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Plugging the leaky pipeline: how academic deans support the persistence of underrepresented minority students in science and mathematics

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Plugging the leaky pipeline: how academic deans support the persistence of underrepresented minority students in science and mathematics

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Content PLUGGING THE LEAKY PIPELINE: HOW ACADEMIC DEANS SUPPORT
THE PERSISTENCE OF UNDERREPRESENTED MINORITY STUDENTS IN
SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
A CASE STUDY
by
Karen Y. Carmichael
______________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2007
Copyright 2007 Karen Y. Carmichael
ii
Dedication
To my parents Odie and Wilena Carmichael who taught me responsibility and
discipline. Their examples instilled in me a strong work ethic. Their words told me
that I can do anything I put my mind to. It is to them that this dissertation is
dedicated.
iii
Acknowledgements
I have many to thank for their part in helping me accomplish this project.
First, I have to thank my family for their unshakeable faith in my abilities as well as
their prayers and encouraging words. I thank my niece Jessica simply for being. It
is because her eyes were watching me that I could not quit. Next, I wish to thank
my dissertation committee chair, Dr. Adrianna Kezar. Her guidance and support
pushed me to be persistent, helped me maintain momentum, and made me a writer.
I would also like to thank Dr. Dawn Person and Dr. Melora Sundt, the other
members of my committee. Their thoughtful questions challenged me to think
deeper about my study.
Also, there were several colleagues and friends who encouraged me, pushed
me to continue and helped me to stay focused. Richard Cook lightened my work
load. Ann Stenglein read drafts, asked tough questions, and edited chapters. Donna
Dotson let me cry and complain and then told me, “I know you can do it.” Jane
Koehler’s frankness allowed me to put things in perspective and press on. Lastly,
Dr. John Hamilton went above and beyond all I could think or ask. Every time I
called on him, he had information or advice that helped me through difficulties or
clued me in to the unknown world of the dissertation process.
Finally, I have to thank some of my fellow Ed.D. students. I thank LaShawn
Moore, Misook Park, Nikki Riley and Veronica Sullivan for our monthly
gatherings of fellowship. I owe a debt of gratitude to Candace Rypisi and Susan
Sims with whom I met weekly in the library. Your friendship and support through
iv
this process were a tremendous help to me. I do not know how I would have made
it without you.
v
Table of Contents
Dedication................................................................................................................................ ii
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................. iii
List of Tables......................................................................................................................... vii
Abstract................................................................................................................................. viii
Chapter One: Overview of the Study....................................................................................... 1
BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM.......................................................................................1
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ..........................................................................................5
PURPOSE STATEMENT........................................................................................................6
RESEARCH QUESTIONS......................................................................................................6
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY............................................................................................7
ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY .........................................................................................8
Chapter Two: Literature Review ............................................................................................. 9
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................9
MINORITY STUDENTS’ COLLEGE EXPERIENCE ...............................................................10
FACTORS AFFECTING PERSISTENCE ................................................................................14
WHAT WORKS FOR MINORITY STUDENTS IN STEM?.....................................................31
DEANS .............................................................................................................................34
Chapter Three: Methodology................................................................................................. 58
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................58
RESEARCH DESIGN ..........................................................................................................59
THE CASE ........................................................................................................................60
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES ...................................................................................67
DATA ANALYSIS..............................................................................................................75
TRUSTWORTHINESS .........................................................................................................75
LIMITATIONS ...................................................................................................................77
DELIMITATIONS...............................................................................................................78
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS.............................................................................................79
SUMMARY........................................................................................................................79
Chapter Four: The Findings................................................................................................... 80
CONTEXT OF THE ENVIRONMENT....................................................................................82
CAMPUS SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR .................................................................87
THE COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES.......................................................95
THE ROLE AND AUTHORITY OF THE DEAN OF NSS ........................................................98
FINDINGS BY RESEARCH QUESTION..............................................................................106
vi
Chapter Five: Summary, Findings and Recommendations.................................................. 121
INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................121
THEMES .........................................................................................................................121
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ................................................................................................134
DISCUSSION ...................................................................................................................137
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE .............................................................................144
SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH..........................................................................150
CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................154
Glossary............................................................................................................................... 156
References ........................................................................................................................... 157
Appendix A: Interview Protocol - Dean.............................................................................. 167
Appendix B: Protocol - Faculty........................................................................................... 169
Appendix C: Interview Protocol - President and Provost.................................................... 172
Appendix D: Interview Protocol - Student Affairs Professionals........................................ 173
Appendix E: Interview Protocol – Students ........................................................................ 174
Appendix F: Interview Protocol – Department Chair.......................................................... 176
Appendix G: Classroom Observation Protocol ................................................................... 178
Appendix H: Support Program Observation Protocol ......................................................... 181
Appendix I: Email Solicitation ............................................................................................ 184
Appendix J: Consent Form .................................................................................................. 187
Appendix K: Email Solicitation - Programs........................................................................ 192
vii
List of Tables
PAGE
Table 1: The Dean’s Role Pertaining to Factors Affecting Persistence 49
Table 2: Summary of Data Collection Procedures 68
Table 3: Detail of Interviews 69
Table 4: Headcount by Face/Ethnic Group 85
Table 5: Dean’s Level of Influence 134
viii
Abstract
Traditionally, white males have filled science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics (STEM) workforce needs. Demographic projections indicating that
the number of white males in the population is declining suggest that the United
States must educate all its human capital, not only white males, in order to remain a
leader in scientific innovation. Currently, underrepresented minority students leave
STEM majors at a greater rate than white students, and have a lower graduation
rate than white students. This study explored how an academic dean can support
the persistence of underrepresented minority students in science and mathematics.
The subject was a Latina female dean of the College of Natural and Social
Sciences at a majority minority institution, California State University Los
Angeles. Through a case study analysis, multiple methods were used: interviews
with the dean, faculty, executive level administrators, other staff and students as
well as observations and document analysis. This study identified roles of the dean
that support persistence of underrepresented minority students majoring in the
natural and physical sciences.
This study’s findings suggest the dean supports persistence through her
fiscal management, faculty recruitment and development, outreach activities, and
staying connected to students. One of the significant findings is that the dean
possessed a student-centered mindset which drove her leadership. It was found that
she considered students in all aspects of her leadership including: hiring, resource
allocation, policy, advocacy, and assessment. This study found that it is the added
ix
dimension of her student-centered philosophy, personal commitment and role
modeling that make a difference.
Recommendations for practice include: deans considering students in their
decision-making; encouraging student-faculty interaction and rewarding it;
remaining connected with students through teaching; professional development
regarding student-centeredness; and assessing their learning environment.
Suggestions for further research include studies that examine this issue at a
predominately white institution; comparative studies of students who participate in
STEM programming vs. those who do not; studies that focus on how deans support
persistence of women pursuing STEM degrees; a focus on engineering and
technology deans; and a study focused solely on the effects of teaching on
leadership.
1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Background of the Problem
In 1981, three African American friends graduated among the top fifteen
students from an urban public high school in Southern California. One year later,
each was enrolled at their respective universities: one at a private religious
affiliated campus, the other two at public universities, all of which were
predominately white institutions. Two of these students entered as biology majors
with aspirations of becoming doctors. However, both graduated with liberal arts
degrees and did not pursue medical school. The third entered as an English major,
but graduated with a mathematics degree. While all three persisted to earn college
degrees, those with the initial intent to major in the sciences, did not persist in those
fields.
Today, roughly the same percentage (33%) of white, African American,
Hispanic, and Native American students enter college with the intent to major in
science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields. However,
underrepresented minority students leave STEM majors at a greater rate than white
students, and have a lower graduation rate than white students (National Science
Board, 2006). Underrepresented minorities in STEM fields experience the highest
attrition rates (44%) compared to Asian (26%) and white students (25%) (Bonous-
Hammarth, 2000). Furthermore, a large gap exists between underrepresented
minority students and white students persisting to STEM degrees. It is no surprise
that STEM bachelor’s degrees earned by underrepresented minorities and whites in
2
2002 were 16% and 66%, respectively of total STEM degrees conferred (National
Science Board, 2006). From these statistics, we can see that more than two decades
after those three friends went off to college, the majority of underrepresented
minority students still do not persist to graduate in STEM fields.
Can the United States, which has been a global leader in scientific and
technological innovations, continue to meet current national and global demands,
without addressing the under representation of minorities in STEM fields?
American innovation put a man on the moon and a toy-sized vehicle on Mars
(Fields, 1998a). Twenty years ago, there was no such profession as webmaster or
an invention called a nanotube. Yesterday’s scientific innovations led to new
products, new jobs, and a new global economy. Today’s post 9-11 America is
concerned with defense and national security as well as the protection of the
environment, health, and space exploration. All of these require highly trained
scientists and engineers (Mendoza & Johnson, 2000). In order to continue the
American capacity for innovation, a skilled STEM workforce is necessary. Their
skills are vital to the American economy, security, and research and development
(Smythe & McArdle, 2004). However, it is noted that more than half of the science
and engineering workforce in the United States are approaching retirement (Baker,
Smith, & Swanson, 2005). The Report of the Commission on the Advancement of
Women and Minorities in Science, Engineering and Technology Department
(Mendoza & Johnson, 2000), citing Bureau of Labor Statistics, states that 5.3
3
million new jobs will need to be filled between 1998 – 2008. Who will fill this
need?
During the 1990s, the overall undergraduate engineering enrollment
decreased by approximately 20,000 students from 380,000 in 1990 to 361,000 in
1999 (National Science Foundation, 2002). Historically, in the U.S. white males
have comprised the majority of the STEM workforce (Bonous-Hammarth, 2000).
The Pathfinder mission is a good illustration of this. When watching the mission on
television, there were few, if any, people of color. In 2000, white and Asian
Americans comprised 82.3% and 10.4% of the STEM workforce, respectively,
while African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans were 3.4%, 3.1%, and
0.3%, respectively (Bonous-Hammarth, 2000). However, demographic shifts have
resulted in declining numbers of white males (Brazziel & Brazziel, 1997; National
Science Foundation, 2004)). Furthermore, it is projected that underrepresented
minorities will become the new majority (National Science Foundation, 2004).
Therefore, the United States must take seriously the education of underrepresented
minority students, especially in the STEM fields.
Because of the impending retirement of baby boomers in the STEM
workforce, expanding the numbers of scientists and engineers in the pipeline has
become a national “imperative” (Mendoza & Johnson, 2000) and a topic of
discussion for educators, employers and federal agencies alike (Bonous-Hammarth,
2000; Brazziel & Brazziel, 1997; Smyth & McArdle, 2002). The statistics cited
above imply that persistence rates to STEM degrees is sub par for all students, but
4
dismally low for underrepresented minorities (Daempfle, 2002; National Science
Foundation, 2004; Olson, 1999; Smyth & McArdle, 2002; Strenta, Elliot, Adair,
Matier, & Scott, 1994).
Frequently, underprepared is the label assigned to those students who leave
STEM majors (Grandy, 1998; Strenta et al., 1994). However, studies about
academically prepared students have concluded that there is some overlap in the
reasons underrepresented minority students, both those who are in fact
underprepared and those considered prepared (as measured by high school GPA
and high SAT math score) leave STEM majors. Specifically, Strenta et al. (1994)
found that students leave because they find it too competitive and find professors to
be uncaring. Acker, Hughes, and Fendley (2002) cite pedagogical methods of
gatekeeper courses and students’ sense of belonging within the college as reasons
for attrition. Others cite students’ circumstances and background characteristics as
reasons for attrition, for example, family socio-economic status and parents’ level
of education as well as the choice of college (public vs. private; baccalaureate vs.
research) and gender (Hilton, Hsia, Cheng, & Miller, 1995; Seymour & Hewitt,
1997; Tan, 2002). More cite financial aid (Barton, 2003; Fenske, Porter, &
DuBrock, 2000; Lichtenstein, 2002; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Seymour &
Hewitt, 1997; Tan, 2002). McNairy (1996) finds that the role of institutional
policies, faculty, administrators, staff, curriculum and the campus environment is
often ignored as factors. Several of the aforementioned issues caution us to refrain
from an attitude of “fixing the student” (McNairy, 1996, p.1) because if prepared
5
students are leaving the sciences, other factors must be involved (Maton &
Hrabowski, 2004; Milem, 2001).
A review of the literature reveals the factors that consistently influence
persistence both positively and negatively arise from academic preparedness,
classroom climate, classroom pedagogy, faculty attitudes and behaviors, and
financial aid. Four of the five are institutional factors which Landis (2005) asserts
should be considered good news because institutional factors are within our
control.
Statement of the Problem
Higher education is in a unique position to respond to the national
imperative to increase the number of underrepresented minorities in STEM fields.
Within higher education, academic deans of colleges which house STEM majors
are in critical positions to lead the charge for support of student achievement.
Deans are sandwiched between faculty on one side and central administration
(provost and president) on the other (Allen-Meares, 1997). Because of this they
regularly interface with presidents, faculty, curricula, alumni groups, and outside
funding agencies (Wolverton, Gmelch, Montez, & Nies, 2001). Deans lead
academic departments that provide instruction, opportunities for student/faculty
interaction and research as well as provide the vision and direction of their
departments. In addition, Wolverton et al. (2001) remind us that deans foster good
teaching, represent their colleges, engage in financial planning and budgeting, build
and maintain good work environments within their colleges, and provide direction
6
and recruit strong faculty, all of which affect students either directly or indirectly.
Rarely are deans hired to maintain the status quo of the department. Deans are in
positions to exert powerful influence on the departments in which they lead
(Wolverton & Gmelch, 2002; Allen-Meares, 1997).
However, much of what has been written about deans is anecdotal in nature
and derives from experiences, observations, and reflections of those who have held
the position as academic dean (Austin, Ahearn & English, 1997; Bright &
Richards, 2001; Tucker & Bryan, 1991; Wolverton et al., 2001). This paucity of
empirical research often discusses role conflict and ambiguity that deans face as
well as the challenges and stress related to the position (Wolverton & Gmelch,
2002; Wolverton, Wolverton, & Gmelch, 1999). Only recently has any attention
been paid to how deans lead (Tucker & Bryan, 1991; Wolverton & Gmelch, 2002).
None of these offer insight on the direct or indirect impact of deans’ leadership on
making institutional changes to benefit students in STEM majors and their learning
environment. This study intends to fill this gap.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study is to discover how academic deans’ leadership
supports the persistence of underrepresented minority students in STEM majors.
Research Questions
How can an academic dean of a college housing STEM disciplines support
the persistence of underrepresented minorities in science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics?
7
1. What does a dean perceive to be his/her role in supporting minorities in
STEM?
2. How does the dean’s leadership in STEM disciplines influence the climate
of his/her department related to creating an inclusive environment for all
students?
3. How does the dean institute change pertaining to curriculum, instruction,
and programming related to supporting the academic achievement of all
students?
Significance of the Study
This study is significant because it will explore institutional factors through
deans’ leadership, responding to NcNairy’s (1996) call to refrain from “fixing the
student.” In addition, because this study will examine how academic deans support
the persistence of students with STEM majors, it will add to the literature on deans’
roles. Furthermore, because of the impending national shortage of STEM workers
and the already low numbers of underrepresented minority workers in these fields,
this study will provide academic leaders with information on how they may
encourage persistence of underrepresented minority students.
This study may be of interest to deans of any discipline and other mid-level
administrators interested in ways their leadership can support underrepresented
students’ persistence. Furthermore, academic support leadership, such as tutoring
center directors and minority engineering program directors, may find the
information useful to help them dialogue with academic deans, department
8
chairpersons, and faculty to determine ways to partner with them. This may allow
them to help build support systems, peer mentoring programs, study groups, etc.
that foster inclusiveness and assist the learning process. Finally, deans’ supervisors
interested in promoting similar initiatives may find this study useful for their own
campuses. Higher education generates the nation’s STEM workforce, and this
study will shed light on mid-level leadership’s role toward that end.
Organization of the Study
Chapter 2 presents a review of literature regarding factors affecting the
persistence of underrepresented students in STEM majors as well as the role of
deans of colleges in higher education institutions. The research design and
methodology is discussed in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 presents results of field research.
Conclusions and implications are presented in Chapter 5.
9
Chapter Two: Literature Review
Introduction
For a variety of reasons, from access to college to inequity, the academic
achievement of underrepresented minority students has been a national discussion
(Thomas, 2000). Due to the declining numbers of white males who have
traditionally filled STEM positions in the workforce, underrepresented minority
students, whose percentages in the STEM workforce are far below their
percentages in the general population, must be educated to meet the future needs of
the nation’s workforce. To this end, government dollars have been put toward
increasing the numbers and success of underrepresented minority students
(National Science Foundation, 2004). Higher education is in a unique position to
respond to the national imperative to increase the number of underrepresented
minorities in STEM fields. Deans of colleges housing STEM majors are in
leadership positions. Deans hold a pivotal and powerful position to affect change
and are critical in such efforts (Austin et al., 1997; Bright & Richards, 2001;
Gmelch & Wolverton, 2002; Raymond, 1995; Tucker & Bryan, 1991; Wolverton,
Gmelch, Montez, & Nies, 2000). With the changing demographics of the country
and our institutions of higher education, the nation can no longer afford to wait.
This review of literature will be divided into five sections. The first section
presents a discussion of the higher education experience of minority students. The
factors (academic preparedness, classroom pedagogy, classroom climate, faculty
attitudes and behaviors, and financial aid) that affect underrepresented minority
10
students’ persistence in STEM majors is presented next. A discussion of what
components of programming that have been successful in supporting
underrepresented students in STEM majors follows. These sections contain a
discussion of a representative sample of issues that encompassed the research in
these areas. This is followed by the role of the academic dean. Then, there will be a
synthesis of the prior sections offering conclusions, based on existing research,
about what deans ought to do at their colleges to support the persistence of
underrepresented minority students in STEM majors. Lastly, this literature review
ends with a discussion of organizational culture and climate.
Minority Students’ College Experience
The increased numbers of college age minorities in the general population
has led to larger numbers of these students enrolling in higher education institutions
(Harvey & Anderson, 2005). Through minority serving institutions (MSIs), such as
historically black colleges and universities, tribal colleges, and Hispanic-serving
institutions roughly one-third of all historically underrepresented minority students
(Merisotis & McCarthy, 2005) are educated, yet the majority of them attend
predominantly white institutions (PWIs). Though more underrepresented minority
students are attending college today, their graduation rates lag behind their white
counterparts (Harvey & Anderson). The literature on minority students attending
PWIs reveals several barriers to their achievement that may account for this. Their
experiences at PWIs and MSIs will be discussed here.
11
With the increase in diverse populations of students attending PWIs,
diversity has become part of many university mission statements (Watson et al.,
2002). Also, to reflect an image of inclusiveness, diversity is reflected in
recruitment materials such as catalogs and brochures. However, many times when
minority students arrive on campus, they find few others like them reflected in the
actual student body, faculty, and staff (Watson et al.). Their first encounter with
university, Orientation, may begin the student’s perception that they are not
welcome. For example, Orientation may include a dance at which only Rock and
Roll and Country and Western music are played. In a similar vein, they find in the
university’s public spaces pictures depicting a history that does not include
members of their race. Portraits serving as decoration in campus facilities show
former presidents, faculty and student activities, all of whom are white. These
students, who are recruited by counselors who emphasize their institution’s
commitment to diversity, feel they have been misled when that commitment is not
the reality (Watson et al.), as evidenced by the low number of people of color in the
student body and staff. They also believe they do not belong. It is in this
environment that minorities arrive and must adjust and persist.
Anderson (2004) suggests underrepresented minority students experience a
curriculum that has a Eurocentric bias. Consequently, minority students’ values and
culture is not reflected at the institution or in the classroom unless they are enrolled
in an ethnic studies course. This lack of inclusive pedagogy implies that only
whites have made important contributions and others do not matter.
12
Because of their low numbers, oftentimes minority students attending PWIs
find that they are the only minority in a class, or the only one of their race in a
class. In such an environment, students feel isolated (O’Brien & Zudak, 1998;
Phillips, 2005, Rendon, Garcia, & Person, 2004). Because of this, they may not
participate as actively as they would if there were others around who look like them
and who understand their point of view. In addition, in these situations minority
students feel they are not seen as individuals but as representatives of their entire
race (Rankin, 2005; Watson et al., 2002). This places an extra burden on minority
students that whites do not have to contend with. In order to refrain from being the
voice of their race, minority students may become withdrawn. Such isolation and
perceived responsibility can weigh on students’ confidence and exacerbate feelings
of whether they belong in the major or even the university.
In an environment where students feel they were misled and their culture is
not respected, their achievement may be affected. As stated earlier, minority
students feel isolated. When they do not see people of color in the academy, they
wonder if they belong. Even minority students who are academically well prepared
may have feelings of inadequacy and lack of confidence at PWIs (Rendon, Garcia
& Person, 2004). The findings that some faculty and majority students believe
minority students come from backgrounds of deficit further exacerbates these
feelings and fosters a negative climate for minority students (Phillips, 2005).
Not only do minority students at PWIs experience a negative climate, but
also a hostile one. Rankin’s (2005) study of 7,347 undergraduate students (5,308,
13
white, 2,039, non-white) on multiple campuses found that a higher percentage of
minority students reported experiencing harassment and characterized the campus
climate as hostile and racist. Harassment has come in the form of racist attitudes,
intimidating behaviors, and acts of discrimination. This supports studies of African
American students by Cuyjet (1997) and Feagin, Vera and Imani (1996) who found
their PWIs to be hostile. This makes the adjustment to college difficult (Cuyjet;
Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Rendon, Garcia, & Person, 2004; Watson et al.,
2002).
Like white students at PWIs, minority students at their respective minority-
serving institutions experience a welcoming environment in which they feel
comfortable (Allen, 1992; O’Brien & Zudak, 1998). Students who attend minority-
serving institutions tend to be low-income, academically disadvantaged, and the
first in their family to attend college (Merisotis & McCarthy, 2005; O’Brien &
Zudak, 1998). Because of their low socio-economic status, minority students
oftentimes have to work in addition to attending college (Merisotis & McCarthy).
Even with these risk factors, MSIs graduate more minority students as a percentage
than PWIs (O’Brien & Zudak, 1998).
Minority students at MSIs attend universities at which there is a critical
mass of students of their ethnicity. In this environment, there are opportunities for
involvement in university-sponsored activities designed with their needs in mind
(Allen, 1992; Merisotis & McCarthy, 2005). There is likely to be ethnic diversity
among the faculty and administrators. Therefore, role models exist for the student.
14
In a safe, comfortable environment, students become engaged and develop a strong
support system with peers and faculty mentors. Thus, their experience is more
likely a positive one.
The literature suggests that minority students and their white peers at PWIs
experience the institution differently. While one group feels valued and
comfortable in the environment, the other struggles to fit in. One sees a white
president, white deans, white faculty, staff and peers throughout the institution. If
the other group does see minorities in abundance, it is most probably as workers in
the departments of maintenance or grounds keeping, thus fueling the feeling that
they do not belong. Conversely, minority students on MSIs experience a friendly
campus at which they feel welcome and supported. It is in these realities that the
minority student experiences college.
