Light up the world for each other
When the character goes into the cave in Level One and Level Three, player’s vision is limited
while the spirit-like representation of the partner shines in the darkness and lights up the cave.
Especially for the Level Three where there are falling spines in the cave that kills players if fall
on their heads, players take turns to light each other’s world up and guide the partner avoid
damages. The cooperative game design patterns of Abilities that can only be used on another
player is therefore realized with this mechanic.

In long-distance relationships, emotional connections are sometimes maintained or even
strengthened by the sense of companionship: knowing someone is there for you is a warm and
supportive enough and can actually guide you in the darkness and help you overcome obstacles
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on your way. On the other hand, it is important to slow down your pace and accompany your
partner throughout those rough days. The goal of the mechanic is to convey these values.

Figure 9. Screen shot of the cave and two players

Synergy Task: Rowing a boat
The last mechanic we want to discuss here is having players row a boat together. In both Level 2
and Level 3 there is a river scene where two players get on a boat and then have to collaborate to
row the boat, collect items and arrive at the destination together. Each player controls an oar and
will make the boat go to a single direction. Only when two players are rowing the boat at the
proper time and in a proper order, the boat goes to the expected direction.

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In Level 3, some items are only visible to one player and players need to take turns to lead the
team. This mechanic is designed to provide a great sense of cooperation and the gameplay
experience should be rewarding. The goal is for player to realize that being in a relationship is
like crossing a river in the same boat, only when two people are heading toward a same
direction, they can have a long-lasting relationship.

Figure 10. Screenshot of the top-down-view boat section

With all mechanics described above, the ultimate goal is to tell our interpretation of long-
distance relationship experience using metaphors and promote the collaboration and
communication between two players. We want to insure that players invest themselves and
commit to playing with their partners. Because neither player has all of the information or
ability, they are interdependent. After you share an object to your partner, you need to wait for
the responding actions and this creates a shared Call & Response dynamic which is what the
game values.

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Narrative
Besides game mechanics introduced above, The Distance is supplemented by a story about a
broken relationship told from two different perspectives. Each player only follows one
character's point of view, and to reveal the complete story, conversations between the payers
must be had to fill in the blanks.

The story is divided into three chapters and told throughout three levels. It starts when Eric and
Natalie, two main protagonists, are starting a long-distance relationship since Eric is moving to
another city for his career. Their relationship is then facing challenges and conflicts arise when
they are communication goes wrong. The story has an open ending and it leaves player to
interpret whether Eric and Natalie should continue their relationship. We use an abstract and
emotional writing style and adopt a first-person perspective for each player.

Table 1. Narrative contents for two players in the first level
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The story is told through Memory Fragments. In each level, players need to collect Memory
Fragments to complete the level. A Memory Fragment is collected when both two players get to
it and then different narrative contents are revealed to each player.

Although dual-perspective narrative is commonly seen in literature, it is not usually used in
video games. However, we find it very interesting to apply this narrative structure in two-player
games. Because each player will be receiving narrative information with blanks for their friend
to fill in, player perception will heavily influence the overall story, which leads to fantastic
storytelling possibilities: player-created stories can be much more appealing than what designers
can provide. While we foster communication between players with mechanics, we also wish to
encourage players have more meaningful conversations that may echo from the game world into
real relationships. The asymmetry narrative contents in dual-perspective storytelling helps to
realize this.
Figure 11. Process of collecting memory fragments for two players
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The boat section also uses poems to supplement the story. When players traverse the river, one
sentence of a poem will show up when once they collect a flower successfully. The poems have
less to do with the storyline but are effective in conveying emotions infectiously.
Level Design
As a puzzle platformer, level design is very important to The Distance. The goal is that the game
is hard enough to feel challenging (and rewarding when defeated), but easy enough to begin and
complete. The Distance currently has three levels. The first level serves as a tutorial where we
introduce goals of the game and basic mechanics to players and in the second and third level, we
keep giving players new features based on mechanics they already learned. New features are all
derived from basic mechanic and the difficulty is accumulated step by step. We want to make
sure that when we introduce a new mechanic, we also provide players a safe space to practice
their skills and before they start to get bored, we give them something new. Here’s a table of
mechanics we introduce in each level.
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Table 12. Mechanics introduced in each level