Factors Affecting Persistence
For the purposes of this study, persistence is defined as the ability of a
student or group of students to remain in college as opposed to dropping out. As
stated in chapter 1, the persistence of underrepresented minority students in STEM
majors is influenced by several factors: academic preparedness, classroom
pedagogy, classroom climate, faculty attitudes and behaviors, and financial aid. The
first factor to be discussed is academic preparedness.
Academic Preparedness
Underpreparedness has a role in the attrition of underrepresented minorities
from STEM majors (Barton, 2003; Grandy, 1998; Strenta et al., 1994; Thomas,
15
2000). The majority of underrepresented minority students attend public schools in
urban areas where achievement scores are low, curriculum is not challenging,
resources are scarce, and teacher quality is more likely to be low (Barton, 2003).
Students who attend these schools often do not have the opportunities to enroll in
science and mathematics classes (e.g. physics, chemistry, trigonometry, and AP
calculus) that would allow them to gain necessary academic skills to become
prepared for the rigors of STEM majors (Thomas, 2000).
Consequently, students who do not have the opportunities to take rigorous
pre-college science and mathematics classes arrive at college lacking the skills,
content knowledge, and competence that support persistence. Being thrust into
first-year mathematics courses that are fast paced and competitive hinders these
students’ success (Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). Further, researchers who compared
high school grade point averages (GPAs) and Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT)
mathematics scores of students who switched from STEM majors to those who
persisted found that the GPAs of switchers were significantly lower than persisters
(Barton, 2003; Tan 2002).
So far, the discussion of academic preparedness has focused on those
considered to be underprepared. However, three studies were conducted with
participants who were considered academically prepared for the rigors of STEM
majors based on their mathematics SAT scores. The Seymour and Hewitt (1997)
study is well known and often cited as it will be throughout this literature review.
The study was conducted from 1990-1993 with 335 students who were majoring in
16
STEM fields at seven four-year institutions. Three quarters of the data was gathered
by personal interviews and the rest through focus groups. Additionally, 125
students on six other campuses participated in focus groups whose purpose was to
check the validity of the researchers’ original hypotheses (Seymour & Hewitt,
1997). All of the study participants had SAT mathematics scores of 650 or higher
so as to include only those students who were considered capable of the demanding
coursework required of STEM majors. Both students who switched majors and
those who persisted were included. This allowed the researchers to get the
perspective of both to find commonalities and differences. Further, Seymour and
Hewitt (1997) deliberately over-sampled the underrepresented minority group in
their study to be able to isolate data for minorities to look at factors unique to their
persistence. Like Tan (2002) and others, Seymour and Hewitt found students who
switched did so citing underpreparedness. However, in the study by Seymour and
Hewitt, participation was restricted to students who scored 650 or higher on the
Scholastic Aptitude Test math section. These students were considered
academically prepared for the rigors of STEM majors, yet several of the students in
the study cited that they felt underprepared for the majors.
Hilton et al. (1995) and Grandy (1998) restricted participants to those who
scored at least 550 (considered an above average score) on the SAT mathematics
section. As stated earlier, Seymour and Hewitt (1997) restricted participants to
those who scored 650 or above. In each case, though these students were competent
as indicated by their SAT mathematics scores, 25% left STEM majors for other
17
fields citing underpreparedness as the reason (Seymour & Hewitt). In general, the
researchers reported that there are high loss rates among underrepresented minority
students; one-half of African Americans and Native Americans and two-thirds of
Hispanics do not graduate in the STEM majors they had originally enrolled
(Seymour & Hewitt).
Two longitudinal studies (Grandy, 1998; Hilton et al., 1995) analyzed the
same set of data collected by the Educational Testing Service. The study consisted
of 3,840 high-ability minority students (African American, American Indian,
Mexican American, and Puerto Rican) who, as stated earlier, scored 550 or higher
on the SAT mathematics section. To participate in the study, students had to
indicate that they planned to pursue a major in a STEM field. The sample was
followed up five years later to determine if they persisted. Hilton et al. defined
persistence as receiving a bachelor’s degree in mathematics, science or engineering
and working full-time in the field, or being in graduate school pursuing a STEM
field. Grandy defined persistence as students who were studying full-time or part-
time in science and engineering or had earned a degree (in any major) and were
working in a STEM field. Both found that students’ mathematics and science
achievement in high school (as measured by grades and courses taken) had a direct
positive effect on science ambition in college. In other words, the higher the
achievement in high school, the higher the rate of persistence. In Grandy’s study,
students who scored 550 or higher on the SAT mathematics section, therefore
considered capable, cite underpreparedness as a reason for switching majors.
18
Though underpreparedness leads to attrition, it can be overcome. Students
who develop coping skills and seek support through tutors, peers, or faculty
oftentimes persist in STEM majors (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Gregory, 2000).
Perhaps the nature of the high school environment which is nurturing versus the
environment of STEM departments which is more competitive may account for
these students citing they were underprepared (Barton, 2003). To combat
underpreparedness and introduce students to academy expectations as well as instill
an attitude of excellence in first-year at-risk minority students, some colleges have
implemented bridge programs to overcome underpreparedness. In these programs,
students usually take summer courses in mathematics and science and participate in
co-curricular activities to give them the skills and peer support to help them
succeed and gain, or regain, confidence in their abilities as well as prepare them for
the rigors of college (Maton & Hrabowski, 2004).
In sum, arriving underprepared to college increases the chance of leaving
STEM majors. While being academically prepared enhances underrepresented
minority students’ chances of persisting to degree, it is no guarantee. Since one
would expect prepared students to succeed in STEM fields, other causes for
attrition must be investigated. McNairy (1996) asserts that institutional factors
contribute to the high attrition rate. Landis (2005) concurs and goes further to assert
that this should be considered good news because institutional factors are within
our control.
19
Classroom Climate
Underrepresented minority students at predominantly white institutions
represent a small percentage of the student body with the percentage in STEM
majors being even smaller. This disparity is even greater at more elite research
institutions. Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) and Landis (2005) cited students who
mentioned that they were the only one of their ethnicity in their STEM classes. This
lack of structural diversity (raw numbers of minorities) leads to feelings of isolation
and alienation and has a negative effect on persistence (Cross & Slater, 2001;
Hurtado, Milem, Clayton-Pedersen, & Allen, 1999; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005;
Seymour & Hewitt, 1997; Taylor, 1999; Tinto, 1993).
Also, the students’ educational experiences are rarely conducive to learning
in this environment. Students cited that they held back from seeking help or asking
questions (Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). Along these lines, Cross and Slater (2001)
assert that African Americans in the sciences have often been made to feel
uncomfortable by white faculty and administrators who believe that African
Americans do not have the intellectual capacity to achieve and persist in STEM
disciplines. Seymour and Hewitt (1997) concluded that simply the “belief that
faculty or majority students are prejudiced was found to be as powerful in its effect
on the academic performance of minority students as were more overt acts of
discrimination” (p. 355).
Along similar lines, Steele (1997) suggests that this type of belief may
negatively affect persistence of African American students, in particular. Steel
20
refers to this as a psycho-social phenomenon called stereotype threat. Stereotype
threat is defined as
the event of a negative stereotype about a group to which one belongs
becoming self-relevant, usually as a plausible interpretation for something
one is doing, for an experience one is having, or for a situation one is in,
that has relevance to one’s self definition (p. 616).
If faculty’s belief about African Americans intellectual ability as stated in the
previous paragraph gets internalized, it may negatively affect student achievement.
Seymour and Hewitt (1997) found that students feel out of place when they
were one of the few underrepresented minority students in classes. They wondered
if they belonged. For example, when seats are deliberately left empty on either side
of them, they feel discriminated against and alone. They wonder if others judge
them as incompetent (Landis, 2005; Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). Landis met with 11
African American engineering first-year students who were taking calculus. Each
told him that he or she was the only African American in their respective classes.
Moreover, on other occasions at other institutions, students told Landis that white
students would not form laboratory groups with them and acted surprised when
they did well on tests (Landis, 2005). Being one in a class of 30 is isolation. Having
a strong and relatively large core of black students on campus is important (Cross
& Slater, 2001). In other words, a critical mass is necessary to remove the feelings
and reality of isolation (Hurtado et al., 1999).
21
Majority students may not realize what messages their refusal to sit next to
a minority student or form laboratory groups with him or her send to their minority
peer. Taylor (1999) asserts that students and faculty need to be educated as to the
racial stereotypes and biases that lie behind words and actions they do not realize
are hurtful. In addition, Seymour and Hewitt (1997) assert that when students feel a
high degree of isolation, they more keenly perceive prejudice and discrimination
and have a greater likelihood of leaving STEM majors. Research indicates that this
type of climate negatively affects persistence for underrepresented minority
students (Seymour & Hewitt, 1997).
Another aspect of STEM classroom climate is the “weed-out” tradition
(Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). This “tradition” has as its purpose the removal of those
who cannot handle the academic rigor of courses in STEM majors. All STEM
majors have “gatekeeper” courses (Acker et al., 2002; Seymour & Hewitt, 1997).
Acker et al. (2002) state: “Gatekeeper courses frequently block students from
progressing into degree programs thus eliminating students who are judged as
lacking the analytic ability to become competent scientists and engineers” (p. 22).
While the weed-out tradition is not acknowledged by faculty, when asked, students
believe weed-out courses exist (Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). Seymour and Hewitt
found the competitive nature of these courses and the instructional strategies
employed negatively affect persistence and inadvertently remove capable, high
ability students from the STEM majors as well.
22
Classroom Pedagogy
Researchers have recognized the role that the college classroom plays in
persistence (as cited in Braxton, Milem, & Sullivan, 2000). Though active learning
techniques have been shown to positively affect persistence in general (Braxton et
al., 2000) and in STEM majors (Treisman, 1992), the typical style of instruction in
the college classroom is lecture. Milem (2001) found that 60.4% of faculty use
lecture at doctoral institutions as well as 52.6% and 43.2% of faculty at
comprehensive institutions and liberal arts colleges, respectively.
Active learning activities include cooperative groups, debates, role playing,
discussion and others. These kinds of activities, especially small group learning,
support the learning behaviors of underrepresented minority students (Springer,
Stanne, & Donovan, 1999; Treisman, 1992). As stated earlier, underrepresented
minority students are isolated on campuses where their numbers are small.
Working in groups allows them to feel a part of the class, and gives them the
opportunity to interact with and get to know their peers (Treisman, 1992). Also,
minorities find interaction with peers, both inside and outside the classroom, useful
in gaining new knowledge (McShannon & Derlin, 2000).
Springer et al. (1999) conducted a meta-analysis that integrated STEM
research and the effects of small group learning on persistence. The meta-analysis
consisted of 39 articles that pertained to small group learning in STEM fields. The
collective samples from their study which looked at persistence, attitudes, and
achievement, were sizable at 2,014, 1,293 and 3,471, respectively. They found that
23
students who worked in groups persisted in STEM to a greater extent than students
who did not work in groups. Also, small group learning had a positive effect on
students’ achievement, especially in the case of underrepresented minority students
(Springer et al.). Their finding was that small group learning had significant and
positive effects on the students’ attitudes toward learning the material and their
self-esteem (Springer et al.).
Treisman (1992) found that African American students, in particular,
benefit greatly from small group study. Treisman observed the study habits of high
ability (high SAT mathematics score) African Americans who were failing his
mathematics classes as compared to equally able Asian Americans who were doing
well in his class. Treisman noticed that African Americans were studying alone
unlike Asian American students who studied together. In a now famous
experiment, Treisman created the Mathematics Workshop Program. In this program
Treisman replicated, with his African American students, the study behaviors of his
Asian American students. African American students were required to attend one-
hour workshops two to three times per week. In these workshops, led by teaching
assistants, the students worked together in groups on solving progressively difficult
problems covering the week’s lecture content. Because of these workshops,
participants had peer groups who valued success and academic achievement, the
students spent more time per week studying (10-14 hours), and they persisted, in
part, because they became connected to a social network of peers (Treisman).
24
Not only did the students persist, but they excelled. African American and
Latino participants in the Mathematics Workshop Program consistently
outperformed their white and Asian counterparts as well as their minority peers
who were not in the program. Furthermore, African American students with
mathematics SAT scores in the low 600s performed just as well as their white and
Asian counterparts who had SAT mathematics scores in the mid-700s. In addition
to raising the skills, confidence and a deeper understanding of subject matter, the
groups made learning mathematics engaging and a collaborative effort rather than
traditional competitiveness (Treisman, 1992).
Although the students in the program self-select and some of these
outcomes may be due to the student’s intrinsic motivation, it is important to note
that Treisman’s success has been replicated. Jaime Escalante’s well-known success
in preparing students in an East Los Angeles public high school for the Advanced
Placement Mathematics exam is one example (Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). This
body of research regarding classroom pedagogy supports Landis’ (2005) assertion
that, “if we create an optimal learning environment for minority students, one that
is equal to that which we provide for all students, then minority students will
perform on a par with all students” (p. 9).
In sum, classroom pedagogy stresses that active learning opportunities
support underrepresented minority students’ deep understanding of subject matter.
Active learning enables underrepresented minority students to feel included. As a
result, they tend to study more. It was shown that a large number of STEM faculty
25
utilize lecture style in the classroom. STEM faculty are trained in their disciplines
rather than in the art of teaching. In order for faculty to be able to incorporate active
learning strategies into their courses that benefit underrepresented minority
students, training or professional development is important (Howell & Tuitt, 2003).
Faculty Attitudes and Behaviors
In the literature, STEM faculty have been described by students in a myriad
of ways, most not flattering: cold, uncaring, poor teachers, disinterested in the
subject matter, elitist, and preoccupied with their research (Seymour & Hewitt,
1997). In addition, Strenta et al. (1994) found students believed that faculty was
unresponsive and did not like teaching. This is supported by Seymour and Hewitt’s
study in which the most common complaint among persisters and non-persisters
was poor teaching at 73.7% and 90.2% respectively. Moreover, the researchers
assert that this relatively negative student view of faculty contributes to students’
decision to leave STEM majors. However, it must be noted that even in such
environments some highly motivated students persisted despite this view of their
professors (Hilton et al., 1995).
On the other hand, when faculty is accessible and supportive, persistence is
positively affected (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Similarly, the frequency of
student-faculty interactions, both formal and informal (especially opportunities for
students to work on research projects with faculty) impacts persistence positively
(Mc Shannon & Derlin, 2000; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Seymour and Hewitt
(1997) found that without a supportive relationship with faculty, minority students,
26
especially those from high schools where their racial or ethnic group was the
majority, were at higher risk of switching majors or dropping out of college due to
the lack of a nurturing environment.
Role models among faculty are important for underrepresented minority
students; however, the ability to build mentoring relationships with faculty of color
is scarce due mainly to the fact that faculty of color are dramatically
underrepresented in all levels of higher education (1.8% African American, 1%
American Indian, 1.6% Hispanic). Cross and Slater (2001) assert that African
American students in the sciences have often been made to feel uncomfortable by
white faculty who persist in their beliefs that African Americans do not have the
intellectual capacity to succeed in STEM disciplines. Underrepresented minority
students’ confidence is undermined by the perception that white faculty regard
them as having lower ability (Seymour & Hewitt, 1997).
Students’ confidence can be enhanced by seeing faculty of their race within
their STEM courses which can influence persistence (Grandy, 1998; Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005). Some studies suggest mentoring relationships, in which students
develop a deep and personal relationship with faculty, support persistence. Students
are connected with an individual who cares about them (Pascarella & Terenzini,
2005). Landis (2005) points out that “white students see a white dean, white
faculty, and white students in their classes, where there may be only one
underrepresented minority” (p. 6), thus, having a different and more positive
learning experience.
27
In an effort to see how changes in structural diversity (raw numbers)
affected faculty teaching, Milem (2001) explored four outcomes related to
maximizing the benefits of racial diversity in teaching and learning:
1. Teaching practices associated with active learning
2. Inclusion in the curriculum of readings on the experiences of diverse
racial and ethnic groups
3. Faculty participation in research on race, ethnicity, or gender
4. Faculty attendance at workshops on racial awareness or curriculum
inclusion
He found that STEM faculty were the least likely to engage in any of these, though
faculty of color participated in these to a greater extent than white and Asian
American faculty (Milem, 2001).
Faculty awareness of alternative instructional strategies can encourage
participation and inclusion by diverse students (McShannon & Derlin, 2001). Since
the entire faculty is responsible for the education of minority students, they must be
aware of student needs and institutional obstacles impeding student persistence
(Landis, 2005). One way to change faculty attitudes and awareness is through
training (Howell & Tuitt, 2003; Landis, 2005).
In brief, faculty attitudes and teaching methods affect persistence. Also,
minority faculty are important, but their numbers are scarce in STEM departments.
Lastly, faculty need training to build instructional strategies.
28
Financial Aid
Studies on the role of financial aid concentrated on whether financial aid
has a positive impact on persistence and, if so, which types of aid have the greater
influence (Lichtenstein, 2002). A majority of these studies find that receipt of aid
has a positive affect on students’ decisions to remain in college especially for
students from lower socio-economic status backgrounds and minorities (e.g. Hu &
St. John, 2000; Tinto, 1993). Most literature focused on financial aid for all
students, one limited it to minorities (Lichtenstein, 2000), and another (Fenske et
al., 2000), limited the study of financial aid to how it affects minorities in STEM
majors.
The question then becomes what type of financial aid packaging most
positively affects persistence (Tinto, 1993). There are four types of financial aid
packages discussed in the literature: gift aid, self-help aid, combination packages
and other scholarships. As defined by Fenske et al. (2000), gift aid is free money in
the form of grants, scholarships and tuition waivers. Self-help aid is federal and
institutional work-study and loans, including PLUS loans (federal loans to parents).
Combination packages are those that consist of at least one gift award and one self-
help award while other scholarships are primarily merit scholarships awarded to
promising students (Fenske et al.).
Findings from studies comparing effects on persistence by type of loan are
inconsistent. Tan (2002) found that no form of financial aid had a significant role in
persistence. Lichtenstein (2002), who studied persistence of Hispanic students at a
29
large university in the southwest, found the opposite. She found that work-study
had a direct and positive effect on persistence. Similarly, Pascarella and Terenzini
(2005) found, regardless of race, work-study provides students with opportunities
to interact with staff and faculty, thereby enhancing the student’s social and
academic integration, and thus, positively affecting persistence. However, Seymour
and Hewitt (1997) who studied STEM majors, found work-study to have a negative
effect on their persistence. They found working impeded students’ study time, the
consequence of which was lower grades.
Similarly, studies have found that loans had a negative affect on persistence
(Lichtenstein, 2002; Seymour & Hewitt, 1997; Tinto, 1993). For example,
according to Nellie Mae, the largest nonprofit provider of federal and private
education loans in the United States, 69% of African Americans who enrolled in
college but did not finish reported that they left college because of high student
loan debt as well as 43% of whites (as cited in Cross & Slater, 2001). In 1980,
loans made up 41% of financial aid disbursed from all sources (Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005). Witkowski stated that twenty years later, the percentage was 58%
(as cited in Pascarella & Terenzini). It is reasoned that this is due, in large part, to
the policy changes that came into effect after the Federal Reauthorization of the
Higher Education Act which shifted federal and state financial aid from primarily
grants to loans (Hu & St. John, 2001; Pascarella & Terenzini).
Fenske et al. (2000) described a longitudinal study of financial aid and
persistence of women and minority students in science, engineering, and
30
mathematics (SEM) majors. Using a relational database for tracking student
academic progress and financial aid, four cohorts that had at least five years of data
were studied. Over the study period from academic years 1989-90 to 1996-97, the
cohort sizes ranged from 1,614 to 1,979 members. Cohort members were classified
as science, engineering, or mathematics (SEM) majors and SEM non-majors, by
gender, minority status, and receipt of financial aid. The researchers found that all
students who received gift aid, regardless of race, persisted at a higher proportion
the following year. This trend continued through the next two years as well.
However, students receiving self-help aid had the lowest persistence rates. Further,
SEM majors who received a combination of gift aid and self-help aid persisted at
the lowest rates over the second and third years. Finally, in regards to whether the
type of aid and amounts of aid changed over time, aid amounts increased and those
increases were usually in the form of loans (Fenske et al., 2000).
Fenske et al. (2000) also found that there were virtually no increases in gift
aid for underrepresented minority students (0.1% in year 1). In some cases, there
were decreases (-3.6% in year 2). Yet, the average gift award increase was 22%.
Fenske et al. assert that this may be due to awards being distributed according to
merit rather than need. They also state, “These are troubling findings given the
positive association between gift aid and subsequent year persistence” (p. 81).
Moreover, Mohrman predicted that if public grants were eliminated, almost 33% of
low income students of all racial and ethnic groups would drop out of college
altogether (as cited in Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). For underrepresented minority
31
students in STEM, the longitudinal study by Fenske et al. strongly suggests that
financial aid, especially gift aid, is significant.
In summary, the literature suggests academic preparedness, classroom
climate, classroom pedagogy, faculty attitudes and behaviors, and financial aid
affect persistence of underrepresented minorities in STEM majors. Therefore, in
order to increase the number of students who persist to a STEM degree, higher
education leaders ought to take a look at the college’s role in regard to academic
preparedness of enrolled students, the classroom climate, classroom pedagogy, and
faculty attitudes and behaviors within their college as well as financial aid policy
and availability. While these factors affect students, deans are in a position to
impact these factors through their leadership.
What Works for Minority Students in STEM?
The discussion above highlighted how minority students experience college
as well as several barriers to the persistence of underrepresented minority students
in STEM majors. Prior to discussing how the dean’s role can affect their
persistence, it is important to look at what works for minorities in STEM. The
literature suggests that a sense of community, engaging pedagogy, support and a
commitment to excellence support persistence of underrepresented minority
students in STEM majors (Bonsangue & Drew, 1995; Ditzer & Ricci, 1995; Maton,
Hrabowski & Schmitt, 2000; Seymour & Hewitt, 1997; Rendon, Garcia & Person,
2004).
32
When students have a community of peers, their academic achievement is
positively affected (Maton & Hrabowski, 2000; Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). This
community is built through small learning groups, theme housing, and bridge
programs, for example. Moreover, programs in which first-year underrepresented
minority students come together for enrichment and skills development prior to
their first semester have been highly successful in fostering community (Gandara &
Maxwell-Jolly, 1999; Maton & Hrabowski, 2000). Through such programming,
students work with each other allowing them to meet and form friendships. Equally
important, it creates a support system among peers. Thus, underrepresented
minority students become part of a group which can minimize or eliminate feelings
of isolation and alienation.
As discussed in the previous section, STEM classes are largely taught using
the lecture format. However, more experiential learning, laboratory science, and
active learning strategies support the persistence of underrepresented minority
students in STEM majors (Ditzler & Ricci, 1995; Treisman, 1992). Such activity in
STEM classrooms fosters dialogue about the subject matter among students and
engages them in the application of the subject to real-world situations bringing the
subject alive rather than simply memorize formulae. Similarly, offering research
opportunities to underrepresented minority students allows them to apply what they
have learned to real world situations and, equally important, allows them to interact
with faculty in meaningful projects. It is through research projects that faculty can
come to know students, and support and guide them as mentors (Maton &
33
Hrabowski, 2000; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). These activities and interactions
positively affect persistence (Pascarella & Terenzini).
In addition to faculty support, underrepresented minority students’
persistence in STEM majors is positively affected through tutorial support and
financial aid. Students are encouraged to utilize tutors to support their learning
(Maton & Hrabowski, 2000). Many successful programs supporting STEM majors
have tutoring (individual and small group) built-in (Gandara & Maxwell-Jolly,
1999). Some programs provide financial support to underrepresented minority
students in STEM majors (Gandara & Maxwell-Jolly; Maton & Hrabowski). Most
notably, the Meyerhoff Scholars Program at University of Maryland, Baltimore
County gives students full tuition, room and board scholarships (Maton &
Hrabowski). Not having to worry about finances leaves students free to concentrate
on their learning (Fenske et al., 2000).
Finally, oftentimes when offering support to underrepresented minority
students, they are served through a deficit model rather than one of excellence.
Seymour and Hewitt (1997) found that underrepresented minority students may not
go to tutorial services even though they are offered because they do not want to be
stigmatized. Consequently, students who most need tutorial services may not
receive them. However, programs that approach it from a model of excellence, one
in which there are high expectations for the students, and faculty demonstrate their
belief that the students can achieve, support persistence not only in beginning level
courses but in subsequent courses as well (Bonsangue & Drew, 1995; Gandara &
34
Maxwell-Jolly, 1999; Maton & Hrabowski, 2000). Continued achievement is
paramount to persistence in STEM majors.
In sum, programs that work for underrepresented minority students
majoring in STEM disciplines are programs that provide support. This lessens
feelings of isolation and alienation. They also actively engage students in the
classroom and through research opportunities with faculty.
Deans
Kezar and Eckel (2005) state that “ensuring the success of diverse students
is a presidential issue,” (p. 2 ) and they assert that all campus leaders should
support the president’s diversity agenda in a shared leadership model. As a leader
of a college, the dean, then, is a partner with the president in moving the diversity
agenda forward. Even without a mandate for diversity from the president, deans can
make diversity a priority within their college. According to Wolverton and Gmelch
(2002), deans set the direction of the college. In advancing their agenda, deans set
the college mission, provide fiscal management and allocate resources, and recruit
and develop faculty (Gmelch & Wolverton, 2002; Tucker & Bryan, 1991;
Wolverton & Gmelch, 2002; Wolverton, Wolverton, & Gmelch, 1999). They shape
the climate and culture of the college, and promote change (Tucker & Bryan).
These roles will be discussed after an overview of literature on deans. The section
will conclude with a discussion of how deans can use their roles to support
underrepresented minority students in STEM majors.
35
Roles of Deans
The academic deanship has evolved from its beginning. In the late 1800s,
an example of the dean’s responsibility was to “maintain friendly and charitable
intercourse with students” (Dill, as cited in Wolverton, Montez & Gmelch, 2000, p.
4). As colleges grew so did the role of the dean. Today, the dean is the leader of a
college within a university with varied and numerous roles. Serving as dean means
they are sandwiched between the president and provost on one side and faculty and
students on the other (Allen-Meares, 1997). Therefore, they are “at the center of
controversy, conflict and debate” (Rosser, Johnsrud, & Heck, 2003, p.1). Both
central administration and faculty require the dean’s attention and expect him to
serve their needs and requests (Rosser et al., 2003).
Research examining the role of the dean is limited. The literature that does
exist examines the roles and responsibilities of the dean descriptively through the
experiences, observations and reflections of prior or current deans (Austin et al.,
1997; Bright & Richards, 2001; Gmelch & Wolverton, 2002; Raymond, 1995;
Tucker & Bryan, 1991; Wolverton, Gmelch, Montez, & Nies, 2000). Others discuss
specific tasks and challenges (Tucker & Bryan; Wolverton et al., 1999). Authors
focus on specific topics such as the transition into the deanship (Gmelch, 2003), the
challenges of leadership (Gmelch & Wolverton, 2002), the unique issues of
professional school deans, e.g. school of education and school of social work
(English, 1997; Raymond, 1995), and decisions regarding becoming a dean
(Hopkins, 2003). The few empirical studies gave demographics of those serving in
36
the deanship as well as deans’ understanding of their roles, conflicts and
ambiguities they faced, and possible challenges for the future (Wolverton et al.,
2000), or measured their effectiveness (Rosser et al., 2003). There are no empirical
studies that address deans’ leadership in supporting students’ persistence.
In their extensive study on deans conducted in 1996, Gmelch, Wolverton,
Wolverton and Hermanson, compiled a profile of 1,300 American academic deans
at 360 universities and found, on average, deans were fifty-four years old, 41%
were women, and 12% were minorities (as cited in Wolverton & Gmelch, 2002, p.
ix). The researchers also found deans had served in their current positions for 5.6
years on average though 16% had served for one year or less and only 12.9% had
been in their positions over ten years. Eighty-two percent of them were married.
The majority (57%) were inside appointments (Wolverton & Gmelch, p. ix).
Wolverton and Gmelch found that the majority of deans in the study had been
deans before, associate deans or department chairs, while 18% were administrators
in fields other than the academy prior to their tenure as deans. A review of this
literature revealed that deans’ leadership role means that they set the college
mission, provide fiscal management and allocate resources, and recruit and develop
faculty. Also, deans shape the climate and culture of the college and promote
change.
Mission/Vision
As the university president creates the vision for the university, deans create
the vision for their college (Eckel & Kezar, 2003, Krahenbuhl, 2004; Millar &
37
Quaranta, 1995; Wolverton & Gmelch, 2002). Because the institutional mission is
preeminent, the dean cannot create the college’s vision in a vacuum. Instead, the
dean must begin with the university’s mission when deciding the direction of the
college (Fagin, 1997). Prior to setting the mission, the dean must take a realistic
look at what works and what needs improvement in the college (Krahenbuhl). This
helps the dean determine what would be good for the college and helps the dean set
priorities. Once the mission is set, the dean’s role is to communicate the mission
and move the college toward it (Tucker & Bryan, 1991; Wolverton & Gmelch,
2002). In order to move the college toward the mission, deans must be able to
communicate the needs of their college to central administration, likewise, to
faculty and staff. According to Gmelch and Wolverton (2002):
In order to set direction, [deans] must communicate a clear sense of
priorities, encourage others to share their ideas of the future, collaborate
with others in defining a vision, and be oriented toward action
(transformational leadership) rather than the status quo (transactional
leadership.) (p. 34)
The dean can communicate the mission to the college through department
chairs or written communication. Constant conversation about mission priorities
helps to keep the momentum toward the mission moving in a positive direction.
According to Millar and Quartanta (1995), people change their behaviors and
recommit when the mission is emphasized. Of course, when addressing faculty
directly, the dean should speak about the mission as well as promote and reward the
efforts of faculty and staff progress toward it. The dean’s recognition of faculty and
programs that move the college toward the mission demonstrates that the mission is
38
important and critical to the success of the college (Eckel & Kezar, 2003). For
example, the dean can provide recognition through compliments or release time to
motivate people to continue to advance the college mission (Millar & Quaranta).
These examples of reward and recognition show that they do not have to cost the
college. However, if cost is involved, the dean as fiscal manager can provide
funding.
Fiscal Management
As fiscal manager, the dean’s role is to move the mission forward through
planning the budget and leading fundraising efforts (Bright & Richards, 2001;
Gmelch & Wolverton, 2002; Krahenbuhl, 2004; Raymond, 1995; Tucker & Bryan,
1991; Wolverton et al, 2001). The best way to give credibility to the mission and
demonstrate leadership’s commitment to it is through budget allocations that reflect
the goals of the college (Bright & Richards; Raymond). For example, if offering
college scholarships to students is a goal, but the dean does not allocate money
toward that purpose or have a fundraising plan for scholarships, commitment could
be questioned (Raymond). In this instance, the espoused mission and the lived
mission are in conflict (Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh, Whitt, & Associates, 2005).
As budget planner the dean has to assess the current status of the college to
determine how the budget should be divided. In this capacity, the dean must assess
programs and departmental offerings to determine if they should be discontinued
due to inadequate enrollment trends or whether its curriculum should be revised
due to latest discoveries and innovations (Tucker & Bryan, 1991). While the goals
39
of the college must be at the forefront of the dean’s thoughts when planning the
budget, Tucker and Bryan add that societal needs cannot be ignored. The
researchers give as examples, needs of the marketplace, results of “political
turbulence, and fast-changing technologies,” that can alter allocation priorities (p
57). It follows that supporting the diverse student population entering higher
education institutions or the nation-wide shortage of STEM workers are societal
needs that cannot be ignored. Because there is never enough money to support
every goal, faculty member project, or program, deans must turn to external
funding sources (Anderson as cited in Gmelch & Wolverton, 2002; Bright &
Richards, 2001).
Fundraising has become a significant part of the dean’s role (Bright &
Richards, 2001; Krahenbuhl, 2004; Raymond, 1995; Tucker & Bryan, 1991). In
this capacity deans interface with the campus development staff, alumni, and other
external constituencies and encourage faculty to seek external funding, too.
Through relationships with donors, the dean garners gifts for the college
(Krahenbuhl). As with budget allocation, the fundraising effort must begin with the
mission of the college and strategies for reaching specific goals (Raymond). For
example, the dean who wants to begin a program to support underrepresented
minority students might seek a donor willing to provide an endowment
(Hrabowski, 1999).
Krahenbuhl (2004) reminds us that the dean cannot forget about faculty
when allocating funds and suggests providing funds for competitive small grant
40
programs to support faculty projects. Because the dean can never support all of the
faculty’s projects, the dean should encourage faculty to seek research grants and
contracts (Bright & Richards, 2001). This empowers faculty and places them in a
leadership role to advance the mission through their research or project (Bright &
Richards). In addition, it may leave funds that could be used toward other college
goals. In addition to raising funds to support faculty, grants could be solicited that
support graduate student stipends, curriculum, programming and teaching
development (Bright & Richards; Krahenbuhl; Tucker & Bryan, 1991). In sum,
how deans allocate and secure funding shapes institutional priorities.
Recruit and Develop Faculty
Gmelch and Wolverton (2002) asked deans what they believed to be the
most important task for education deans. They found that 94.1% of them stated
recruiting and selecting chairs and faculty. In their role of faculty recruiter, deans
have a tremendous opportunity to shape the college for the long term (Bright &
Richards, 2001, Millar & Quaranta, 1995). Because of tenure, faculty hired may
work together for over 30 years (Bright & Richards). As faculty developer, the
dean has an opportunity to shape the quality of programming and the curriculum
(Bright & Richards; Millar & Quaranta; Svinicki, 2002).
Also, from the beginning of the search process, the dean exerts power by
giving input on who sits on the search committee (Tucker & Bryan, 1991). To be
sure the college moves forward in the direction set through the mission, the dean
should remind search committee members of the importance of hiring faculty who
41
support the mission. Recall, the mission sets the direction of the college and fiscal
management aligns with the mission’s goals. While faculty committees conduct the
search, the candidates are interviewed by the dean as well (Tucker & Bryan). The
dean’s role in the search process is peripheral, but significant (Tucker & Bryan;
Millar & Quaranta, 1995). Working with the department chair, deans determine
programming and curriculum priorities for the college and seek faculty to fill the
needs (Millar & Quaranta; Raymond, 1995; Tucker & Bryan). Bright and Richards
(2001) point out that the dean has to endorse an appointment or it cannot proceed.
This gives the dean tremendous power over the search process (Tucker & Bryan).
Since the largest fiscal outlay of the college is in its human resources, it is
important that the mission permeates throughout the search process (Raymond).
Leading the college to achieve diversity in the faculty is one of the dean’s
main responsibilities (Bright & Richards, 2001). Underrepresented minority faculty
are important to underrepresented minority students because they can act as role
models and encourage students to perform better, better understand cultural
differences, and break down stereotypes (Kezar & Eckel, 2005; Smith, as cited in
Hurtado et al., 1999). The dean’s opportunity to make change regarding diversity in
faculty and staff is through filling open positions. This is not to suggest that the
sole purpose of recruitment is diversity. Bright and Richards remind us that every
recruitment is “an opportunity to make as many kinds of progress as possible:
intellectual quality, coverage or specialization, and diversity” (p. 90).
42
Once faculty have been hired, it makes sense to develop their skills. Earning
a doctorate implies the ability to do research not teach (Bright & Richards, 2001). It
is the dean’s role, along with the department chair, to develop faculty which
benefits the college (Svinicki, 2002). It makes faculty feel valued when deans
invest in their growth (Svinicki). Further, it is the dean’s responsibility to make
clear the process for tenure and expectations regarding scholarship, teaching and
service (Tucker & Bryan, 1991). It is important to mention that development is not
only for new faculty.
Though it was stated earlier that students believe faculty do not like to
teach, Bright and Richards (2001) find that they do and that they put significant
effort into their teaching. Still, they need training and it is up to the dean to provide
it. Bright and Richards suggest that mentoring programs, videotaped lectures, and
workshops on teaching are possible strategies that are inexpensive, yet, support the
improvement of teaching. Researchers also add that establishing centers for
teaching excellence within the college is a plausible, though more costly, approach
(Bright & Richards; Millar & Quaranta, 1995). Still other researchers add, money
for conference attendance, sabbaticals and a reward system as well as faculty
development which emphasizes the design of effective instruction, and selection of
appropriate instructional strategies is warranted (Bright & Richards; Millar &
Quaranta; Svinicki, 2002). Millar and Quaranta offer a caveat to faculty
development. They assert that the interests of the faculty should be assessed prior
to embarking on a development program. It is of no help to provide a service that
43
does not meet the needs of the constituents. As stated earlier, deans create the
mission for the college and move the members toward it. Movement indicates
change and for change to happen staff development is critical (Eckel & Kezar,
2003).
Curriculum
The dean’s responsibility to students is to give them a good education
(Bright & Richards, 2001). At the heart of that education lies the curriculum
(Bright & Richards). While faculty own the curriculum, the dean plays a critical
role (Bright & Richards; Demone & Glasser, 1995; Krahenbuhl, 2004). It is the
dean who makes sure the curriculum matches the mission and is of good quality
(Bright & Richards).
Faculty turnover and new hires bring changes in the curriculum and
potential changes in quality of programs (Bright & Richards, 2001). For example, a
retiree may be a leader in a field of which there is no one on staff to fill the gap
once the retiree leaves; or a new hire may be able to offer a new specialty course.
Also, events in the external world may be relevant to the need for curricula changes
(Demone & Glasser, 1995). For example, scientific innovation has a history of
impacting science curricula.
With such changes, the dean “has to provide leadership for the process of
curriculum review” (Krahenbuhl, 2004, p. 131). Bright and Richards (2001) assert
that the dean’s role is to make sure the curriculum committee reviews current
curriculum and new proposals within the context of the college mission and goals.
44
They also state that periodic curriculum review is necessary to maintain quality
which is paramount to building a good reputation for the college and the institution.
It is important to note that the dean can shape the curriculum through recruitment
of faculty. The specialties and research interests new faculty bring to the college
will shape the curriculum.
Kolodny (1998) offers two examples of how deans may affect curriculum
other than through faculty recruitment—competitive grants and symposiums. While
a dean, Kolodny created an environment for curriculum renewal. She offered $5000
competitive grants for curriculum “that will be responsive to the ethnic, racial, and
cultural diversity that we may expect in the student body in the twenty-first
century” (p. 181). Second, working with all departments within the college, a
committee was created consisting of faculty and graduate students to design a
series of workshops which fostered ongoing dialogue about curriculum change.
Through these two projects, though curriculum was still within the purview of
faculty, the dean facilitated its renewal and communicated its importance to the
department.
In sum, though the dean’s role is peripheral, the dean has the opportunity to
shape the curriculum through review and recruitment as well as through budget
allocations and aligning the curriculum with the college’s mission and goals. At all
times, the dean should be concerned with providing students with a good education.
45
Shape the Climate and Culture
Culture of an organization provides meaning for the way things are done
(Eckel & Kezar, 2003; Tieirney, 1998). It is made up of three layers: artifacts,
espoused beliefs and values, and underlying assumptions (Schein, 2004). Artifacts
are the visible elements of a culture. They include, for example, organizational
charts, shared language, rituals and ceremonies, mission statements, and strategic
plans (Eckel & Kezar; Schein). The second layer of culture is the espoused beliefs
and values. These are what organizations say about themselves (Schein). For
example, the statement “we value diversity” is an espoused belief or value.
Important messages about what the organization stands for are sent through the
espoused values (Eckel & Kezar). The third level of culture, called underlying
assumptions, forms the core cultural content. These are the beliefs that guide the
organization (Schein). Sometimes they are traditions or practices and beliefs that
are rarely questioned and so embedded that people may not be aware of them
(Eckel & Kezar). Changing the culture involves changing these three levels.
Changing basic assumptions of culture takes a long time and a lot of effort
(Schein, 2004). According to Schein:
If an organization has had a long history of success based on certain
assumptions about itself and the environment, it is unlikely to want to
challenge or reexamine those assumptions. Even if the assumptions are
brought to consciousness, the members of the organization are likely to
46
want to hold on to them because they justify the past and are the source of
their pride and self-esteem. (p. 312)
For example, lecture has been the primary mode of instruction in higher education
for decades and students have passed their classes. The fact that underrepresented
minority students learn best through active learning in the classroom could be
ignored by faculty.
In order to change culture, leaders can do several things. They can be
systematic in what they pay attention to and how they allocate rewards and bias
culture by who they hire (Schein, 2004). When leaders send consistent messages
regarding what is important to them, the message gets communicated by the
behavior. For example, simply commenting about innovative teaching methods of
their faculty, deans send the message that is important. Further, the allocations of
rewards send the message of what is important. When faculty know behaviors the
dean rewards and promotes, their behavior may change. Likewise, who deans hire
can cause change. For example, faculty recruits that share the beliefs of the dean
change the composition of the group that breakdown the old way of doing things.
Eventually, “members who continue to cling to the old ways are either forced out
or leave voluntarily because they no longer feel comfortable with where the
organization is headed and how it does things” (Schein, p. 307).
Promote Change
Rarely have deans been hired to maintain the status quo (Austin et al., 1997;
English, 1997; Tucker & Bryan, 1991; Wolverton et al., 2001, Wolverton et al.
47
1999). The dean is hired to improve the college (Bright & Richards, 2001;
Krahenbuhl, 2004; Tucker & Bryan). Deans first have to determine if change is
necessary (Tucker & Bryan). If it is, then the dean has to make a plan and
implement the change. Though this sounds simple, it is not. With change comes
resistance and anxiety (Tucker & Bryan; Wolverton & Gmelch, 2002). Higher
education has strongly embedded traditions as well as faculty that are content with
the status quo. Therefore, to facilitate change the dean must communicate clearly
and frequently with faculty to assuage any fears (Krahenbuhl; Tucker & Bryan;
Wolverton & Gmelch).
Each of the dean’s roles listed in this review implies that the dean serves as
either change sponsor or change agent. Lick (2002) defines change sponsor as “a
person or group with authority to legitimate a change” (p. 35). He defines change
agent as “a person or group responsible for implementing the desired change” (p.
35). For example, the mission sets direction for the college; the dean “facilitates
movement toward the mission in an agreed-upon direction” (Krahenbuhl, 2004, p.
48). Similarly, the budget is a planning tool that reflects the mission; therefore, as
fiscal manager, the dean facilitates change. The very act of hiring new faculty
means change is taking place (Austin et al., 1997). Lastly, change is inherent by
definition in the dean’s role in the “terms professional development” and “shaping
the climate and culture.”
Changing the status quo means transformation takes place (Gmelch &
Wolverton 2002). In their study of university presidents, Eckel and Kezar (2003)
48
assert there are “five core strategies of transformation: senior administrative
support, collaborative leadership, flexible vision, staff development, and visible
action” (p. 78). Translating these to deans of colleges, deans and associate deans
provide the senior administrative support within the college because these are top
tier positions within the college. Like the university president, the dean can provide
financial support, incentives, and voice to the change initiative through their vision.
Deans collaborate with administrative staff, department chairs, and faculty
committees on various projects. For example, as stated earlier, deans encourage
faculty to solicit grants for their own projects, and faculty committees search for
and interview potential faculty members (Bright & Richards, 2001).
Eckel and Kezar (2003) describe transformation change as deep and slow to
happen. As stated earlier, the average dean’s tenure is less than six years, so
transformational change may be difficult. However, through recruitment during the
dean’s tenure, the dean can shape the personnel with those who support the
changes. These faculty members may work together for decades, helping to create
transformational change in the long run. In sum, the dean is most often hired to lead
change. Determining whether change is needed is the first step and communication
is key in the process of leading change.
Deans and Persistence – A Model
The table on the next page is based on the literature discussed above
regarding factors affecting persistence of underrepresented minority students in
STEM majors and on the dean’s roles. The first column lists the factors that affect
49
persistence. The middle column lists the dean’s roles that affect each factor in the
first column. The third column lists specific tasks the dean can do, within the
dean’s roles, to support persistence of underrepresented minority students in STEM
majors.
Table 1 – The Dean’s Role Pertaining to Factors Affecting Persistence
Factors that affect persistence Dean’s Role What Deans Can Do
Academic Preparedness Shape the Climate and Culture
Fiscal Management
Mission/Vision
Support programming for
minority students
Create climate of “excellence”
and inclusiveness
Encourage peer study groups
Classroom Climate Recruit and Develop Faculty
Shape the Climate and Culture
Mission/Vision
Promote Change
Recruit faculty and minority
students
Request data about student
performance
Professional development
Request student feedback
Encourage faculty to promote
peer study groups
Classroom Pedagogy Recruit and Develop Faculty
Mission/Vision
Promote Change
Curriculum
Fiscal Management
Provide fiscal resources for
faculty professional
development
Reward innovative teaching
Encourage faculty to present
workshops on their teaching
innovations
Encourage faculty to form
student peer study groups
Faculty Attitudes & Behaviors Recruit and Develop Faculty
Shape the Climate and Culture
Promote Change
Mission/Vision
Fiscal Management
Encourage an inclusive
pedagogy
Expand recruiting methods
Diversity workshops
Encourage faculty/student
interaction
Set high expectations
Financial Aid Fiscal Management
Promote Change
Mission/Vision
Provide funding for
scholarships
Fundraise for scholarships
Encourage gift aid to students
The dean’s roles that support academic preparedness are: shaping climate
and culture, fiscal management, and mission/vision. Specifically, the dean can
50
support programming for minority students, create a climate of “excellence” and
inclusiveness, and encourage peer study groups. Since the values of the leader are
reflected in the culture of an organization, the dean can alter the climate and
culture. As stated earlier, budget allocations reflect the goals of the college and give
credibility to the mission (Bright & Richards, 2001; Raymond, 1995). Therefore,
providing funds to support programming for underrepresented minority students
with the aim of enhancing their academic skills is one way the dean can support
academic preparedness. Simultaneously, such support demonstrates the value the
dean places on academic excellence and could create a climate for excellence and
inclusiveness. Finally, involvement in peer study groups has been shown to
enhance mastery of course material (Maton, Hrabowski, & Schmitt, 2000;
Treisman, 1992), so the dean should encourage faculty to create study groups
through their assignments.