Moreover, level design facilitates to create the desired emotional experience as well. The level
design ties in with the narrative and experience design closely throughout The Distance. As the
story is getting sad and the relationship between two main characters is turning bad, the game is
getting difficult and the aesthetic style changes. For instance, in the first level, players go up
above a waterfall by sharing platforms regularly to each other, while in the third level, players
fall down together from unsteady platforms above a waterfall again. The contrast also takes place
in two river sections of the second and the third level. In the second level, the atmosphere is
more peaceful and relaxing while in the third level, it is much more dangerous and risky. All of
these contrasts intend to show changes of the relationship between two protagonists and make
the game more emotionally impressive.

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Evaluation Method and Analysis
After the design and development, we want to examine if The Distance reaches the design goals,
that is to what extent does it promote communication between players that enhances their
connection? Furthermore, we want to analyze the factors that contribute to the communication.
There are many different aspects of the evaluation:
● Do players spontaneously and frequently have conversations?
● Do players have a good collaboration overall throughout the game?
● How do they feel after playing the game?
● Which design pattern is most effective in creating the interactions we intend?

Evaluating the quality of conversations is difficult. Few research studies have investigated
methods to evaluate cooperative game design patterns. Also because The Distance is still a
project under development, the scope of evaluation is limited.
Cooperative Performance Metrics (CPMs)
A set of Cooperative Performance Metrics (CPMs) was developed to analyze data collected in
play tests and evaluate the effectiveness of the communication. These metrics are associated
with observable events within a play session, and thus can be used as a basis for structured
observation of a cooperative play session. They were created through an iterative process. The
first initial set of metrics was defined based on a former model proposed by Magy Seif El-Nasr
and combined with new metrics identified by us. Formal playtests were then conducted applying
these metrics to each player’s performance. Based on the results observed from playtests, the
metrics were revised again.
32
The first initial set of CPMs developed is as follow:
Laughter or excitement together (LT), which is identified as events where two players:
● laughed at the same time due to a specific game event;
● expressed verbally that they are enjoying the game, looking for utterances, such as
“sweet”, “wow”, etc.;
● Shook their heads and showed facial nonverbal behaviors that clearly expressed
happiness or excitement.
As different people have different personalities, it is hard to count just one person and neglect the
other, thus only events where all participants laughed together were labeled.

Worked out strategies (WS), is another event in the metrics which is identified when players:
● Talked aloud about solving a shared challenge;
● Navigated the world while consulting with each other.
This is important as it refers to cases during gameplay where an obstacle encourages players to
talk with each other and find a solution to resolve it.

Teaching each other (TE) is another related metric that corresponds with helping events. It is
defined as events where players:
● Talked about controls in the game, and teach one another how to use the game
mechanics;
● Told each other the correct way of passing a shared obstacle.
This tactic is different from the Worked out strategies tactic in that is one player helping the
other and not both are helping each other. In this case a teacher can be clearly identified.
33

Got in each other’s way (GW) is a related metric defined as events where
● one player progresses and the other lag behind;
● one character dies because of the other fails to take certain actions;
One important problem with cooperative games is the gap between skills of each player which
causes players to hinder each other’s progress or wait for the other. Most of the time this builds
frustration.

Collective storytelling (CS) is the last metric defined as events where players:
● share narrative elements with each other
● discuss the story with each other
This metric is essential to The Distance since it evaluates how well the dual-perspective
storytelling is going in the game.