The dean can affect classroom climate through the following roles:
recruiting and developing faculty, shaping climate and culture, mission/vision, and
promoting change. Specifically, through these roles, deans can recruit faculty and
underrepresented minority students, ask for student feedback and data about student
performance, encourage faculty to promote peer study groups, and develop faculty.
Universities committed to supporting underrepresented minority students in STEM
majors “strive to create environments which help to ensure student success” (Maton
et al., 2000, p. 632). As stated earlier, faculty of color serve as role models to
51
minority students. Also, the presence of faculty of color on campus can serve as
representation of the commitment to diversity (Hurtado et al., 1999).
However, increased numbers of underrepresented minorities does not necessarily
mean that the climate will improve (Hurtado et al.), so the dean should include
faculty development.
As stated earlier, sometimes underrepresented minority students feel
isolated in their classes. The professional development should include information
on creating assignments where students work together. Faculty should also be
encouraged to form peer study groups of students in their classes. Maton et al.
(2000) state “study groups promote academic support and create opportunities for
social support and interaction” (p. 633). Professional development should also
include diversity workshops to educate faculty about differences because awareness
can improve climate. Also, in an attempt to assess the climate in order to shape it,
the dean should ask for data about student performance as well as interview
students. This information will help the dean understand classroom climate and
affect it.
The dean can affect classroom pedagogy through the following roles:
recruiting and developing faculty, creating mission/vision, promoting change, and
fiscal management. As stated earlier, faculty are trained in their discipline not
teaching. Recall, a large percentage of faculty use lecture as the primary mode of
instruction (Milem, 2001), but active engagement in the classroom better serves
underrepresented minority students (Treisman, 1992). Providing funding to support
52
professional development and for rewards for innovative teaching indicates the
importance of nontraditional pedagogy. Faculty are creative and talented
individuals; therefore, the dean probably has faculty on staff who may be able to
provide workshops. The dean should encourage this as a cost effective way to
provide professional development and reward innovation.
All of the dean’s roles can influence faculty attitudes and behaviors. Those
roles are recruiting and developing faculty, shaping the climate and culture,
promoting change, mission/vision, curriculum, and fiscal management. The dean
can recruit diverse faculty, encourage inclusive pedagogy, encourage faculty to set
high expectations for all students, and encourage mentoring relationships. As stated
earlier, the values of the leader are reflected in the culture of the organization.
Culture is difficult to change and change is slow to happen (Eckel & Kezar, 2003;
Schein, 2004). Therefore, all resources available to the dean need to be used.
Along with diverse faculty come different backgrounds and perspectives.
These differences allow learning amongst faculty about different racial and ethnic
groups. In addition, the presence of faculty of color and interactions with them may
breakdown racial stereotypes (Hurtado et al., 1999). A breakdown of stereotypes
may lead to improved faculty attitudes regarding underrepresented minority
students (Maton & Hrabowski, 2004). Finally, inclusive pedagogy should be
encouraged. This makes both student and faculty aware of contributions of people
from various ethnic and racial groups. It can empower students to know that
53
someone like them made significant contributions to STEM fields because these
people become models.
The dean can influence financial aid through the following roles: fiscal
management and promoting change. Specifically, the dean can provide funding for
scholarships, fundraise for scholarship funds, and encourage gift aid. As stated
earlier, although the literature on financial aid was inconsistent, gift aid was found
to support persistence. The dean should work with the Financial Aid Office to help
them understand the impact of gift aid on underrepresented minority students.
Because changing financial aid policy is likely to be slow, the dean can support aid
with college funds and fundraise. For the former, the dean could set aside funding
from the operating budget for this purpose. Because funding is likely to be hard to
find, even small awards to students, such as $200 textbook scholarships could help
students. For the latter, the dean is expected to be a fundraiser (Bright & Richards,
2001; Gmelch & Wolverton, 2002; Krahenbuhl, 2004; Raymond, 1995; Tucker &
Bryan, 1991; Wolverton et al, 2001), so the dean could fundraise for scholarship
funds.
Organizational Culture and Climate
Underlying the discussion above was a heavy emphasis on campus culture
and climate. Several factors affecting persistence of underrepresented minority
students majoring in STEM fields was discussed as well as the role of the dean. It
was noted that the attitudes and beliefs of faculty, staff, and students, as well as
classroom climate and a sense of belonging affect student persistence. Further, the
54
dean’s roles regarding promoting change and shaping the climate and culture speak
directly to organizational culture and climate. Thus, organizational culture and
climate is indeed a way to conceptualize the work of the dean in supporting the
persistence of underrepresented minority students in STEM majors.
Researchers have defined culture in myriad, though similar, ways. Bolman
and Deal (2003) define it as “the glue that holds an organization together and unites
people around shared values and beliefs” (p. 243). Both Schein (2004) and Peterson
and Spencer (as citied in Eckel & Kezar, 2003) define culture as a pattern of shared
basic assumptions that inform members how to think and act. Stated simply, culture
is “the way we do things here.” It is transmitted to new members through what they
see and hear as well as through the attitudes and behaviors of members, the
organization’s traditions and the shared language of the members.
Because culture helps us determine what things mean and how to act in
different situations (Bolman & Deal, 2003), it is important that leaders understand
the culture in which they must operate. In higher education, an understanding of
culture helps decision-making (Tierney, 1988). In an age of decreasing funds for
public higher education, having a full understanding of the organization’s culture
helps leaders articulate decisions in a way that “speaks to the needs of various
constituencies and marshal their support’ (Tierney, p. 5). It is also important that
leaders know how to change the culture and understand that altering long held basic
assumptions does not happen quickly.
55
It was stated in the section on the dean’s role in shaping the climate and
culture that culture, as Schein (2004) defines it, has three levels, artifacts, espoused
values, and basic underlying assumptions. In brief, these three levels are what we
observe in the behaviors and attitudes of members, what they say they do, and the
unspoken shared beliefs and values of the organization. Making change in these
three levels leads to cultural change. For example, through changing the mission
statement, leaders can move the college toward different goals or outcomes.
Schein (2004) proposes six mechanisms through which leaders place their
beliefs, values, and assumptions into the existing culture of an organization. These
focus primarily on the behavior of the leader: 1) what leaders pay attention to,
measure, and control on a regular basis, 2) how leaders react to organizational
crises, 3) how leaders allocate resources, 4) role modeling, teaching and coaching,
5) how leaders allocate rewards and status, and 6) how leaders recruit, select,
promote, and excommunicate members. For example, deans who consistently ask
“how will this benefit students,” to faculty who request funds for projects, alters the
language and behaviors of the members seeking funds. This becomes the new
shared language, thus, changing the existing culture.
In addition to culture, climate plays a role in underrepresented minority
students’ persistence. Commonly addressed climates include those relating to
gender, race, sexual orientation, and disability. With increased racial diversity on
college campuses comes challenges to build community and inclusivity. No matter
the race one belongs to, it is important that students experience a positive climate as
56
it supports persistence. Researchers suggest that comfortable environments have a
direct influence on learning outcomes such as increased grade point average and
persistence, as well as social development (Hurtado et al., 1999; Cabrera, Nora,
Terenzini, Pascarella, & Hagedorm, 1999; Rankin & Reason, 2005). Tinto (1993)
adds inclusive educational and learning communities positively influences
retention. On the other hand, a climate of prejudice and discrimination directly
influence attrition (Cabrera et al., 1999; Hurtado et al., 1999).
Simply having an increased number of minority students on campus does
not lead to changes in the receptivity of faculty and non-minority peers (Hurtado et
al., 1999; Milem, 2001). Hurtado et al. argue that climate is a product of four
dimensions: an institution’s historical legacy of inclusion or exclusion, structural
diversity, the psychological climate, and the behavioral climate (nature of
intergroup relations). Hurtado et al. posit that an increase in structural diversity
without consideration of the other dimensions leads to conflict. This conflict may
come in the form of discriminatory behavior negatively affecting students’
collegiate experiences. Several researchers found that a climate of prejudice and
discrimination can affect students’ cognitive outcomes, social integration and
academic performance (Cabrera et al., 1999; Hurtado et al.; Nora & Cabrera, 1996).
The demographics of the United States is expected to grow such that
minorities will become the majority and attend college in even greater numbers. To
meet the needs of these students, attention must turn to altering the campus racial
climate. Adams (1994) suggests three needs for climate reform: 1) a clear mandate
57
from the top, 2) knowing the present campus climate, and 3) active involvement by
faculty in the academic life of minority students through mentoring and involving
minority students in their research.
It is clear that campus culture and climate play a role in student success. In
sum, campus culture defines how things are done. It can be changed through
behavior of leaders. Climate pertains to the learning environment. A positive
climate positively affects persistence. A negative climate increases attrition. With
larger percentages of minority students on campuses, attention must turn to altering
campus climates to meet the needs of diverse populations.
Summary
This literature review introduced factors affecting persistence of
underrepresented minority students in STEM majors. The factors are: academic
preparedness, classroom pedagogy, classroom climate, faculty attitudes and
behaviors, and financial aid. Next, the roles of deans were discussed. Then, a
synthesis of the literature led to a model of what deans could do to support
underrepresented minority students in STEM majors. A discussion of
organizational culture and climate concluded the chapter.
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Chapter Three: Methodology
Introduction
This chapter describes the research design, population and sample,
instrumentation, data collection procedures, data analysis and limitations of the
study. The purpose of this qualitative study is to understand how the academic
leadership of a dean of a college housing STEM disciplines supports the
persistence of underrepresented minorities in STEM majors. One STEM college
within a four-year higher education institution in Southern California will be
studied in order to answer the following overarching research question: How can an
academic dean of a college housing STEM disciplines support the persistence of
underrepresented minorities in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
majors?
The following sub-questions will also be answered:
A. What does a dean perceive to be his/her role in supporting minorities in
STEM?
B. How does the dean’s leadership in STEM disciplines influence the
climate of his/her department related to creating an inclusive
environment for all students?
C. How does the dean institute change pertaining to curriculum,
instruction, and programming related to supporting the academic
achievement of all students?
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Research Design
A qualitative, descriptive, case study methodology was used to conduct this
study. Merriam (1998) defines a qualitative case study as “an intense, holistic
description and analysis of a single instance, phenomenon, or social unit” (p. 17).
When a researcher seeks deep understanding of a phenomenon, case study is
appropriate (Merriam). Case study design is chosen “because researchers are
interested in insight, discovery, and interpretation rather than hypothesis testing”
(Merriam, p. 28). This researcher sought to understand how an academic dean of a
college housing STEM majors supports the persistence of underrepresented
minority students in STEM majors and to glean insight from the data.
Further, in areas where there has been scant research, case study is “useful
in presenting basic information” about such areas (Merriam, 1998, p. 38). In
Chapter 2, the paucity of empirical research on deans was discussed. It was pointed
out that no research could be found which intersects the nexus of academic deans’
leadership with supporting the persistence of underrepresented minorities in STEM
majors. This case study adds to the literature supporting Merriam’s notion that
“case study results in a rich and holistic account of a phenomenon and plays an
important role in advancing a field’s knowledge base” (p. 41).
Merriam (1998) states, “determining when to use a case study as opposed to
some other research design depends on what the researcher wants to know” (p. 32).
Yin (as cited in Merriam) suggests that “for ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions, the case
study has a distinct advantage” (p. 4). As has been stated, the overarching research
60
question is “How can an academic dean of a college housing STEM majors support
the persistence of underrepresented minorities in science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics?” Two of the sub-questions ask “how” questions as well. This
further supports case study as the best fit for this research.
Finally, according to Merriam (1998), researchers must determine whether
they have a case. If the phenomenon is not bounded, it is not a case. Merriam
defines a case as “a thing, a single entity, a unit around which there are boundaries”
(p. 27), for example, a “person, program, group, or school” (p. 27). As mentioned
earlier, the case for this study is the leadership of academic deans and how it
supports the persistence of underrepresented minorities in STEM majors. The
bounded system is the dean’s college within the entire university, therefore, a case.
In sum, this study aimed to add to the limited literature on deans in a meaningful,
in-depth, descriptive manner. Case study provides this.
The Case
Merriam (1998) states “to find the best case to study, you would first
establish the criteria that will guide case selection and then select a case that meets
those criteria” (p. 65). Purposeful sampling was used to identify a campus within
the California State University (CSU) that met specific criteria. The criteria for
selection included:
1. Campuses that had a diverse student body
2. Campuses that had a commitment to supporting educational
achievement of underrepresented minority students
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3. Colleges where the dean had been in office at least three years
4. Campuses willing to participate in the study
Rationale for Selection of Criteria
The rationale for the first criterion was related to obtaining rich data. It was
assumed that campuses with a commitment to diversity had a climate, curriculum,
and programming that support underrepresented minority students. Because this
research study focused on underrepresented minority students, a diverse student
body was critical. The rationale for the third criterion was because a dean with at
least three years experience in the position made budgetary decisions, and was
familiar with the college’s operations, faculty, curriculum, and programming.
Finally, the last criterion suggests the dean’s willingness to participate is critical. It
is the dean who allowed the researcher access to the dean’s college, including
faculty, students, staff, and programs.
In the 1990’s, CSU began to examine the challenges the system would face
due to the increased number and change in demographics of students eligible to
attend CSU institutions. In May 1996, CSU created a task force to develop a plan
for these challenges. The end result was the Cornerstones Report which outlines
four policy goals and ten guiding principles as well as recommendations “which
should shape the policies of the university and the programs and strategies of our
campuses” (Broad et al., 1997, p.. 3). It is important to note that the California State
University’s role and policy have been established by the California Master Plan of
Higher Education. The Master Plan serves as the “blueprint for the university and
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the state” (Broad et al., p. 3). The Cornerstones Report was never meant to replace
the Master Plan, but simply to focus on how best to reach their goals. As will be
shown, this report helps establish CSU as an ideal system from which to sample for
this study.
The four policy goals of the Cornerstones Report are to ensure educational
results, access to higher education, financial stability, and university accountability.
First, to ensure educational results, CSU established four principles. Three of the
principles numbered 2, 3, and 4 in the report support aspects of this study. The
principles are
2. Students are the focus of the academic enterprise. Each campus will
shape the provision of its academic programs and support services to
better meet the diverse needs of its students and society.
3. Students will be expected to be active partners with faculty in the
learning process, and the university will provide opportunities for active
learning throughout the curriculum.
4. The CSU will reinvest in its faculty to maintain its primary mission as a
teaching-centered comprehensive university. Faculty scholarship,
research and creative activity are essential components of that mission.
The earlier discussion of factors affecting persistence of underrepresented
minorities in STEM indicated that they may arrive academically underprepared and
that successful programs that positively affect persistence include academic support
such as tutoring and summer bridge programs. Principle 2 suggests that the CSU
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understands support to be critical to student success. Further, Chapter 1 described
the need to fill the impending void in the STEM workforce upon the retirement of
baby boomers. Again, Principle 2 suggests the CSU could work to impact this
societal need.
Interaction with faculty is one focus of Principle 3. The discussion in
Chapter 2 emphasized how interactions with the faculty, especially opportunities to
work on research projects with them, positively impacts persistence (McShannon &
Derlin, 2000; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Because of Principle 3, not only might
students of CSUs have opportunities to interact with faculty through research
projects, but with others through active learning, another important factor affecting
persistence as discussed in Chapter 2. Student engagement with the subject matter
and with each other had strong positive results in persistence and academic
achievement for underrepresented minority students in STEM (Treisman, 1992). In
addition, CSU’s commitment provides an opportunity for students to feel part of a
community of learners rather than be isolated and alone. CSU’s commitment to
Principle 3 could create an environment in which underrepresented minority
students would thrive.
Moreover, the Cornerstones Report recommends that attention to increasing
faculty diversity be a priority at CSU through Principle 4 (Broad et al., 1997). The
importance of role models to underrepresented minorities in STEM was discussed
in Chapter 2 along with the scarcity of faculty of color in the academy. CSU’s
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commitment in this area further supports its selection as the system through which
to select a campus for this study.
In brief, the Cornerstones goal to ensure educational results has great
potential in supporting underrepresented minority students in STEM. Various
aspects of academic support, faculty attitudes and behavior, and classroom
pedagogy as discussed above are addressed in this first Cornerstones goal.
The second Cornerstones goal, ensuring access to higher education,
proposes “strong outreach programs and retention efforts” (Broad et al., 1997, p. 9).
One of the principles supporting this goal has potential to affect underrepresented
minority persistence. Specifically, principle 5 of this goal states, in part, “the CSU
will meet the need for undergraduate education in California through increasing
outreach efforts and transfer, retention, and graduation rates” (Broad et al., p. 10).
Recommendations to support this principle include expanding mentoring programs
and to continue and expand programs to reach traditionally underrepresented
communities through increased outreach and retention efforts. The importance of
student/faculty interaction was stressed in Chapter 2 and reiterated above.
Moreover, CSU’s commitment to outreach to underrepresented communities
underscores their understanding of the need to educate all the nation’s citizens as
demographics continue to show the increasing numbers of underrepresented
minority students entering higher education (Harvey & Anderson, 2005). Thus,
principle 5 further adds a reason why the CSU system is a good fit for this study.
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Finally, researchers found that financial aid has been a barrier to many
underrepresented minority students pursuing higher education (Fenske et al., 2000;
Lichtenstein, 2002; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005) and may negatively affect
persistence. Cornerstones principle 7 asserts that “fees (tuition) should not be a
barrier to higher education…for needy students” and that “appropriate financial aid
programs should be maintained as a priority” (Broad et al., 1997, p. 13).
CSU’s Cornerstones Report clearly demonstrates the system’s commitment
to the changing demographics of its future student body. The goals and principles
in the report address financial aid, classroom pedagogy, faculty attitudes and
behaviors and academic preparedness—factors this study has argued affect the
persistence of underrepresented minority students pursuing STEM majors. All of
this supports why the CSU is an ideal system at which to conduct this research
study.
The CSU is a public institution with a diverse population. The CSU consists
of 23 campuses and has over 44,000 faculty members serving over 440,000
students. It is “the largest, the most diverse, and one of the most affordable
university systems in the country” (Impact Report, 2002, p. 1). Over 50% of the
student body is made up of underrepresented minority students. Hurtado et al.
(1999) states, “the increasing number of [minority students] on campus…can bring
about some conflict and resistance among groups, and it can create a need for
substantial institutional change” (p. 20).
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The College of Natural and Social Sciences (CNSS) at California State
University Los Angeles, was selected for this study. California State University Los
Angeles has approximately 20,000 registered students. Roughly 18% of the total
student population is enrolled as majors in the College of Natural and Social
Sciences. Majors offered by the College of Natural and Social Sciences pertaining
to this study include: biological sciences, chemistry, biochemistry, mathematics,
natural science, physics, and astronomy. The College of Natural and Social
Sciences has one dean, an associate dean, and over 200 faculty members. The
college offers many research programs in which undergraduate students work with
faculty. Also, the college has myriad support programs that assist students pursuing
STEM majors, for example, Minority Opportunities in Research (MORE), and
CSULA-Louis Stokes Alliance for Minority Participation (LS-AMP). There are
over seventeen faculty member directors supervising these types of programs. The
Vision Statement of the College of Natural and Social Sciences states:
The College of Natural and Social Sciences at California State University,
Los Angeles seeks to empower students of diverse backgrounds in their
pursuit of knowledge, discovery through research, and development of
creative and critical thinking. The College will strive to strengthen
community involvement and increase recognition for excellence in teaching
and scholarship. (CNSS Website)
To reiterate, the factors affecting persistence of underrepresented minorities
in STEM majors were academic preparedness, classroom climate, classroom
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pedagogy, faculty attitudes and behaviors, and financial aid. Together with the
vision stated above and the programming offered, this site provided information
rich data to the researcher. The dean of the College of Natural and Social Sciences
agreed to participate in the study.
Data Collection Procedures
Data for this study was collected through interviews, observations, and
documents. Merriam (1998) states,
Qualitative data consists of direct quotations from people about their
experiences, opinions, feelings, and knowledge obtained through
interviews, detailed descriptions of people’s activities, behaviors, actions
recorded in observations, and excerpts, quotations, or entire passages
extracted from various types of documents (p. 69).
Specifically, for this study, the data collection include: 1) interviews with
the dean, faculty, provost, president, department chairs, other deans and student
affairs personnel; 2) interviews with underrepresented minority students in natural
and physical science majors; 3) observation of classroom instruction and
programming; 4) shadowing the dean at a key meeting; and 5) documentation
relating to STEM majors, CNSS and the university. The table on the next page
summarizes data collection procedures used in this study. It is important to note
that prior to participation in this study, participants were given the appropriate
Consent Form (Appendix J) and the opportunity to have their questions pertaining
to the study answered.
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Table 2 – Summary of Data Collection Procedures
Data Collection Procedure Participant Group Number
Interview Full-time faculty
Department chairs
Student affairs professionals
CNSS dean
Executive level administrators
Students with STEM majors
10
3
3
1
4
8
Observation Classroom
STEM program meeting
Key meetings with dean
6
2
1
Documentation N/A As needed
Interviews
Because we cannot observe what people feel or think, interviewing is
necessary (Merriam, 1998; Patton, 2002). Also, to learn of things that occurred in
the past that cannot be observed, interviewing is necessary (Merriam; Patton). This
study used one-on-one interviews. As stated above, several people were
interviewed for this study: the dean of the College of Natural and Social Sciences,
faculty within the college, the provost, student affairs’ personnel, and academic
support personnel, e.g., directors of the tutoring program and Educational
Opportunity Program as well as department chairs, and students. Table 3 on the
next page details interview participants.
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Table 3 – Detail of Interviews
Participant Discipline Years of Service
Faculty 1 Mathematics 5
Faculty 2 Mathematics 23
Faculty 3 Biology 18
Faculty 4 Chemistry 6
Faculty 5 Physics 33
Faculty 6 Physics 36
Faculty 7 Chemistry 31
Faculty 8 Mathematics 13
Faculty 9 Biology 30
Faculty 10 Chemistry 13
Faculty 11* Chemistry 20
Faculty 12* Biology 11
Executive Level Admin 1 6
Executive Level Admin 2 28
Executive Level Admin 3 29
Executive Level Admin 4** 28
Student 1 Chemistry major Sophomore
Student 2 Mathematics major Junior
Student 3 Chemistry major Senior
Student 4 Biology major Senior
Student 5 Physics & Chemistry major Junior
Student 6 Biology major Senior
Student 7 Biology major Junior
Student 8 Chemistry major Senior
Student Affairs 1 8
Student Affairs 2 32
Student Affairs 3 16
*Department Chair **Former Department Chair
The researcher learned from the dean what she perceives her role to be in
supporting the persistence of underrepresented minority students in STEM and how
she creates change toward that end. There were two interviews with the dean. One
lasted one hour utilizing the protocol found in Appendix A. There was a 30-minute
follow-up that included questions about topics heard about in other interviews.
Questions focused primarily on the dean’s priorities and perceptions of her
leadership role as it pertains to factors discussed in Chapter 2. In this study,
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participants were selected purposefully using criterion sampling. Patton describes
this method as “picking all cases that meet some criteria” (p. 243). The criteria for
each participant are described in the following sections. Additionally, participants
were contacted via the appropriate email solicitation (Appendices I or K).
Using purposeful sampling as described above, there were a total of 10
interviews with faculty members within the College of Natural and Social Sciences.
The researcher’s original intent was to receive names of CNSS faculty from the
dean’s office in order to recruit them for the study. Once in the field, the researcher
discovered that there were no ready lists that included faculty contact information
and length of employment, so using the college’s website, the researcher located
contact information. Faculty were selected based on the number of years service
being at least five years. Speaking with department administrative assistants, the
researcher learned who fit this criterion. Two of the faculty members interviewed
directed minority STEM programs. The remaining faculty members did not direct
such programs. Faculty participants worked at CSULA from 5 years to over 30
years and taught courses within the natural and physical science disciplines.
Interviewing faculty who were full participants in the CSULA community was
essential. As full members, they served on committees and participated in
meetings, workshops and professional development programs. Because of this
involvement in various activities, they should have interacted in the college as more
than simply an instructor. Therefore, they would have varied perspectives and
experiences from which to draw in response to interview questions.
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Interviews ranged in length from 30 minutes to one hour. Interviews
utilized the protocol derived from the research questions and Chapter 2 (Appendix
B). Questions focused on the faculty’s perception of the dean’s role, their
classroom environment, and interaction with students both inside and outside the
classroom.
Furthermore, in order to gain another perspective on the dean’s role, the
researcher interviewed the provost and two other executive level administrators.
Because of the demands on the participants’ time, the interviews were limited to 30
minutes. Through these interviews, the researcher gained an understanding of the
larger campus culture and the dean’s role from their perspectives. The interview
protocol (Appendix C) is designed to determine how much authority deans have on
the campus and what is expected from the dean. From all these interviews came
three perspectives on the dean’s role as well as the university’s culture and CNSS
climate.
Student affairs professionals contribute to the campus climate through their
programming. In addition, they build relationships with students through their
departmental services, work-study and residence life programs. These people had
perspectives useful to this study. Therefore, student affairs professional and
academic support staff (e.g., Directors of tutoring center or EOPS) were
interviewed for this study. The criteria for this group was that members provided
academic support services or were within student affairs. Through these interviews,
the researcher hoped to learn their perspectives about the issue of persistence of
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minority students, the patterns they see and where they believe the leadership
exists. The focus of the questions on the protocol (Appendix D) aimed to provide
general information about underrepresented minority students on campus and
specific information about this population majoring in science and mathematics.
One-on-one interviews are valuable yet time-consuming. In order to gather
data from many students over a short period of time, the researcher intended to use
focus groups. However, once in the field, several challenges to recruiting students
made utilizing focus groups impossible. Citing Family Educational Rights and
Privacy Act (FERPA) all university representatives the researcher contacted denied
all requests for obtaining student email addresses. The researcher had to rely on
faculty and staff sending emails on the researcher’s behalf. This yielded one student
who later declined to participate. Because requests for email addresses of presidents
of STEM organizations were also denied, the researcher conducted a web search of
student organizations for contact information. Information for six student
organizations was found. They were all contacted. Four of the six responded. Two
allowed the researcher to attend a meeting to recruit students for the study. The
others agreed to send an email on the researcher’s behalf. This yielded no student
participants. Another plea to staff members yielded one student participant, and the
researcher’s attendance at a science program meeting yielded the other seven
student participants. Students were paid $20 for their participation in a one-on-one
interview.
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The students were interviewed to understand their perspectives on the
factors discussed in Chapter 2: academic preparedness, classroom climate,
classroom pedagogy, faculty attitudes and behaviors, and financial aid as well as
where they saw leadership coming from pertaining to these issues that concerned
them. From the student data, the researcher hoped to determine the extent to which
they believed these factors supported their persistence. This information was
expected to inform sub-question 2 which states, “How does the dean’s leadership in
STEM disciplines influence the climate of his/her departments related to creating
an inclusive environment for all students?”
For all interviews, semi-structured interview protocols were used. Merriam
(1998) states, “in this type of interview either all of the questions are more flexibly
worded, or the interview is a mix of more and less structured questions” (p. 74).
These types of interview protocols “allow the researcher to respond to the situation
at hand, to the emerging world view of the respondent, and to new ideas on the
topic” (Merriam, p. 74). The questions were derived from the research questions
and the information presented in the literature review. All interviews were audio
recorded and transcribed. They took place at a time and location convenient to all
parties; some were telephone interviews. Each interview began with the purpose of
the interview as well as a description of the study. Confidentiality was also
discussed and a consent form was signed. Taylor and Bogdan include these issues
as topics that should be covered at the beginning of every interview (as cited in
Merriam).
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Observation
Observing participants in their natural setting adds another perspective to
data obtained through other qualitative data collection methods. Through
observation the researcher can watch interactions between people, hear their
conversations, and observe their behaviors (Merriam, 1998; Patton, 2002). The
researcher observed the classrooms of six faculty members participating in the
interviews to watch instructional practices and the attitudes and behaviors of
faculty. Lastly, the researcher observed student interactions during program
sessions to get a sense of the climate. Because program sessions meet monthly, due
to the time constraints of this study, the researcher was able to observe two of these
sessions. The data found here was used also to see who was enrolled in STEM
classes and the peer-to-peer rapport. The data was used to observe climate, rapport,
and interactions among participants with each other.
Documents
Documents are another data collection method that produces qualitative
information. All organizations produce some kind of documentation that
“constitute a particularly rich source of information” about the organization
(Patton, 2002, p. 293). Documents can provide historical information, policy
statements, decisions made, organizational charts, etc. that can reveal things that
cannot be observed. For this study, the researcher reviewed strategic planning
documents, brochures describing programs and CNSS, demographic data, and
STEM retention data to draw insights.
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Data Analysis
Immediately after each interview, data was organized and prepared for
analysis (Creswell, 1998). Data was transcribed and a unique identifier created.
Then, I read it carefully. Similarly, after each observation, field notes were
transcribed and a unique identifier created. Merriam (1998) supports this when she
states, “the right way to analyze data in a qualitative study is to do it
simultaneously with data collection” (p. 162). Data was reviewed, “to get a general
sense of the information and to reflect on its overall meaning” (Creswell, p. 191).
Completion of the above process for each participant or observation began
to yield possible themes and categories that emerge from the literature and the data.
After all fieldwork, a final list of categories and themes based on all collected data
emerged. This list became the codes used for detailed analysis. Creswell (1998)
defines the coding process as “the process of organizing the material into chunks
which involves taking text data or pictures, segmenting sentences (or paragraphs)
or images into categories and labeling those categories with a term” (p. 192). Next,
this coding process was used “to generate a small number of themes or categories”
(Creswell, p. 192) which were used to describe the study. The final step was to
interpret the data to find “the lessons learned” (Creswell, p. 194).
Trustworthiness
Research “trustworthiness” is a term used by qualitative researchers to
speak to the traditional concerns of reliability and validity (Merriam, 1998). To
enhance the trustworthiness of this study, these strategies will be employed: 1)
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triangulating data collected from interviews, observations, and document analysis
and 2) articulating the researcher’s assumptions and biases.
As previously stated, interviews of various stakeholders as well as
observation and document analysis were used to gather data. Triangulation of data
was enhanced by gathering information from multiple sources. Faculty with various
backgrounds and experiences with the university were one source. Students of
diverse backgrounds and grade levels within the STEM majors were another
source. Student affairs professional provide a third source. Executive level
administrators provided yet another source. Observations of classrooms and
program meetings were conducted as well. Information from all sources builds
justification for the themes or categories that emerge (Merriam, 1998).
In qualitative research, the primary instrument is human, and “all
observations and analyses are filtered through that human being’s worldview,
values, and perspective” (Merriam, 1998, p. 22). To make biases and assumptions
clear, the following information is shared. The researcher is an African American
woman who was a mathematics’ major at a predominately white institution, one
who was at times the only African American person in the classroom and who has
strong memories of feeling isolated, alone, unwelcome, and “not good enough.”
The researcher has been an administrator in higher education for 17 years, and in
this capacity, has interfaced with deans, faculty and students in STEM disciplines.
The researcher has also tutored underrepresented minority students in mathematics
and listened as some shared their frustrations and intent to leave their major. The
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researcher must remain open and objective when in the field and when interpreting
the data so as not to allow past experiences to bias the study.
Limitations
All studies have limitations that should be reflected upon when considering
generalizing the findings. The major limitation of this study is the small sample
size. One dean of one college at one university was studied. The context of the
environment was unique as was the dean. The university was over 60% minority;
therefore, dynamics that occur on PWI campuses were nonexistent or did not affect
students to the same degree. For example, there were a large number of
underrepresented minority faculty members on staff to serve as role models.
Another limitation was that the dean was unique. First, she was unique because she
was a female heading a college that included disciplines leading to fields that are
dominated by males. Also, she was a Latina who had a student-centered attitude,
continued to teach and surveyed students.
This study was conducted at one state-supported minority serving
institution. Many underrepresented minority students attend private institutions as
well as PWIs. Therefore, some of the findings may not be generalizable to these
other types of institutions.
Questions can be raised about the representativeness of students and faculty
who participated in the study. The number of student participants was small.
Further, the majority of them were participants of one grant-funded program
intended to increase the number of underrepresented minorities in STEM fields.
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Therefore, this poses a potential bias. Likewise, the number of faculty participants
was small and may not be representative of all faculty members. Moreover, only
full-time faculty were interviewed. Therefore, the study lacks the voice of part-time
instructors.
Another limitation of the study is that there were no comparisons with
deans of different gender or race. Neither all women nor all Latinas or minorities
behave in the same ways. Further, bias may arise from the participants’ motives for
being in the study. For example, those most satisfied with the dean may have
responded. Similarly, students may have responded for the incentive offered.
Another limitation is the human instrument used to collect data. Personal
biases have been shared above. Additionally, the researcher is neither a trained
interviewer nor researcher; therefore, human error may limit the generalizability of
the study. Lastly, this study lacks the voices of all department chairs. Only two out
of the five department chairs participated. Questions of representativeness could be
raised.
Delimitations
The background of the study in Chapter 1 as well as factors affecting
persistence of underrepresented minorities discussed in Chapter 2 focus on science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics. However, because one dean who leads
the College of Natural and Social Sciences was being studied in this case,
technology and engineering majors were excluded.
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Ethical Considerations
Discussing department issues with a researcher can be unsettling for study
participants. Faculty participants in the study work together as well as with the
dean. Faculty may have a power relationship over some students participating in
the study. Therefore, the researcher assured all study participants of confidentiality.
A Consent Form was signed (Appendix J) by all participants, and the researcher
answered any questions they had prior to their participation. The Consent Form
adhered to the guidelines of the University of Southern California’s Institutional
Review Board (IRB). Finally, the researcher followed all rules and regulations of
the IRB.
Summary
This chapter outlined the methodology to be used for this research study. A
case study approach was used. Data was collected through interviews, observations,
and document analysis. Trustworthiness was enhanced through triangulation and
the acknowledgement of researcher bias. Lastly, the study’s limitations of sample
size, time, and human instrument were presented.
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Chapter Four: The Findings
The persistence of underrepresented minority students pursuing
mathematics and science majors is both a personal and professional concern.
Chapter 1 described the changing demographics of the United States that showed
decreasing numbers of white males who traditionally made up the STEM
workforce. Because of this demographic shift, it was discussed that those
historically underrepresented in STEM fields must be educated in order to continue
American scientific innovation.
Chapter 2 reviewed the literature pertaining to factors that support
persistence of underrepresented minority students. It stressed the effects of
academic preparedness, classroom climate and pedagogy, faculty attitudes and
behaviors, and financial aid. The chapter also discussed the leadership role of
deans. However, a review of the literature suggests that there are no studies based
on how a dean supports persistence. Instead, the pathways to the deanship,
demographics of deans, and leadership roles of deans were prevalent in the
literature. The chapter concluded with a model of how a dean’s leadership may
translate into supporting underrepresented minority students’ persistence.
Chapter 3 described the methodology and justification for using qualitative
research to examine the research questions. It discussed the research design,
population and sample, data collection procedures and analysis methods as well as
inherent limitations. The site selected was chosen because the student population
was diverse, the campus had a commitment to supporting educational achievement
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of underrepresented minority students, and the dean had been in office for at least
three years and was willing to participate in the study.
This chapter reports the findings of a case study concerning a large state
university and how the dean of the College of Natural and Social Sciences can
support the persistence of underrepresented minority students pursuing majors in
the natural and physical sciences. This research focused on the leadership roles of
deans and how they can support persistence.
This case study was designed to investigate the following questions:
How can an academic dean of a college housing STEM disciplines support
the persistence of underrepresented minorities in science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics?
1. What does a dean perceive to be his/her role in supporting minorities in
STEM?
2. How does the dean’s leadership in STEM disciplines influence the
climate of his/her department related to creating an inclusive
environment for all students?
3. How does the dean institute change pertaining to curriculum,
instruction, and programming related to supporting the academic
achievement of all students?
The data was collected over a twelve-week period through interview,
observation and document review. Those interviewed included ten faculty
members, both those who directed support programming and those who did not. It
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also included five executive level administrators, including the dean of the College
of Natural and Social Sciences. Two current department chairs and one former,
eight students, and three student affairs professionals were also interviewed. In
addition observations of five classrooms and two support program meetings were
conducted by the researcher. The researcher also observed the Enrollment
Management Task Force meeting of which the dean serves as chairperson.
Document review included STEM persistence data, program descriptions, course
syllabi, and various reports.
This chapter is divided into five sections. The first section is a discussion of
the setting. The second section presents a discussion of how students of color are
supported, in general, on the campus. This section is followed by a discussion of
the role and authority of the dean in supporting persistence of underrepresented
minority students in natural and physical sciences. The findings pertaining to each
research question are presented next. Lastly, a discussion of themes is presented.
Context of the Environment
California State University Los Angeles is situated a stone’s throw away
from the intersection of two freeways. It lies in the midst of an urban area. Driving
onto campus via the main road, one notices new building construction. Further up
the road to the left lies an information kiosk, to its right a four-level parking
structure. The researcher was struck by the simplicity and abundance of pay-per-
day parking via automated kiosks. The researcher suspects that because this is a
commuter school (only one residence hall is on campus), parking ease is a priority.
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Walking from the top level of the parking structure to the campus, the first
series of buildings appear. To the left stands the Physical Sciences building. It is a
seven-story building with floor to ceiling glass windows along the first floor. It is
reminiscent of a corporate office building. Between this building and the parking
structure there is an open area in which there is a concrete rectangular surround
upon which a building may have once stood. Across from this are three more
buildings, not as tall, but fairly close to one another. They are so close that a
student with a class in one could get to class in an adjacent building under three
minutes.
This series of buildings looks rather industrial and cold. There is no grass or
trees here simply concrete. There are a few metal tables and benches. It feels
sterile. Just beyond this series of buildings is a ramp that leads to the lower campus.
Another building construction site is to the immediate right of the ramp. It is for a
new three-story science building. After this point, concrete gives way to grassy
courtyards between six campus buildings. Along the wide thoroughfare there are
tables set up and students positioned to tell passersby of the services provided at
their respective offices. Today, lots of people are walking about browsing the
tables, going to classes, or stopping at the nearby dining commons. Along this
thoroughfare, faculty, staff and students of many races and ethnicities mill about.
Here, you will also find the Administration building and a building which
houses the dining commons, bookstore, and various offices. It is a building
reminiscent of design found on the old Jetsons’ cartoon. Architecture is clearly
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different from the surrounding buildings. It is a relatively new building. Unlike the
first cluster of buildings described, this area feels comfortable, college like. On this
day, there is a cool breeze blowing and the sun is shining. Birds in the trees along
the courtyard are chirping.
Taking a path opposite the Administration building, a group of young-
looking students are approaching. The researcher discovered that they are students
on lunch break from the on-campus performing arts high school. At the end of the
path lies an outdoor eating area and another set of buildings with courtyards. Once
here, the researcher forgets she is in the middle of the sprawling city literally across
the road from freeway interchanges. It feels like a university. The campus lies on
nearly 200 acres nestled on a hilltop site. It is here that approximately 20,000
students attend college.
California State University Los Angeles was founded in 1947 and became
part of the state college system formed in 1960. It is a majority minority campus
with over 80% of the students being non-white. As stated in Chapter 3, the campus
has an ethnically diverse student body. As shown in the following table, Latino
students are the largest percentage of students (50.9%), followed by Asian
Americans (23.3%), white (15.7%), African Americans (9.6%), and Native
Americans (0.5%).
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Table 4 - Headcount by Race/Ethnic Group
Race/Ethnic Group Percent of Population Number of Students
African American 9.6% 1652
Asian American 23.3% 4001
Latino 50.9% 8758
Native American 0.5% 92
White 15.7% 2697
It operates on the quarter system and was “established as an upper division
transfer institution. System-wide about 66% of the students who graduate with a
baccalaureate, transfer from a two year college. It’s about 85% here.” The
California Master Plan of Higher Education stipulates that the California State
System will enroll students who are in the top 33% of their graduating classes.
Its student body comes from surrounding communities within 15 miles of
the campus. The feeder schools are largely located in low-socioeconomic
communities. Because these schools are plagued with the ills of most urban inner
city schools, a large percentage of students who enter the university do so
underprepared in math. One executive level administrator said, “Most of us, as
public institutions, are really recipients of what the schools produce in our
surrounding communities and obviously our students come in substantially
underprepared, in particular, in the math fields.” He adds, “…if they’re not
prepared in the math fields, then they’re not going to be very successful or even
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consider going into many of the math and science fields.” Another concurs and
makes clear issues of surrounding K-12 schools when he states,
They may have met the requirements to enter the institution,
but as you know, they didn’t take the other additional
courses. I mean they never went beyond Algebra 2 in high
school. I mean you didn’t see any advanced math in terms of
calculus and trig and some of the more you know advanced
science courses with labs at the high school. And sometimes
that’s a product of that they’re not even available either. So,
it’s not just that the student didn’t choose not to take it, but
the nonavailability of the courses.
Though many students may arrive underprepared, the university’s
administration places an emphasis on student success and creating opportunities for
students to gain the skills necessary to be successful not only at the undergraduate
level, but beyond. To this end, the university created and funded its own set of
remedial courses for students to gain skills. There are three sequential remedial
mathematics courses to prepare students for college level courses in mathematics.
In addition, an introduction to higher education course is required for all new
students. In this course, critical thinking skills are emphasized as well as discussion
of how to utilize resources available to students on campus and navigate the
university. The bottom line is that there is an interest in taking students from where
they are to where they want to go. An executive level administrator talked about the
university’s attitude toward underprepared students.
The emphasis clearly is on value added, not so much what
you enter looking like. It’s far more important what happens
to you while you’re here. And, what you exit with in terms
of a sense of self and confidence, and basic skills and
competencies required to succeed beyond the baccalaureate.
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A faculty member adds how this approach supports students
in persisting onto graduate school.
[Students] are offered a quality education that has a
perspective of where does this student want to go next. So, if
the student wants to go into a PhD program, then they can
get hands on research in a laboratory.
The university is realistic about who its student body is and seeks to bring
out the academic best in each student.
Campus Support for Students of Color
To gain perspective on how students of color are supported, in general, on
campus, review of documentation and interviews were used. It was found that
students of color are supported through the university’s commitment to diversity
and various types of programming, most notably, academic support programming
and student development programming.
When asked how students of color are supported on campus, faculty,
student affairs personnel, and students responded with a myriad of programming
offered by the university. For example, one student affairs professional put it this
way:
We have you know the whole broad array as most universities
would have. We have student development programs within the
division of student affairs. We have our student union that has clubs
and organizations. We have a writing center; we have a tutorial
center. We have first year experience programs. We have one of the
largest educational opportunity programs in the state. We admit low
income and first generation students to that and provide them
additional support beyond what the traditional university may be
able to offer them. We have a freshman mentoring program you
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know partnerships for academic learning and success uh and I mean
I could go on.
A student affairs professor talked about the availability of funding for such
programs.
I think there are some faculty that are doing it through grants
especially in the sciences and I think some of the programs that exist
are student organizations, possibly, but kind of beyond that I don’t
know how much support there really is.
Another student affairs professional added, “I think, at least from the 60s, I think
there are many projects on campus both soft money and hard money through the
state. And, some by colleges and by schools.”
Commitment to Diversity
There is a commitment to diversity that supports underrepresented
students attending CSULA. There is a commitment to hiring at all levels
which reflect diversity in many areas including race. According to an
executive level administrator, “over 50 percent of our faculty now are
people of color. Largest component obviously being Asian Pacific
Islanders, then Latinos, then African American, then a few Native
Americans are part of that.” This diversity includes “about 45 percent”
women faculty. Diversity is also reflected in the administration. An
executive level administrator describes the diversity among senior level
administrators.
At the present time, I think there are only three men who are deans
of the six colleges and the library. There’s a Japanese who is the
university librarian, [a Latina woman] is natural and social sciences,
[another woman] is health and human services, [a woman] is the
charter college of education and then we have a Jamaican, African
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American, Chinese fellow who is the dean of engineering, computer
science and technology. So, we have an Anglo dean of Arts and
Letters, and Anglo dean of Business, uh who are male. And we have
a dean of extended ed, but he was born in South Asia uh and from
Burma or somewhere in that area. So, it’s a very diverse group you
know of deans…And we’ve strived over the years to try to sustain
that and in prior years here of the six senior officers of the
university, in some prior years, four of them have been women.
And, they’ve been diverse.
The administration believes role models are important for student
learning. As noted by one executive level administrator, “this diversity
reflects a major effort to try to address some of these issues of proper role
models with high quality credentials.” He believes “having these role
models may move students to move into and be successful in fields in
which they see people like them.” To facilitate this, the president supported
a project in which teams of faculty went to doctoral programs to recruit
underrepresented minority Ph.D.s. One executive level administrator
discussed introducing Ph.D. students to CSULA to interest them in working
at CSULA.
We had groups teams of faculty that for about a three or four year
period went to campuses that were producing PhD faculty
underrepresented to meet at those campuses, to talk with those then
doctoral students letting them know who CSULA was, what we
were all about, why they would want to come here, and why we
wanted them to come. And, we were trying to get them in the
pipeline so they would know who we are so when they graduated
and saw announcements, actually we were even doing follow-up
mailings to them, keeping them apprised of what was going on and
wanting to know what they were doing.
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Because the student body is already diverse, the administration seeks to
have staff reflect that diversity as much as possible.
Also because the student body is majority minority, there is an
attitude that there is “nothing special” for minorities on campus. Many
faculty and staff feel that everything they do at the university supports
underrepresented minority students. The researcher was often told by
faculty and administrators, “that’s who we are” or “we don’t talk about it
because that’s all that’s here.” So, by virtue of the population and the
faculty and staff, understanding of who attends the university makes them
support the population. A faculty member sums it up this way,
That’s not a big topic of discussion here only because you know we’ve
always been doing it, and I just do it by each of our jobs, so that’s the
population we serve, and that’s kind of always what we’re doing in our
teaching and research.