Five formal playtests of the first level of the game were conducted and recorded which applied
these metrics to each player’s performance. The average length of each play session is about 7.5
minutes. A total of 39 minutes of video data were reviewed and scored by labelling each CPM
occurrence. For each CPM label, a cause was also identified. After the playtest, each player in
the pair of was asked to grade their degree of collaboration and communication on a 5-point
scale (1: very bad, 2: bad, 3: neither bad or good, 4: good, 5: very good) individually. These
scores were summed to produce a composite score. Figure 13 shows the results of this whole
process. Following facts were found based on our analysis:
34
● Events of Laughter and Excitement Together (LT) do not occur very frequently in The
Distance due to the asymmetrical level design. They occur mostly in the lobby when two
players are able to see each other and the main causes are visual and audio patterns such
as character design, character animations and loading animations, etc. In addition, shared
goals and shared puzzles are also important factors, for instance, most players are happy
when they share a platform successfully for the first time.
● The sharing mechanic and related puzzles cause Worked Out Strategies (WS) events and
encourage communications between players. As players tried to solve puzzles
cooperatively, they talked aloud and made plans. In our observation, most
communication was two-way. Players like to confirm with their partners by chatting back
and forth with questions such as “Do you see it?” or “Are you good?”
● There were some Teaching (TE) events observed where one player taught another one
about the controls, process of sharing or direction. However, no player was playing a
leading role and completely guided the partner throughout the game.
● Observed events of Got in Each Other’s Way (GW) were caused by one character’s
death. In the game, when one character dies, another character dies too. Although there
were not many of these events, players had interesting reactions and interactions about
this mechanic. We observed that one player was waiting and kidding with his partner,
“Hurry up, or I will jump down and kill us!” And in another play session, one player told
his partner “stay there, don’t move without me!” We believe this causes a good chemistry
between the two players.
● Not many Collective Storytelling (CS) events was observed. Players either ignored
narrative contents or did not realized they were reading different contents with each
35
other. Only ⅕ players succeeded in revealing the story from two perspectives by
discussing it with each other. Further analysis shows that more instructions or guides are
necessary to foster player’s communication of the narrative.
• Besides the defined metrics, we also noticed that player’s conversations are not only
centered around strategies but also about the game world. Players were talking about
what they can see in their own world, including the color of platforms, character’s
animations and particle effects, etc. and even what they feel about the world. Comments
such as “this character is adorable!”, “this dark cave makes me worried and nervous”
were heard in play sessions. Thus, we decided that Exploration of the World should also
be a metric which is defined as events where players describe or comment on their own
world with each other.
LT WS TE GW CS Points of
Collaboration
Points of
Communication
Playtest1 2 5 2 1 1 8 8
Playtest2 1 5 3 1 0 7 8
Playtest3 3 5 2 2 2 10 9
Playtest4 2 5 1 1 0 10 7
Playtest5 1 4 2 1 0 8 8
Table 13. Results of formal playtests. Each column shows numbers of events that are observed in the
play sessions. Points of Collaboration and Communication are the sum of two players’ points.

The final set of CPMs we developed contains: Laughter or excitement together (LT), Worked out
strategies (WS), Teaching each other (TE), Got each other’s way (GW), Collective storytelling
(CS) and Exploration of the World (EW). Once the development of The Distance is completed,
more playtests will be conducted utilizing these metrics to determine if the game reaches the
design goals and to what extent does it promote communication between players.
36
Discussion
Because this is a relatively new design territory, there was a lot of trial and error involved in
designing good mechanics and a narrative structure to support the design goals as well as metrics
to evaluate the game. The Distance is still under development at this point. Playtesting helped to
improve all facets of the game and there is still much work to be done.