Academic Support Programming
Academic support programs seek to support students’ intellectual growth
and increase academic preparedness for college level work. One such program is
the Educational Opportunity Program (EOP). EOP accepts students who do not
meet regular admission criteria, as well as those who qualify for regular admission.
Though the students who enter the program are among the least prepared, their
retention rate is only 7% to 8% below the university’s rate. Staff members
acknowledge that it is not great and that they wish they could do better. However,
others believe taking the least prepared and most at-risk and take those just falling
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short of the university’s retention rate should be commended. This program
provides students with the support necessary to persist, in general. Documentation
provides information about the purpose of EOP.
The purpose of the Educational Opportunity Program at Cal State
L.A. is threefold. First, we provide access for low income and
underrepresented students with potential for academic success by
making higher education a possibility. Second, once you have been
admitted to the University, we work closely with you during your
first year by providing support and services…that are a necessary
part to help you achieve your goals…Third, we continue to be
available to you up until you graduate to further develop your
educational and career goals.
According to one executive level staff member, CSULA “has one of the
largest educational opportunity programs in the state.” He adds that, “we admit
low-income and first-generation students to that [program] and provide them
additional support beyond what the traditional university may be able to offer
them.”
Some of the components offered through EOP directly support academic
preparedness. One such component is the summer bridge program. According to
program documentation, these enhance students’ readiness for college level work
because, “these students need academic support to ‘close the gap’ between their
high school education, and the level of skills required by the university.” In the
summer bridge programs, 250 first-year entering students are brought to campus
for a six-week intensive program. The courses are structured as learning
communities. In a learning community, students co-register in all courses and
spend the summer together as a single cohort. According to documentation, “the
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learning communities not only help students increase vital academic skills, but also
foster more social interactions and peer support for increased persistence, retention,
and graduation.”
EOP’s sister program the Student Success Program (SSP) provides
academic support services to 450 students who are low-income, first-generation
college students, or disabled. Like EOP, they offer learning communities. In
addition, they offer Supplemental Instruction courses. Supplemental Instruction
courses are described in documentation as courses linked to classes which “offer
academic support in the form of questions and answer sessions to help students
master course content, increase study skills, and become independent learners.”
Both of these programs foster community and provide ample opportunities
for students to interact. They also provide an academic support system and enhance
students’ skills through pre-college course work and tutoring. Because the EOP and
SSP programs provide academic support and opportunities for building community
and peer support among the participants, students are provided tools that support
persistence.
Student Development Programs
Student development programs are those programs that support students’
growth outside the classroom. They connect students to the university by providing
opportunities for them to get involved socially among people with similar interests
or backgrounds. Students who feel connected to the university tend to remain at the
university (Kuh et al., 2005). CSULA has extensive programming in this area.
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Programming ranges from Greek organizations to ethnic specific offices. While the
majority of programming is promoted to all students, there are some that target
ethnic specific groups. An administrator talks about the availability of cultural
centers for specific races of students.
Culturally institution-wide there [are] cross cultural centers which
[are] supported through the university student union which is an
auxiliary…It’s some culturally specific areas and programming that
also has some academic mentorship elements for students who are
underrepresented.
Documentation informs us that, “the Cross Cultural Centers include: The Asian
Pacific American Student Resource Center, established 1993, The Chicana/o
Latina/o Student Resource Center, established 1993, and The Pan African Student
Resource Center, established 1990.” These programs provide a “home” for
students. They are staffed by professional and student staff of their ethnic
backgrounds. The centers are decorated with ethnic-specific décor. There are chairs
and couches for lounging as well as round tables for groups to sit together. They
were reminiscent of a comfortable den within a home. A few computers are
available for student use. The centers, though limited in space, were highly utilized
during the researcher’s visits. On observation, these centers seem to provide a
comfortable environment that respects students’ cultures. This is implied in the
mission of the centers.
The mission of the Cross Cultural Centers at California State University,
Los Angeles is to encourage student learning as well as foster an inclusive
campus environment free of racism, sexism, heterosexism, and other forms
of oppression. With a commitment to increasing cross-cultural awareness,
we offer a wide variety of programs and services that explore both the
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shared and unique experiences, histories, and heritages of our diverse
community.
Quarterly, the Centers provide events that bring students together.
There are presentations on getting connected, relationships, and gender
issues. In addition, there are documentaries shown and poetry readings. The
variety of programming offered by the Centers demonstrates a recognition
that students of color are not a monolithic group, but have varied interests
and needs.
Other student programming offered are student clubs that have as
their purposes to inform members and interested parties of the club
members heritage, to promote better communication and understanding of a
heritage, or to provide opportunities for students to express solidarity and
work together for individual and group improvement. Some of these clubs
are: American Indian Student Council, Latin American Society,
Movimiento Estudiantil Chicano De Aztlan (M.E. Ch. A.).
There are also ethnic specific clubs for specific majors and careers
throughout the university. Though these clubs are ethnic specific, they are
inclusive. Some of them include: Chicanos/Latinos for Community
Medicine, Hispanic Business Society, and the National Society of Black
Engineers. The researcher attended two such club meetings to recruit
students for the study and found an ethnic mix of participants. In addition,
the researcher found students engaged in conversations about science, their
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coursework, and philanthropic event planning. Information about internship
opportunities and conference attendance were presented as well.
Having both academic and social support programming available to
students of color sends a message to them that they are cared about and
creates a supportive, welcoming campus climate. Academic programming
helps them gain the knowledge that they did not get during their K-12
education. Student development programming helps them connect with the
university through various programming according to their interests or
heritage.
In sum, students of color are supported through programming and
policy. Student development programs connect students to the university. In
addition, students find academic support through tutoring and collaborative
learning models. The commitment to students having successful role
models and mentors in research activities provides them with the idea that
they, too, could pursue academics with success.
The College of Natural and Social Sciences
The College of Natural and Social Sciences (CNSS) strives for excellence
of its students. The mission of the College of Natural and Social Sciences states:
The College of Natural and Social Sciences at California State University,
Los Angeles is committed to programs of academic excellence that provide
educational and research opportunities for our diverse student body.
Faculty from sixteen departments and programs are dedicated to instruction,
scholarship, and university and community service. In general education
and undergraduate and graduate programs, the faculty support students in
developing creative and critical thinking skills in preparation for careers or
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for admission to competitive graduate or professional programs in their
respective disciplines. The College prides itself in the close interaction
between faculty and students, and in its collaborative research environment
that encourages student discovery. The College seeks to inspire in our
students an appreciation for the biological, physical, and social aspects of
our earth and a life-long commitment to improving the lives of its
inhabitants.
According to their website, the College of Natural and Social Sciences is
the largest of the six colleges “with over 200 outstanding and dedicated faculty who
have won more Statewide Outstanding Professor Awards than faculty in any other
academic unit in the California State University system. We offer 23 Bachelors’
degree and 15 Masters’ degree programs through the 16 academic departments and
programs.” Students have the opportunity to interact with faculty in the classroom,
laboratory, and programming that has as their purpose to increase the number of
underrepresented minority students pursuing natural and physical science degrees.
Students interviewed who participate in these programs are excited about
their majors and intend to pursue advanced degrees. Students must maintain a 3.0
grade point average and are encouraged to meet with each other and tutors for
academic support. One program will provide money for private tutors. These
programs mirror the graduate programs structure in which students work with
faculty on research. At the same time, they are mentored. A faculty member noted
that students who experienced academic difficulty blossom in these programs.
[Mentoring through research] really is that extra sort of extra little—it’s not
little, it’s that extra big something that can really impact a student. I’ve seen
students who were on the verge of dropping out, but once they got involved
in something, they become stars in a sense. So, it’s really a big something.
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In addition to one-on-one mentoring by faculty and working with students
who have similar interests, these programs provide financial support to students.
Programs provide students stipends from just over $2000 to $12000 per year. Such
gift aid can be significant for students’ persistence to degree (Fenske et al., 2000).
Other benefits to student participation in programming are illustrated here through
the words of a faculty member,
Various students can get financial support for working [in a] laboratory and
be mentored both by kind of things that have been institutionalized within
programs and of course one-on-one with the faculty members. Things like
preparation for GREs, application to doctoral programs that sort of thing.
When students interviewed were asked where on campus they feel most at
home, seven of the eight students interviewed responded that it was in the lab.
Opportunities to participate in research led by CNSS faculty are powerful
influences on students’ confidence and education and career aspirations. One
student stated, “They encourage us to continue in our studies, especially like more
academic kind of careers, like masters. So, it’s kind of wow, you think I can make
it. So, that kind of encourages you to do better.” Another student added,
Well, like for example, a [former] student is pursuing a PhD at Santa
Barbara. He didn’t know about research, but he was actually encouraged by
one of the faculty members to apply to the program. And, now, I would say
he’s a success story.
Such activities which involve faculty mentoring, community building and
provide stipends contribute to the climate of the College of Natural and Social
Sciences. Researchers posit that a welcoming climate positively influences
persistence (Bonsangue & Drew, 1995; Ditzer & Ricci, 1995; Maton, Hrabowski &
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Schmitt, 2000; Rendon, Garcia & Person, 2004; Seymour & Hewitt, 1997).
Students described the climate of the College of Natural and Social Sciences
positively. The faculty are a large part of this. Students find faculty to be friendly,
caring, and accessible. One student said, “It’s a welcoming environment. Some of
the professors help you and they have an open door policy which you can get
tutoring or help from. And, they have office hours where you can participate and
talk to them.” Another added, “Well most professors are really open to [students] in
their office, you know. And also, most of the professors know if their students are
doing well or not. They know their students.” All groups interviewed described the
climate positively.
The Role and Authority of the Dean of NSS
The dean of NSS is female and a Latina who has worked at CSULA for 20
years. She has been dean for the last six years. She has been described as the
senior-most dean and supportive of students and faculty. Prior to becoming dean,
she was the vice president of Information Resources Management and a professor
of psychology. Following is a discussion of the dean’s role and authority.
Assessment
During her time as a vice president of Information Resources Management,
she led the university’s self-assessment study that assessed the status of
underrepresented students at the institution. It is important to note that she started
on that prior to becoming dean of an academic college “because that’s how strongly
I felt about this.”
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This was not the only time that the dean stepped beyond her own job duties
to determine “what is impacting students” at the institution. As the dean of the
College of Natural and Social Sciences, she led focus groups to ask students about
their experiences with the institution not simply her college. A student affairs
professional noted that the dean took this on without being asked and “compiled the
information which informed a number of committees in the university about what
was going on.” He added, “that was an important piece.” Her findings have “kind
of mushroomed in a quality service committee...so now we’re looking at ways of
improving our quality services, our processes to serve students better.” This dean
sought to understand the student experience with the university as a whole and
therefore became informed about how the student experience may have been
affecting students in her own college. Through the focus groups, she connected
with students, listened, and brought their concerns to the attention of other
administrators at the university which may lead to changing student experiences for
the better.
To make sure that students are getting the best service the college has to
offer, the dean’s authority allows her to ask for information about courses and
student performance. As far as this dean is concerned, “the students are why we’re
here.” She believes that everything done in the college impacts students. She is
interested in knowing what is happening within her college in order to better
student outcomes and student experience. Having faculty and departments take
critical looks at themselves is a key component of her leadership.
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The dean requests assessment of programming, curriculum, and other
aspects of her college. For example, a department chair noted the following,
We have courses in our department or a couple courses in our department
that have low passing rates, and those particular courses where a student
needs a C to move on to the next course, and you know she’ll bring those us
and say, do you know what’s happening here? Is it the student population?
Are there better ways we could be teaching this course? So, she is aware of
trends and what’s happening with students in the college and tries to seek
those answers.
Or, she can begin the assessment on her own by forming committees of like minded
faculty or campus-wide staff to look at particular issues. According to a faculty
member, “she just formed two committees, one a student outreach committee, and
one a student success committee which will look at retention rates and what are our
strategies to increase retention and those types of things.” She is not simply
interested in general retention within her college. She is looking at this “department
by department” and asking faculty what they are doing about retention in their
departments.
Her concern for students goes beyond assessment and into the classroom.
She keeps connected to students through teaching as well. She teaches during one
quarter each year. She stated that any extra time during the quarter she teaches is
taken up with aspects of teaching—lesson planning, grading, exams, etc. Some
deans may consider this a burden not worth making time for. However, this dean
believes teaching is essential to not only deans, but she thinks “it’s essential that
any academic administrator teaches, an associate dean, provost. I also think many
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of our non-academic administrators would do well to teach also so they might
understand the educational endeavor a little better.”
As an instructor, she gets to know students, maintains office hours for
support and advising, and has opportunities to become aware of students’ needs.
Further, because she has continued to teach during her deanship, she has credibility
with her faculty. They know that she understands what they are facing in the
classroom. With so many demands on a dean’s time, I asked why she teaches and
found that she feels it is important.
It’s really important because how else am I going to have my finger on the
pulse? How can I know what students in the institution are doing if I’m not
experiencing them? Also, how can I have credibility among my faculty if I’m
not doing what they do? So, I think it’s absolutely essential that a dean
teaches.
Her faculty think well of her. It is evidenced by the fact that though there
was no question pertaining to her leaving the deanship, the majority of faculty and
department chairs interviewed mentioned their fear of losing her after the provost
announced his retirement.
Manage Resources
As dean of CNSS, she heads the largest of six colleges on campus under
guidelines of the provost and her college’s strategic plan. Though the dean’s
authority is limited, an executive level administrator described it as “significant on
a delegated basis. Once they get their resources, it’s pretty much up to them
consistent with a plan that they do develop with their college…how they allocate
those resources.” The primary role of the dean “is to manage the budget for the
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various [natural and social] science departments.” In this capacity, she is able to
make decisions about hiring faculty and staff, programming, grant cost-sharing, an
annual awards recognition event for outstanding students, purchasing technology or
other equipment, and outreach activities to name a few.
Once the provost has given the dean resources or a task, she has the
authority to run the college or assigned project and make decisions to the best of
her ability. For example, the dean is the lead person in charge of the construction of
the new science building. According to the provost, she is “the authorized person
for negotiating the amount of money we need for the various wings in the building,
the equipment that we have to purchase, the number of faculty lines that will be
required, if we take advantage of the all the new space we’re building to build some
new programs.”
In concert with her faculty, the dean is intimately involved in the decisions
made with this building from design of the interior space to equipment purchases
and deciding what departments will be housed in the building. Similarly, the
provost said, once the dean has received permission to hire and been given the
resources to do so, as long as “the dean stays within the average salary…and the
number of positions I’ve authorized, [she] can do whatever [she] wants to do.”
Hiring and Faculty Development
At CSULA, the dean is on the front end and back end of hiring. An
executive level administrator informs us that once the provost has approved hiring,
“the department and the search committee recruit. Then, the department makes a
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choice and the department chairman refers that choice to the dean”. The dean
negotiates salary and discusses start-up. It is at this stage that the dean conducts her
own interview of the candidates. She tries to make sure that the person is a fit for
the university and understands the emphasis on teaching and research as well as
including undergraduates in that research. The dean sets the tone and expectations
at this stage. Hiring impacts students’ experiences. The dean makes sure candidates
understand the value of teaching and research especially that research which
involves students is valued and rewarded. Also, at this stage, if she finds a top
scholar but needs more resources to hire that person, she would simply meet with
the provost to make her argument for augmenting the salary. Sometimes he is
persuaded.
Her role shifts once faculty has been hired. She now supports the faculty
members’ professional growth and movement toward tenure. The faculty
handbook, “spells out the process and it tells you that there [are] three categories:
education, professional development, and university service.” The dean can
interpret and weight these how she sees fit. She places an emphasis on the
educational part and interprets that as “mentoring [and] involving students in
research.” Her interpretation of the retention, tenure, and promotion process allows
her the authority to set the tone for what is valued in her college. A faculty member
describes it this way, “the leadership that a dean brings, the interest that a dean
brings, of course, either pushes an agenda forward, or keeps it where it is, or makes
it recede. Another added,
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In our new hiring of faculty as faculty have turned over, we’ve placed a
greater emphasis on faculty who are actively involved in research. One of
the criteria that we consider very seriously is the ability to involve students
in that research. And, that doesn’t happen unless the dean wants it to happen
because they ultimately have an important say in who gets hired and who
doesn’t.
Faculty governance limits changes the dean could initiate. The dean states,
There are things that are under the purview of the faculty and there are
things under the purview of the administration. And, many of the issues that
I grapple with and deal with on a day-to-day basis are not something that I
can by myself change. I have to do it in consultation with my faculty.”
A department chair adds,
They don’t have carte blanche power to enforce what’s going to happen
according to their view. They have to have a much more participatory type
of leadership style and they have to take advantage of the various talents
that are out there and convince people that what they do best is important
for the college and university.
Typical shared governance limits any dean. However, at CSULA because
the provost allows the dean some latitude in leading her college and because the
faculty believe they have a credible and competent leader, there is a nice balance
between the faculty, dean, and administration.
Further, as one of six colleges, the dean’s authority is limited. She has to
answer to a higher authority, the provost who has to consider all of the colleges at
the university when considering the needs of NSS or requests of the dean. A faculty
member said, the dean “does not operate by themselves in a vacuum. They operate
under some guidelines and some pressures…so they react to guidelines and
pressures from above or from the outside”. Also, the dean is accountable to her
faculty and the provost. As described by a faculty member, “They have to deal with
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the higher ups in the administration but they also have to remember the faculty and
the students in their college”.
Set Policy
The dean’s authority allows her the ability to set policy. Recall, that once
the provost gives the dean a budget, she can do whatever she sees fit. If she wants
to institutionalize programming, she can do that. If she wants to compensate faculty
for taking on extra students, she can do that, too. She has done this and through it
demonstrated her value for her faculty and her concern for student success. For
example, regarding compensation for faculty, a department chair noted,
That’s a really big deal for faculty to be compensated for taking on extra
work, not just in the sense of, oh, I get another teaching unit, but in that the
dean is saying hey I recognize that this is something that is worth
compensating you for and that it’s standardized. That there aren’t deals
made with one department vs. another department. That within the college,
there’s a standard formula for this type of compensation. Whereas in other
colleges, that doesn’t exist. Either it’s done on an ad-hoc basis or it’s not
done at all.
This section discussed the roles and authority of the dean. She has a lot of
authority to lead her college. She controls resources, participates in hiring faculty
all with a priority on supporting students. Similarly, assessing her college informs
her and the faculty on how they could do things differently. Her leadership is data-
driven and transparent. People feel good about it. Though she is a driving force,
there is still a shared governancy.
Having to conform to pressures, the dean may not always be able to do what
she would want to do if she had complete freedom to lead the college. “She speaks
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relatively frankly about her opinions of how the administration is handling things
because if they tie her hands, she ends up having to tie our hands. And she’s really
frank about it and she’s clear that she would do things differently.” Though the
dean has to stay within the guidelines set forth by central administration and work
within the boundaries of shared governance, there is some flexibility in how the
dean leads her college. Further, faculty and administrators know what the dean is
doing to support students. Her leadership is transparent. The researcher did not find
any resistance or dissenting voice. Recall, because they appreciate her leadership,
several participants brought up their fear of her leaving to become provost without
prompting from the researcher.
Findings by Research Question
1. What does a dean perceive to be his/her role in supporting minorities in STEM?
The dean’s beliefs and actions demonstrate that she perceives she has a role
in supporting underrepresented minority students in the natural and physical
sciences. The dean introduces underrepresented minority students to the sciences
through outreach, increases their preparedness, and supports programs. Also, she
advocates for her college, and faculty and keeps in touch with students through
teaching.
Outreach
The dean believes it is important to increase interest of students in regards
to the natural and physical sciences. Oftentimes, the excitement of science is not
observed by students until they have completed prerequisite courses and begun
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taking courses for their respective majors. This could take six quarters, so
sometimes another department will capture their interest and they will leave the
major before even beginning its courses. Because of this the dean believes in
making sure the college is visible whether it is through improving its website or
participating in events to connect with the community.
The dean encourages her faculty to participate in events sponsored by the
university as well as those sponsored by CNSS that bring young students and
surrounding community members to the campus. The Sally Ride Festival was on
campus and “it was the dean who initiated that.” A department chair stated,
She has a big emphasis on things that bring people to campus that raise the
visibility of the campus in a positive light. For example, the Sally Ride
Festival that was recently here brought a lot of folk from off campus that
would otherwise never step on this campus. Now whether those kids will
ever, years from now, decide hey I remember being at Cal State LA, I’ll
apply there, that’s another issue, but at least these are the things that I think
she views that we can do something about.
Because she feels so strongly about this, she will contact faculty personally
to request their participation and get their buy-in. The same day the researcher
interviewed a particular faculty member was the day that the faculty member
received a letter from the dean requesting her participation in a Saturday program
in which 1500 middle through high school age children would come to campus to
have their science projects judged by faculty. A faculty member recalls,
We’re hosting a bunch of days for the community that bring students and
parents onto campus...I never heard of this program until I got this letter
from [the dean] asking me to serve as a judge. We’re hosting the regional
science Olympiad. I never even heard of that program. Apparently, it brings
1500 middle and high school students onto our campus. And, this is
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something that [the dean] initiated. And, these are science people. [The
dean] does a lot of things like this where we get to judge the students.
Through the dean’s involvement in outreach activities and her formation of
an outreach and recruitment committee, a faculty member shared that faculty “feel
that she’s concerned about having the sciences well represented in the community”
which also, “has ramifications on attracting students.”
Preparing Students
The dean believes having better prepared students enter the major is key.
The dean has supported learning communities in the remedial mathematics courses.
She supports smaller class-size for the learning communities. According to a
faculty member, the learning communities “have only 20 students as opposed to
close to the usual 30. Her belief is that if you put money there in the beginning, it’s
well worth it in the long run.” In addition, she works with surrounding community
colleges to improve the preparedness of students matriculating to the university. In
a similar vein, there is interest in working with students still in high school. She is
supportive of her college faculty who works with one high school to help teachers
teach a CSULA mathematics course to its students in which students receive
CSULA units. Additionally, when asked what she was most proud of, the dean
responded,
What I’m most proud of I had nothing to do with. It’s a new Charter High
School for Math and Science. A high school started by CSULA and an
outside entity for CSULA community. It will increase the number of
students choosing math and science majors.
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Clearly, one of her beliefs of her role in supporting minority students in STEM is to
reach them prior to their entering college and should involve improving their skills.
Supporting Programs
Another way the dean demonstrates her role in supporting minorities in
STEM is through her support of existing programming. She provides resources for
the myriad undergraduate research programs in her college. These resources are
provided in the form of cost sharing, allocating lab space, purchasing of equipment,
release time for professors, personnel, and space for student researchers who work
alongside faculty. One program director emphasized how the dean makes sure she
receives the required $50,000 cost-share annually by communicating with the
appropriate campus office.
Through providing support for programming, the dean provides students
with direct hands on work in a laboratory, mentoring of faculty, interaction with
peers of similar interests, tutoring, travel opportunities to present their research at
conferences, workshops on graduate school and preparation for the GRE as well as
stipends from roughly $2000 to $12000 annually. Developing community,
mentoring opportunities, and financial gift aid are significant and positively affect
student persistence (Anderson, 2004; Fenske, 2000; McShannon & Derlin, 2000,
Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). The dean encourages this
type of programming and sums it up this way,
I think we just need to continue to provide whatever type of academic
support we can for the students. Whether it’s getting them through math,
getting them on training ground so that they’re being paid to work in the
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labs. We all know that it’s gonna be a much better experience for you as a
student if you don’t have to go and get a job at McDonalds to work. If you
can work on campus in a lab doing your major, that would be ideal.
Advocacy
In making sure that minority students are getting the support they need in
her college and beyond, she represents the college to others. She touts what is
happening in the sciences in regards undergraduate research as a model for other
colleges to follow. One faculty member stated,
She is an incredible advocate for the college on a university level. She is
relentless in stating the need for emphasizing that we need an active faculty
research support infrastructure in order for the students to get the kind of
education that they deserve.
Another added,
She’s representing us. She’s a very strong and credible administrator, so she
has the confidence of the president. So she can march right into his office
and represent the college in its faculty and the needs to its students, so in
that way, she’s a great advocate.
In her role as advocate, she requests support from other areas on campus to begin
or continue programming that is effective.
Hiring
Through hiring the dean supports underrepresented minority students. The
dean believes having role models on the faculty attributes to this. The dean wants
students to see that there are others like them who are successful in the natural and
physical sciences so that is accomplished through hiring racially diverse faculty.
Further, she wants to provide students with opportunities to participate in
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undergraduate research. The dean’s hiring reflects this commitment. An executive
level administrator stated, “who you hire reflects what your commitment is.”
The dean is intimately involved in hiring. Being so involved, interviewing
takes up a lot of her time. As described earlier, she is committed to having students
feel comfortable. According to the dean, the time taken is worth it in order “to
make sure the candidate is a fit” for the college and its students. She recognizes the
importance of role models for underrepresented minority students and makes sure
recruitment pools are diverse. As stated earlier, she will make departments recruit
again if there is little diversity among candidates. The dean said, “in NSS we’ve
definitely increased the number of faculty of color. I’m not sure we have
university-wide, but, it’s because of my commitment in this college to it that it’s
happened.”
A faculty member noted, through the dean’s hiring, she “now has a critical
mass of faculty who understand the importance of having faculty of color.” One
white faculty member mentioned being pleased with the growth of minority faculty
members,
Our department, for example, is half female, half male. We have lots of
minority faculty members. Not that that’s a criteria to be able to work with
minority students, but I think it’s important to have role models for the
students. I think it’s something you can only do if you hire diversity.”
Further, in hiring faculty who are teacher-scholars, the dean facilitates
student involvement in undergraduate research and opportunities for mentoring.
One faculty member explained, “the dean considers having students work in
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research labs with faculty to be important—it’s a mentoring relationship…[The
dean] is real encouraging of that and makes that clear to people who are being
interviewed as faculty members.” An executive level administrator added, “now
people are hired with the expectation that they are going to mentor students both
undergraduate and graduate and assist those students to whatever their goal would
be.” She also rewards mentoring students in the retention, tenure and promotion
process.
Keeping in Touch With Students
Instructors have a lot of contact with students. They interact with students
during class time. During classroom observations, the researcher witnessed this
interaction in several forms. The researcher saw the students asking questions of
the instructor as well as instructors posing questions to students. Also, professors
participated in guided group practice by walking around the classroom observing
student progress and offering support. Students who were interviewed spoke of
“active learning” and “group work” occurring during some classes. Students also
spoke about faculty knowing their students and how they are doing in the class.
Both faculty and students talked about the availability of office hours and how
students are welcome during those hours to drop by. All of this demonstrates types
of faculty-student interaction taking place in the College of Natural and Social
Sciences. Add to this lesson planning, teaching, and creating and grading tests and
it shows that faculty see many sides of the student experience. The dean who
teaches then experiences students as faculty do.
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The dean teaches during one quarter each year. Through teaching, the dean
can “know what students in the institution are experiencing.” Teaching is not a
required role of deans. They have enough to do to lead their college. For a dean to
use spare time to teach sends a powerful message about the value of instruction and
students. The dean makes a clear choice to make room for teaching each year
because she believes it is important for her, keeps her “on the pulse” of what is
happening with students, and informs her of needs of students.
This section illustrated that the majority of the dean’s support of minorities
in STEM is through providing resources which support undergraduate research,
preparedness and outreach activities. She states, “as dean for me to support these
innovative ideas with resources is probably one of the best things I can do.”
Continuing to teach keeps her on the pulse of student needs and experiences.
2. How does the dean’s leadership in STEM disciplines influence the climate of
his/her department related to creating an inclusive environment for all students?
The dean plays a role in the climate of CNSS. Her leadership and own
sensitivity sets the tone for the faculty and staff. Placing the focus on students in all
of her actions and conversations reminds faculty that students’ experiences in
CNSS matter. Faculty interact with students much more than the dean. Faculty
teach several classes, advise students and meet them during office hours as well as
interact with them through research projects. However, the dean is not involved in
all these things or is involved on a much smaller scale, so her contact with students
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is much more limited. Because of this the dean relies on other avenues to affect the
climate of her college.
Student-Centeredness
One way to effect climate is to keep the focus on students. What faculty
understands the dean to expect from them affects the climate. They understand her
to be very much student-centered. One notes, “I just get the feeling that she
appreciates the diversity of our students. She’s remained in the classroom when she
didn’t have to do that. So that sets an example that we are here to serve students.”
As a Latina, the dean is sensitive to minorities in higher education. Her own
scholarly interests include women Latinas and their selection of majors. Personal
interests include getting more Latina women to choose science. Her interests are so
strong that she formed a committee of like-minded individuals to look at issues
concerning minority students and the sciences, in general. Students are the dean’s
major concern. One faculty member commented, “From her disposition and
everything she thinks about the students a lot. That’s the main thing.” Another
added, “There is always an undercurrent that individuals, especially students,
matter.” In addition, she shows this through the allocation of resources. According
to a faculty member,
She, in every interaction, refers to students. You know if you’re asking for
anything as simple as matching for a grant for your research, she wants to
know the student involvement...It’s just part of every discussion whether it
has to do with students or not, you know this is what she’s thinking.
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The dean’s decision-making is also student-centered. According to the dean,
prior to her tenure, requests for matching funds for grants were determined through
“an old boys’ network. She said, “Essentially, “certain faculty got whatever they
wanted no matter what it was they were doing, and there were other faculty who
got absolutely nothing.” A faculty member added, now, when faculty request
support of the college, they know they must be able to answer, “How is this going
to benefit us, not just you, but us.”
A self-assessment study showed that students had difficulty in quantitative
courses. It was found that sometimes student leave the major because “the math
kills them.” Several of those interviewed mentioned that “we were finding that a
student who starts Calculus I and gets and A in Calculus I will get a B in II, a C in
III, and a D in IV.” Calculus was a gate keeper. A faculty member stated “the dean
expressed her desire to not have calculus be a barrier.” To this end she has
supported calculus workshops in the form of supplemental instruction, learning
communities, and the move from calculus meeting two days a week to meeting four
days a week. “And, that’s helped a lot.” Again, meeting the needs of students is at
the forefront of the dean’s leadership.
Comfort
Being student-centered also impacts students’ feelings of comfort in their
environment. Recall, the dean formed a committee to determine concerns of
underrepresented minority students in the sciences, and she supports programming
that increases chances for academic success. She also continues to teach. This
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models the importance of connecting with students and supporting their academic
success. Further, the dean’s conversations and decisions always stem from “how is
this going to benefit students?” If it does not benefit students, it will likely not be
supported. Therefore, faculty, in their conversations with each other and the dean as
well as their behaviors, must consider how students benefit. In essence, the dean’s
conversations with faculty and her own modeling encourage that students are
comfortable in the college.
The dean is sensitive to the fact that students feel welcome when there are
others like them around. When she hires faculty, she makes sure the pool is diverse.
She stated, “I have no qualms about telling a department their pool is not diverse
enough and tell them that they’ve got to go out again. I’ve done that several times.”
Further, she makes clear to her faculty recruiting committees the importance of role
models to the student population. An executive level staff member stated,
I know [the dean] has been very very both concerned, interested and active
in terms of making sure that the pools that the faculty are interviewing are
in fact diverse, and that if there are qualified candidates in those pools that
they are being brought in for the interviews and being given full
consideration. And, when it’s non-white, only white faculty that are brought
in as finalists or recommended she’s asking the questions about what
happened to the other candidates, and how is who you’re selecting fit in to
who we’re serving.
He added, “I think in terms of hiring that she’s done, I think it’s always with an eye
towards finding those faculty who will make our students feel most comfortable.” It
is the dean’s commitment is this area that has increased the number of minority
faculty members within her college. The dean stated, “I think that’s important, that
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students feel comfortable in the environment. So, it’s meant having faculty role
models.”
Faculty-Student Interaction
As stated earlier, faculty interact with students during office hours, through
research activities, and in the classroom. The researcher observed friendly
interchanges between CNSS faculty and students during one of her visits to
campus. Students said hello as they walked by and the faculty members responded
in kind and also addressed the students by name. On one occasion the faculty
member and student hadn’t seen each other in a while, and they stopped to talk for
a minute. These interactions were common. The researcher also observed
interactions between faculty and students during the class period. Again, faculty
knew students by name.
During lecture, students asked questions and the faculty member answered.
Likewise, faculty posed questions for students to answer. Also, one instructor
conducting class in the large lecture hall assigned the class a practice problem and
walked through the aisles offering individual feedback as students worked the
problem. Quite a bit of interaction took place during standard lectures. The dean’s
emphasis on hiring faculty who buy-in to these types of instructional activities
contributes to this.
The dean emphasizes faculty student interaction in the retention, tenure and
promotion process. Involving students in research is valued as is mentoring. Her
interest in this is evidenced by her allocation of resources toward programming and
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faculty who involve students in research. It is further evidenced in her hiring of
faculty. A faculty member mentioned how the dean hires faculty who will fit into
the culture.
Probably the major place where she has big influence is making sure we get
faculty who are of a like mind about these sorts of things, enthusiastic about
these sorts of things and then once faculty are here and they’re in this
environment, they...are on board with it.
Even through the design of the new science building, the dean is
encouraging faculty-student interaction. Regarding the building, the dean stated,
The whole notion here is one of collaboration where you build it in a way so
that there’s shared spaces so faculty and students are encouraged to
collaborate across disciplines…It’ll be great for our students. It’s designed
in a way so that there’s lots of shared space where our students can interact
with each other or with faculty.
3. How does the dean institute change pertaining to curriculum, instruction, and
programming related to supporting the academic achievement of all students?
Changes to curriculum and instruction are initiated by the departments. The
dean provides support. Through teaching and interacting with each other and
students, faculty discover first-hand issues pertaining to learning. They can initiate
change to the ways they do things in their classrooms on their own. As a
department, they can decide to make broad change. For example, a faculty member
realized what he was communicating through lecture was not reaching his students.
He incorporated more demonstration and group work to his classes. His class is
under his purview and he could make change as he saw fit. However, when it was
found that calculus students’ grades dropped with each successive course, the math
department instituted mandatory one-hour workshop courses for those earning a C
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or lower in each course though faculty could not mandate this on their own.
According to a department chair, while “the primary push for this has come from
the faculty,” the dean played a significant role. This initiative required student staff
to lead the workshops as well as classroom space. It also required students to
register for and add an additional unit to their program. These things could not be
resolved at the departmental level. A faculty member summed it up this way,
The dean does not usually play a direct role in curriculum changes; that
happens more at the department level. However, some curriculum changes
require additional resources and the dean determines whether these
resources will be provided. For example, the recent trend towards
"supplemental instruction"--the addition of extra sections in a course where
students solve problems, engage in group learning, etc.--requires
instructors, salary, facilities, etc. above and beyond what the usual resources
needed to offer the course, and the dean plays a key role in providing those
resources.
To support the use of technology in the classroom, the dean has used
resources to purchase equipment. Technology allows for more class interaction. A
faculty member who uses technology in the classroom described how it enhances
the learning environment. “I’m using clickers… What I’ll do is I’ll project on the
screen a series of questions, the students will respond with their answers…People
who used to not talk start talking about it. So, I used them to sort of generate
discussion, and that worked really well.” This technology also allows instructors to
get and give immediate feedback regarding their students’ understanding of
concepts. In making technology available in the form of “smart classrooms” or
computer carts, the dean supports using technology in courses. The dean describes
her primary role as one of support.
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I truly believe that what goes on in the classroom is under the purview of
the faculty. I try to support innovative ideas, whether they’re service
learning or purchasing of instructional equipment, whatever, but being a
faculty member myself I feel that it is not the place of the dean to determine
what goes on in the classroom What my role is is to be supportive of
innovation and if I see that there’s problems as I review faculties instruction
through retention, tenure, and promotion, then it’s my responsibility to point
that out to the faculty member and make sure that they can avail themselves
of resources... So, I think what goes on in the classroom, my only role in
that is to provide resources necessary to do innovative, whether it’s
integrating technology into the classroom service learning, whatever.
Regarding programmatic change, the dean rewards that which she values.
For example, involving students in undergraduate research is considered in the
retention, tenure and promotion process. In addition, she uses data to initiate
programmatic change. It was mentioned earlier that the dean asks departments to
assess their student outcomes to determine where improvement can be made.
In sum, the faculty leads curricular and instructional change and the dean
plays a supportive role, yet she initiates programmatic change through assessment.
Summary
This chapter presented the data collected through observation, document
analysis, and interviews with administrators, faculty, staff and students in order to
accurately represent the stories of the participants. Additionally, the data was
presented by research question.
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Chapter Five: Summary, Findings and Recommendations
Introduction
This study explored how an academic dean can support the persistence of
underrepresented minority students in science and mathematics. The subject was a
Latina female who has been dean of the College of Natural and Social Sciences at
CSULA for six years. Through interviews with the dean, faculty, executive level
administrators, other staff and students as well as observations, this study identified
roles of the dean that support persistence of underrepresented minority students
majoring in the natural and physical sciences. This chapter presents a model of the
dean’s leadership (Figure 1) and discusses it via themes found, summarizes the
findings by research question, discusses how findings compare to previous
research, offers implications for educators, and areas of future research.
Themes
The case study of how a dean can support the persistence of
underrepresented minority students in science and mathematics revealed several
themes. The purpose of this section is not simply a summary of findings, but
evidence pulled into themes and related to the literature. The figure below gives a
pictorial representation of the themes and demonstrates how all things flow from
the dean’s student centered attitude.
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Student Centered Philosophy
Teach Classes
Recruit
&
Develop
Faculty
Assess
learning
environment
Focus on
students
Support active
learning models
Request
student
feedback
Advocacy
Underrepresented
minority student
persistence in
science and math
Set
Policy
Support
Programming
Provide
technology
Hire
diverse
faculty
Outreach
Faculty-
student
interaction
Set
expectations
Figure 1. Model of Dean’s Leadership
Student Centered Philosophy
Teach Classes
Recruit
&
Develop
Faculty
Assess
learning
environment
Focus on
students
Support active
learning models
Request
student
feedback
Advocacy
Underrepresented
minority student
persistence in
science and math
Set
Policy
Support
Programming
Provide
technology
Hire
diverse
faculty
Outreach
Faculty-
student
interaction
Set
expectations
Student Centered Philosophy
Teach Classes
Recruit
&
Develop
Faculty
Assess
learning
environment
Focus on
students
Support active
learning models
Request
student
feedback
Advocacy
Underrepresented
minority student
persistence in
science and math
Set
Policy
Support
Programming
Provide
technology
Hire
diverse
faculty
Outreach
Faculty-
student
interaction
Set
expectations
Figure 1. Model of Dean’s Leadership
A. The Dean’s Leadership Philosophy and Role Modeling is Significant
B. Students are a Priority
C. The Dean’s Role in Hiring Sets the Tone
D. The Dean Provides Resources to Support Student Success
E. The Dean Follows the Faculty’s Lead With Respect to Changes to
Curriculum and Instruction
F. The Dean Institutionalizes/Supports Programming That Works
Theme A – The Dean’s Leadership Philosophy and Role Modeling is Significant
The dean hires faculty, sets policy, provides resources, and is the advocate
for her college. In many respects, faculty are the institution. How faculty perform
and behave as well as how they teach and mentor students affect student
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achievement (McShannon & Derlin, 2000; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Seymour
& Hewitt, 1997)). Because of tenure, deans have a tremendous opportunity to shape
the college for decades (Bright & Richards, 2001; Millar & Quartanta, 1995). The
dean in this case study spends a significant amount of time interviewing candidates.
In hiring, the dean assesses potential faculty in terms of what they will bring
to the student experience. She wants to make sure faculty “are the right fit,” are
interested in the type of student that attends CSULA, and are representative of the
student population. Literature on student persistence tells us that faculty attitudes
and behavior as well as how they teach and interact with students affect persistence.
Further, having role models is important (Grandy, 1998; Pascarella & Terenzini,
2005). The dean can hire for all these things and more. At the hiring stage, the dean
tries to determine if the candidates are here “for the student and “not the weather.”
During the interview she also makes clear her expectation that faculty involve
students in their research projects. The dean is serious about this and rewards it in
the retention, tenure, and promotion process. Researchers tout the effectiveness of
undergraduate research for retention of underrepresented minority students in
STEM majors because of its inclusion of student-faculty interaction and
collaboration (Maton & Hrabowski, 2000; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005).
The dean also sets policy. In doing so, she supports her faculty and lets
them know how much she values them. For example, when faculty have to take on
additional teaching units, she has a policy that she instituted so that such things are
standardized within her college. This is unheard of in other colleges at CSULA. A
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department chair explains, “it does not exist” or is done on an ad-hoc basis or not at
all.
She also supports students through policy. The dean supported the changes
to make calculus meet four times per week rather than two times. She supported the
smaller class size of learning communities as well. She also institutionalized
supplemental instruction for calculus students who received a C- or below in the
previous course. It was stated earlier that research finds that these activities
positively impact persistence. A department chair talked about the dean’s
consideration of institutionalizing another program.
The college is going to be supporting a series of classes that used to be
supported by a grant. But, she’s gonna turn those into college classes or
department classes funded by the college in order to prepare students for
medical careers.
While the researcher did not find anything specific regarding policy making
in the literature, the researcher deduced that deans, as leaders of their colleges, are
expected to make policy simply because they are expected to promote change. Lick
(2002) defines a change sponsor as “a person or group with authority to legitimate
a change” (p.35). As stated earlier, once the dean in this case study is given her
resources, “she can do whatever she wants to do.” This is a lot of authority through
which she can make change and policy to effect that change.
The aforementioned collaborative learning models were supported through
resource allocation. Without faculty, graduate assistants and space, neither learning
communities nor supplemental instruction would be happening to a large extent.
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Schein (2004) states that how resources are allocated promote change. It can make
things grow or dissipate.
Similarly, her role as advocate brings attention to her college’s successes
and needs. What she advocates for can come into fruition or grow. That she does
not advocate for may disappear. The literature does not specifically discuss
advocacy as a role of the dean. However, as leader, the dean is the voice of her
college. Several researchers posit that in order to make change happen within their
colleges, deans must communicate with faculty (Krahenbuhl, 2004; Tucker &
Bryan, 1991; Wolverton & Gmelch, 2002). Similarly, expanding this beyond the
dean’s college to the institution; it follows that the dean has to communicate with
the larger community. It is in this role that the dean can advocate for her college.
In sum, through these roles, the dean shapes her college and supports
students. The faculty felt that the dean “gets it” and doesn’t have to be persuaded
that student-faculty collaboration in research is important for students. Similarly,
she does not have to be persuaded that collaborative groups are important to student
achievement. Faculty also felt that the dean’s support and advocacy impacted their
ability to keep doing what they do best—teach and mentor students through
undergraduate research. In other words, her leadership helps maintain and move
forward the culture of undergraduate research. Therefore, her leadership role is
significant.
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Theme B - Students are a Priority
The dean is concerned about students. She demonstrates this in several
ways. First, she considers students in decision making. Second, she looks at all
departments in her college with a critical eye. Third, she stays connected to
students through teaching. Fourth, she introduces students to the sciences and is
interested in their academic preparation. Lastly, she hires appropriate faculty.
Faculty know when they make a request for resources, space, equipment,
etc. the dean is going to follow-up with “how will this benefit us?” As a faculty
member mentioned, they know this question means how will their requests support
our students. They know this because “in everything she considers students, you
know that is what she’s thinking.” Schein (2004) reveals that leaders place their
values and assumptions into the culture through what they pay attention to on a
regular basis and through their role modeling. The dean considered students prior to
becoming dean of an academic college! This was illustrated by her being chair of
the university’s self-assessment study while she was vice-president of Information
Resource Management. About five years into her deanship, she conducted focus
groups to find out what students felt about the institution in general, not simply her
own college. Knowing students helps her make appropriate decisions for students.
Clearly, she pays attention to the student experience and to their needs
demonstrating her values in this area.
The dean carries this kind of assessment to her college as well. She is aware
of trends and grade outcomes per course. She asks her faculty what is happening,
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e.g., is it pedagogy or student preparedness, or something else? This forces faculty
and department chairs to look at what is happening in their departments and address
concerns. As mentioned earlier, she allocated resources for collaborative learning
models which was an outgrowth of faculty looking at passing rates of math courses.
All of this demonstrates her concern for students.
Teaching and staying connected with students was not in the literature. In
fact, when the literature discussed deans and students it was in the context of
students seeking the dean’s assistance to waive courses (Tucker & Bryan, 1991).
Basically, the literature implies that students and deans interact minimally. When
they do interact, according to the literature, it is in an administrative capacity.
However, though she does not have to, this dean continues to teach. Deans scarcely
have time to continue their scholarly pursuits. Teaching is something extra that this
dean does. For this dean who teaches there is the belief that interaction with
students is important. Such role modeling demonstrates to faculty that the dean
values what they do and considers it important enough to use all existing spare time
she has to do it, too.
In further illustrating her concern for students, the dean supports outreach to
the community to introduce young children to the sciences to pique their interest.
Recall, the dean’s own scholarly interests lie in Latina women choosing the
sciences. CSULA’s location fits right in with this interest as many of its Latino/a
students hail from neighborhoods close to campus. The earlier students are
introduced to the excitement of sciences, the earlier they know that good math
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skills are a requirement. Perhaps armed with this knowledge they may take math
and science courses beyond the graduation requirement during high school better
preparing them for such majors in college. Not only is the dean interested in
introducing students to science, but in improving their academic preparedness. She
supports programming to increase academic preparedness at the high school level
and community college.