According to the results from formal play tests that we conducted, the first level of The Distance
has succeeded in creating interesting gameplay that offers a new experience to players
encouraging collaboration and communication. However, the level of emotional involvement
was not as high as we hoped. But, even marginal involvement would support the design goals of
closing the feeling of geographical distance for long-distance players. The facts that player
enjoyed the game and embraced two-way communication spontaneously is consistent with the
goals of the thesis. Nevertheless, there is a lot of space for improvement and lessons were
learned for subsequent design and development. At this point the current game fails in fostering
collective storytelling. Players rarely talk about narrative elements compared with other game
contents. Thus, a more elegant and natural narrative system needs to be developed to support the
design of dual-perspective storytelling and clear instructions should be provided for players at
the beginning. In-game communication between players needs to be added as well, allowing
players to be more emotionally responsive to each other. Additionally, it is necessary to have
more visual and audio feedbacks to guide players.

37
Conclusion
While multiplayer cooperative play might be a hot topic in gaming right now, there’s still
unexpected territory around how the design of cooperative mechanics can be integrated into
games when they are designed for two intimate players. The Distance, is an attempt to design a
game for geographically separated couples to foster communication and their relationship. It is
an online 2-player cooperative puzzle-platformer. The game encourages two players to
communicate and support each other with an asymmetrical level design and a dual-perspective
narrative structure which tells a story of a broken relationship from two different perspectives of
two characters.

Ultimately, The Distance is an experiment. It was created to explore the possibilities that might
exist at the interaction and communication between two players in cooperative play - an area that
has otherwise not been well explored. In playtests, players have demonstrated their engagement
with the game through strategic discussion with their partner and exhibited excitement at
exploring two distinct worlds together. These reactions are encouraging, but by no means is The
Distance completed. Continued work on developing and refining cooperative design pattern as
well as the narrative structure will achieve the goal of creating a shared experience to connect
long-distance players emotionally.

38
References

Tony Manninen. “Interaction Forms and Communicative Actions in Multiplayer Games.” 2004
(http://www.gamestudies.org/0301/manninen/)

“Relationships and Communication” In BetterHealth Channel
(https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/relationships-and-communication)

Cigdem Uz and Kursat Cagiltay. “Social Interactions and Games” In Digital Education, June
2015 (http://greav.ub.edu/der/)

L.Crystal Jiang and Jefferey T. Hancock. “Absence Makes the Communication Grow Fonder:
Geographic Separation, Interpersonal Media, and Intimacy in Dating Relationships” In Journal
of Communication, 2013

Russ Harris, MD. Act with Love. New Harbinger Publications, Inc.

Jose Bernardo Rocha, Samuel Mascarenhas and Rui Prada. “Game Mechanics for Cooperative
Games” In Digital Games 2008 (http://www.lasics.uminho.pt/ojs/index.php/zondgames08)

Katherine M. Hertlein. “Digital Dwelling: Technology in Couple and Family Relationships” In
Family Relations 61, July 2012

Jose Pablo Zagal and Miguel Nussbaum. “A MODEL to support the design of multiplayer
games”

Mark Riedl, Boyang Li, Hua Ai and Ashwin Ram. “Robust and Authorable Multiplayer
Storytelling Experiences”

Nicolas Ducheneaut and Robert J.Moore. “The Social Side of Gaming: A Study of Interaction
Patterns in a Massively Multiplayer Online Game ”

Shruti Bhandari and Shaowen Bardzell. “Bridging Gaps: Affective Communication in Long
Distance Relationship” in CHI 2008, April 5

Magy Seif EI-Nasr, Bardia AGhabeigi, David Milam, Mona Erfani, Beth Lameman, Hamid
Maygoli and Sang Mah. “Understanding and Evaluating Cooperative Game” in CHI 2010, April
10-15

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Asset Metadata

Creator Lu, Xian (author)

Core Title The Distance: a cooperative communication game to long-distance players

School School of Cinematic Arts

Degree Master of Fine Arts

Degree Program Interactive Media

Publication Date 04/16/2018

Defense Date 04/11/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Communication,cooperative,long-distance,multiplayer,OAI-PMH Harvest,video game

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Lemarchand, Richard (committee chair), Bell, Chris (committee member), Wixon, Dennis (committee member)

Creator Email xianlu@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-492377

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