Lastly, as discussed in the previous theme, in hiring, the dean assesses
potential faculty in terms of what they will bring to the student experience. Her
hiring decisions and retention, tenure, and promotion expectations are all about
how this person benefits the CSULA student and can mentor them. Research
supports the dean’s role of hiring faculty (Bright & Richards, 2001; Gmelch &
Wolverton, 2002; Millar & Quartanta, 1995; Raymond, 1995; Svinicki, 2002;
Tucker & Bryan, 1991). Through hiring deans can achieve a diverse faculty and
shape the curriculum (Bright & Richards).
Interviews with faculty, executive level administrators, and student affairs
professionals all contributed to the above discussion about the dean’s concern for
students. That students are a priority was evident when interviewing the dean, too.
Theme C – The Dean’s Role in Hiring Sets the Tone
Research revealed that deans are involved in hiring faculty (Bright &
Richards, 2001; Gmelch & Wolverton, 2002; Tucker & Bryan, 1991). According to
Wolverton & Gmelch (2002), deans considered recruiting and selecting faculty one
of the most important things they do. The dean in this case study spends a lot of her
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time interviewing. The dean talked about how much time she spent interviewing
last year. “Last year, I hired ten, so with a pool of three or four, I spend a lot of my
time interviewing.” Who she hires and her expectations of those hired set the tone
for her college.
Research suggests that role models are important for student persistence
(Grandy, 1998; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). These researchers found that
underrepresented minority students’ confidence is enhanced by seeing faculty of
their race. The dean is interested in students having role models who are like the
students. Her commitment to this has led to her college being racially diverse. To
achieve this, she makes sure candidate pools are diverse. The dean shared that she
has told search committees when “their pool is not diverse enough” and that
“they’ve gotta go out again.” Further, in these instances where qualified candidates
of color are not finalists, the dean asks why.
Her role in hiring also allows her to add teacher-scholars to her faculty. She
is interested in faculty who are interested in teaching a racially diverse student
population and including them in their research as well. Seymour & Hewitt (1997)
found that students described STEM faculty as poor teachers, disinterested in the
subject matter, and preoccupied with their research. Careful screening during the
hiring process can avoid some of this. A faculty member thinks the dean does a
good job of weighing teaching versus research.
The dean plays an important role in the hiring process so when there’s
always this concern at an institution like ours how much weight should be
given to teaching versus research, I think our dean has walked that
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compromise very well. I think we have very good instructors, but we also
have first-rate research people.
This supports involving students in research too. He adds, “that’s [first-rate
instructors], I think, important for an institution like ours because it allows us to
attract students into laboratories where they can get sort of one-on-one mentoring.”
Researchers tout faculty-student interaction through mentoring and undergraduate
research because it supports persistence (McShannon & Derlin, 2005; Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005). Through hiring diversity and teacher-scholars, this dean supports
the persistence of students in her college.
Theme D – Providing Resources to Support Student Success
Collaborative learning models such as learning communities and
supplemental instruction support underrepresented minority student persistence
(Maton & Hrabowski, 2000; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Seymour & Hewitt,
1997; Treisman, 1992). The findings above illustrated how the dean allows smaller
class size in the learning communities even though it costs more to do so. Also, she
provides resources for supplemental instruction for calculus classes. According to
Schein (2004), how leaders allocate resources demonstrate their values. Allocating
money toward instructional models that build relationships among students and that
support persistence demonstrate this dean’s belief in supporting student
achievement.
Cost-sharing is another form of resource allocation that the dean uses to
support student success. Interaction with faculty positively influences persistence
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(McShannon & Derlin, 2005; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Through cost-sharing,
the dean supplies resources for grants that her faculty obtain. Many of these grants
have as their purpose increasing the number of underrepresented minority students
in the natural and physical science fields through exposure to undergraduate
research. The dean provides such resources as staff, space, funding, and a decreased
course unit load. The dean’s support continues or begins activities that foster
community, build relationships among students and faculty, and in some cases,
provide stipends to students which support persistence (Fenske et al., 2000).
Making technology available is another way the dean provides resources for
student success. In order to incorporate technology into instructional activities, the
dean purchased four computer carts loaded with a computer and projector. In doing
this, she quadrupled faculty access to smart classrooms enabling more faculty to
utilize technology in their classrooms.
Theme E – The Dean Follows the Faculty’s Lead With Respect to Changes to
Curriculum and Instruction
The dean follows the faculty’s lead with respect to changes to curriculum
and instruction. Being a faculty member herself, the dean believes curriculum is the
purview of faculty. However, it is important to note that just because the dean
believes that faculty own the curriculum, doesn’t mean that she is not involved.
Being a leader, she expects departments to do curriculum review. A department
chair describes the dean’s view that faculty are the best judge of their curriculum as
well as the dean’s role.
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I’ll say for the most part, she thinks the departments are the best judge of
what the curriculum is. I mean, she’s not a chemist, so why should she
worry about chemistry? But, she’ll tell you if she thinks there are things that
are wrong programmatically…I think she wants to be a leader, but she
wants to tell you what the goals are. How you get there, I think, to a large
extent, is your decision because you need to make decisions about what’s
important to your program.
The literature disagrees with this dean’s and faculty’s view. According to
the literature, faculty turnover and new hires bring changes in the curriculum
(Bright & Richards, 2001). Also, since the dean is intimately involved in hiring, she
shapes the curriculum. The researcher believes research differs from the finding
because perhaps those interviewed were thinking about curriculum in a narrow
sense. That is, they considered curricular decisions made at the college level by
department faculty rather than how curriculum is shaped by new faculty.
Finally, the dean also believes that she has no business telling faculty what
to do in their classrooms. The faculty concurs. However, through her support of
collaborative learning models and making technology available for faculty use in
the classroom, she encourages such activity.
Theme F - The Dean Institutionalizes/Supports Programming That Works
The literature on what works for underrepresented minority students in
STEM include active learning strategies and research with faculty mentors (Ditzler
& Ricci, 1995; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Treisman, 1992). Such active
learning activities foster dialogue and engage students in real-world application of
the subject matter. Further, Treisman found that African-American students
utilizing collaborative learning outperformed their better prepared white peers.
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The dean’s support of supplemental instruction and learning communities
provides students with opportunities to get to know others as well as form
friendships and community. Equally important, her support provides students
opportunities to talk about the subject matter and engage it on a deeper level. As
stated earlier, the dean has required students who received a C- or below in the
previous calculus course to enroll in a one-unit supplemental instruction lab
concurrently with the subsequent calculus course. This takes resources such as
graduate students pay and space.
Similarly, in supporting undergraduate research opportunities, resources the
dean provides include space, staff, equipment, release time, and matching funds for
grants, and hiring appropriate faculty. Literature supports the importance of
undergraduate research when it discusses faculty-student interaction. According to
the literature, undergraduate research allows faculty to get to know students and
support and guide them as mentors (Maton & Hrabowski, 2000; Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005). Each student involved in undergraduate research mentioned their
relationship with their “PI” when asked about their interactions with faculty. So,
supporting these programs do indeed foster mentoring and faculty-student
interaction.
Finally, the researcher closes this section similar to how it began, with a
model. While the figure above showed the layers of dean’s leadership stemming
from student-centeredness, the table below represents the dean’s leadership through
the levels of influence, direct contact to indirect contact.
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Table 5. Dean’s Level of Influence
Faculty-student interaction
Outreach
Hire diverse faculty
Provide technology
Focus on students Set expectations
Advocacy
Request student feedback
Support active learning models
Assess learning environment
Recruit & Develop Faculty
Set Policy
Teach Classes Student Programming
Indirect Direct
Faculty-student interaction
Outreach
Hire diverse faculty
Provide technology
Focus on students Set expectations
Advocacy
Request student feedback
Support active learning models
Assess learning environment
Recruit & Develop Faculty
Set Policy
Teach Classes Student Programming
Indirect Direct
Summary of Findings
The goal of this study was to discover how deans can support persistence of
underrepresented minority students in science and mathematics. To accomplish this
goal, it was important that the dean’s attitudes and perceptions be shared. It was
also important to share the attitudes and beliefs of faculty and administrators
regarding the dean and her leadership. Remember the environment of CSULA is
unique. Though it began decades ago as a predominately white institution, it is now
a majority minority campus. This study may not be transferable to other
universities with a different history and administration with a different set of
priorities.
The first research question for this study was, “What does the dean perceive
to be his/her role in supporting minorities in STEM?” Chapter 4 answered this
question about this dean in the context of her environment by discussing concrete
things that illustrate the dean’s perception. The dean believes it is important to
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increase interest of students in regards to the natural and physical sciences. To this
end, she encourages her faculty to participate in events that bring young people and
surrounding community members to campus. Further she believes having better
prepared students enter the major is key. She supports learning models that foster
deep understanding of concepts. She also works with feeder community colleges as
well as high schools to improve the preparedness of students matriculating to
CSULA. This dean would be remiss in not doing outreach. She has embraced her
role as a role model and is clear about her beliefs.
To make sure students get the support they need, she advocates for her
college. She shares information about what works well and garners support for
continuing or expanding such activities. In short, she represents her college to
others. Moreover, with a desire to make the college the best it could be for its
students, the dean participates in hiring new faculty. She reviews all candidate
pools for diversity and interviews finalists. Since the dean believes it is important
for students to feel comfortable with faculty, that means having role models and
faculty who are interested in mentoring students through research.
Lastly, the dean keeps in touch with students through teaching in her
college. Teaching allows her to remain connected to the student experience, their
needs and abilities. This connection helps her understand her faculty and college
because teaching allows her to step out of administrator role and become faculty
who teaches, advises and mentors students. This places her in an ideal situation to
know what her college needs to support student achievement.
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The second research question was, “How does the dean’s leadership in
STEM disciplines influence the climate of his/her department related to creating an
inclusive environment for all students?” The findings in Chapter 4 demonstrated
that the dean influences the climate in three ways: promoting student-centeredness,
creating a comfortable environment, and encouraging faculty-student interaction. In
all conversations and behaviors, the dean focuses on the student. Because of this,
faculty have altered their language and behavior as well as become more student-
centered. For example, when requesting grant matching funds, faculty express how
the project will benefit students and the college not simply their own professional
growth.
As mentioned earlier, the dean wants students to feel comfortable in their
environment. Her leadership influences this through hiring appropriate faculty that
can serve as role models for the students pursuing natural and physical science
majors. She formed a committee to determine concerns of underrepresented
minority students in the sciences, and she supports programming that increases
chances for academic success.
Finally, the dean influences the climate through encouraging interaction
among faculty and students. Being directly involved in the retention, tenure and
promotion process, she rewards such things as faculty mentoring students and
including students in their research projects. It was evident in the researcher’s
interviews with faculty that they believe in the value of undergraduate research.
Again, a different context may present another set of challenges.
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The third research question was, “How does the dean institute change
pertaining to curriculum, instruction, and programming related to supporting the
academic achievement of all students?” Both the dean and faculty agreed that
curriculum and instruction are the purview of the faculty. Being a faculty member
herself, the dean believes she has no business telling faculty what to do in their
classrooms. Likewise, faculty are the experts in their fields and therefore are the
best to make curricular decisions. However, the dean may call for curriculum
assessment.
Discussion
The literature on deans lists several roles of the dean: provide fiscal
management, recruit and develop faculty, shape the climate and culture, promote
change, and set the mission/vision of the college. The findings in Chapter 4
demonstrate that this dean does all of this. However, it is her student-centeredness,
personal commitment and role modeling, which are not found in the literature, that
make a difference. In this section, the findings from this study are discussed. This
discussion though it relates the dean’s leadership to the literature is unlike the
themes presented earlier. Here the focus is on the dean’s attitude and its influence
on her leadership.
If the researcher were to sum up this dean’s philosophy, it would be “It’s
about students. Period.” Her student-centeredness is evidenced through several of
the findings in Chapter 4. It permeates throughout her college. Faculty and staff
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interviewed talked about the dean’s mindset. One faculty member talked about it
this way,
She, in every interaction, she refers to students. You know if you’re asking
for anything as simple as matching for a grant for your research, she wants
to know the student involvement...It’s just part of every discussion whether
it has to do with students or not, you know this is what she’s thinking.
This mindset is so deeply engrained in the culture of the college that when faculty
request support, their language includes how their request will benefit students.
They do this because they know this is what the dean considers important. Along
these same lines, the dean told the researcher that the answer will likely be no if
there is no benefit to students. This statement demonstrates that she is concerned
about students. Literature on climate and culture tell us that leaders can shape the
climate and culture by what they pay attention to (Schein, 2004). As demonstrated
here, when the leader’s language and actions consistently refer to students, those
around that leader follow suit.
Her student-centeredness is evident in her hiring as well. When hiring, this
dean focuses on a couple things that demonstrate her philosophy. She focuses on
finding faculty who are the “right fit” for her students and the college as well as
creating opportunities for undergraduate research. She does not simply participate
in hiring to “approve” those that faculty forward to her. Instead, she participates
throughout the hiring process. Because this dean cares that students feel
comfortable in their environment, she makes sure candidate pools are diverse. If
not, she asks the faculty committee to go back to square one in recruitment. Also,
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due to her commitment in this area, her college faculty are racially diverse and are
representative of the student body. Further, because of her commitment, she
provides a climate in which underrepresented minority students can feel
comfortable. In such an environment, students experience faculty similar to them.
In short, she provides role models among the faculty. Toward the end of the hiring
process, the dean discusses her expectations of faculty. An important expectation
that she discusses is faculty involving undergraduate students in their research.
Faculty are encouraged to provide opportunities for undergraduate research. The
dean rewards it through the retention, tenure, and promotion process.
According to the literature, underrepresented minority faculty are important
to underrepresented minority students because they can act as role modes and
breakdown stereotypes (Grandy, 1998; Kezar & Eckel, 2005; Pascarella &
Terenziini, 2005). Through undergraduate research, the faculty comes to know
students and guide them as mentors. The dean’s support in this area allows faculty
to interact with students thereby supporting persistence. While hiring is a role of
the dean found in the literature (Bright & Richards, 2001; Millar & Quartanta,
1995), it is her commitment to students that drive her hiring and make it different.
The dean’s role as faculty recruiter coupled with having a student-centered attitude
supports persistence of underrepresented minority students in her college.
Though it was not explicitly stated as policy for faculty to involve students
in their research, the researcher concludes that it may indeed be this dean’s policy.
From earlier, we know it is her expectation. Faculty, executive level administrators,
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and the dean all stressed the importance of including students in their research
leading the researcher to believe that it is standard practice, therefore, an unwritten
policy. Policy setting was not found in the literature on roles of deans. However,
because the dean is what the literature considers to be a change sponsor, someone
with the authority to legitimate a change (Lick, 2002), the researcher concludes that
this type of authority includes policy making. It follows that deans can promote
their student-centeredness through policy. As the literature reveals, racial diversity
among faculty supports persistence of underrepresented minority students as does
offering undergraduate research opportunities to students (Pascarella & Terenzini,
2005). This dean supports both of these through her role as faculty recruiter and
through policy giving thought to how students will benefit.
The researcher would expect leaders possessing a student-centered attitude
to connect with students. However, the literature on deans speaks of deans
interacting and communicating with faculty, the provost and president, and alumni
and civic leaders for fundraising (Anderson, 2003 as cited in Gmelch & Wolverton,
2002; Bright & Richards, 2001; Krahenbuhl, 2004; Raymond, 1995; Tucker &
Bryan, 1991). Never did the literature talk about interacting and communicating
with students in which it was initiated by the dean and pertaining to the dean
getting an understanding of what is affecting students in her college. When the
literature referred to the dean and student relationship, it was in the context of a
student meeting with the dean to obtain a course waiver (Tucker & Bryan, 1991).
Again, because of her student-centered attitude, this dean connected with students
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through focus groups. Through this act, she demonstrated not only that she cares
about students, but she cares what they think. Through asking students about their
experiences and satisfaction with university services, the dean gathered data and
informed the campus of what is and is not working for students. It also informed
the campus about where its processes could be improved.
The researcher imagines that it took initiative and courage for the dean to
step beyond her defined role to inquire about student’s satisfaction with the whole
university not simply within her college. This tells us that dean’s leadership can go
beyond their own college. This is also an example of how deans can pursue their
passions through their role as leaders and promote change. This dean is passionate
about student success as evidenced by her language, actions, and budget
allocations. Surveying students via focus group can give leaders another
perspective.
Similarly, the dean teaches one quarter each academic year. This allows her
to interact with students and gain yet another perspective on them. Through
teaching the dean keeps connected to students. Teaching allows the dean to
experience the students, learn their needs, abilities and behaviors as well as
experience what her faculty does. Moreover, teaching informs the dean of how her
college needs to adapt to meet the needs of students and faculty. It also
demonstrates to faculty that the dean understands what they do and values it. After
all, teaching takes up all of her extra time, so she must consider it an important
aspect of the deanship to continue with the activity. It has been this researcher’s
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experience that many administrators want to move away from interacting with
students not toward it. That this dean makes the choice to teach each year speaks
volumes about her focus on students. This is a significant finding because there are
myriad demands on the dean’s time. Dean’s rarely have time to continue their
scholarly pursuits and have to give them up to devote one hundred percent of their
time to the deanship. That this dean makes time to teach, which is above and
beyond her roles, is considerable. Leaders learn a lot about their college and its
students through remaining an active faculty member.
Researchers posit that active learning activities such as supplemental
instruction support the learning behaviors of underrepresented minority students
(Springer, Stanne, & Donovan, 1999; Treisman, 1992). Springer, Stanne and
Donovan also found that students who worked in groups persisted in STEM to a
greater extent than students who did not work in groups. Both supplemental
instruction and learning communities are supported by this dean moving forward
her commitment to be a college focused on students. Support of such models takes
resources. Fiscal management is a role of the dean (Bright & Richards, 2001,
Tucker & Bryan, 1991). In her attempt to be student-centered, the dean allocates
her resources towards models of instruction that foster underrepresented minority
students’ persistence. It is important to note, that undergraduate research is another
such model that supports persistence of underrepresented minority students. The
dean pushes resources in that area as well.
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Lastly, by assessing the learning environment, the dean demonstrates her
student-centered attitude and commitment. The literature asserts that deans can and
should call for curriculum review. This dean is not simply concerned with making
sure curriculum is relevant and appropriate, but with how students are experiencing
that curriculum. This dean took critical looks at her college regarding retention and
student achievement per course and asked her faculty to do the same. She felt that it
was important to determine causes of low retention rate and passing rates of
courses within her college in order to improve student achievement. Having such
knowledge leads to change in the college. In this case, committees were formed to
study these issues and faculty were encouraged to look at these issues department
by department. Armed with the outcomes of this type of review, changes to
instructional strategies, pedagogy, and departmental procedures could occur.
As stated earlier, the findings in Chapter 4 show that the dean performs the
roles of deans found in the literature. The literature does not cover key areas such
as attitude. This study revealed that beyond the technical skills found in the
literature, mindsets and behaviors make a difference. The attitude, commitment and
role modeling provide that extra something that makes her a role model dean when
it comes to supporting the persistence of underrepresented minority students in the
natural and physical sciences. It is important to note again that the subject of this
study was a Latina female. As an underrepresented minority female with a
mathematics degree, the researcher certainly knows the difficulties in the path to
degree and tries to support students in her role as an educational administrator.
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Likewise, it may be that the dean’s educational experiences as an underrepresented
minority contribute to her strong student-centered attitude. It is important to note
that this dean’s model of leadership was heavily student-centered. Though this
brought new things to light, it is only one model. Perhaps other approaches could
work just as well.
In sum, were it not for the dean’s commitment to students, the climate of
her college may be different. Students are often unaware of this connection with
students and do not report it as much. Without role models, opportunities for
working in groups and with faculty underrepresented minority students might feel
uncomfortable, isolated and alone which research tells us leads to attrition (Cross &
Slater, 2001; Hurtado, Milem, Clayton-Pedersen, & Allen, 1999; Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005; Seymour & Hewitt, 1997; Taylor, 1999; Tinto, 1993). But,
because of her student-centered attitude underrepresented minority students are
supported and considered in her thoughts and actions.
Recommendations for practice
This study revealed several practices about how deans can support
persistence of underrepresented minority students. Listed below are
recommendations for deans and their supervisors.
1. Change dean’s attitudes to become student-centered. Those who
supervise deans should consider helping deans think differently about
who they are and what they do as well as who they serve. This could
potentially change the deans’ attitudes toward their role and
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constituents. Deans are sandwiched between the faculty and
administration, thus they may forget that they ultimately serve students.
Helping them think differently about their role and responsibilities in
terms of the student is important.
2. If the dean lacks commitment, the dean should consider delegating this
responsibility. Leaders should know their strengths and where their
commitments lie. If they understand and believe the importance of
supporting students, but lack the commitment, then those leaders should
appoint persons within their college who have that commitment to lead
it. Perhaps an associate dean or committee of faculty who have a
student-centered focus could serve as advisors to the dean. Or, perhaps
the dean could give them the authority to lead efforts that promote
student-centered change throughout the college. One caveat is that
though the dean has delegated others to promote student-centeredness
throughout the college, the dean must back the committee one-hundred
percent to give credibility and power to that group.
3. Consider students in decision-making. Considering students reminds
everyone why they are at the university. It places the needs of the
student as a priority. There is a saying “what you take care of will
flourish.” If this is true, if you take care of students, they will succeed.
However, in order for deans to take care of students, students must be
considered in every action. Action does not happen without making a
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decision. So, in order for action that supports students to take place,
decision-making should consider how students will benefit. Similarly,
for a dean to expand student-centered thinking throughout the college
she leads, that dean’s conversation should turn to students. If faculty
request support for a project, the dean should ask how it will benefit
students. Consistent modeling of this behavior by the dean may filter
down to others in her college. For example, department chairs may
begin to ask their faculty, “How will students benefit?” After a while,
faculty may begin to think about this question prior to requesting
support or presenting an idea. Thereby, making students the priority of
the college.
4. Encourage student-faculty interaction and reward it. The dean should
make sure that there are processes in place that allow students and
faculty to interact. For example, mandating that there be a minimum
number of office hours available per course would allow informal
interactions among faculty and students. Mentoring relationships can be
formed through this type of interaction. Such relationships in which
students have someone to count on and to talk to who encourages them
support persistence. Sometimes it is helpful to provide rewards to alter
behavior. To send a strong message about the importance of this type of
interaction, link student-faculty interaction to the retention, tenure, and
promotion process. The retention, tenure, and promotion process offers
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guidelines for deans. Deans may interpret those guidelines as they fit for
their college mission. Thus, deans have tremendous opportunity to
influence how faculty are evaluated. Because it is tied to retention,
tenure, and promotion, faculty are more likely to consider ways to
interact with students. Also, to promote student-faculty interaction,
deans should support undergraduate research. Undergraduate research
provides opportunities for student-faculty mentoring relationships to
form, stipends for students, and experience with the excitement of
science rather than simply theory.
5. Connect with students. In order to connect with students, deans
should ask for student feedback and teach. Deans rarely interact with
students. Likewise, students rarely have an opportunity to have their
concerns heard. Student feedback usually occurs at the end of the
semester when they have the opportunity to evaluate a course via
multiple-choice survey. Giving students an opportunity to voice their
opinions about their satisfaction with the university services and
processes could inform the dean how the greater university impacts
students within their college. For example, transfer students may
complain that they could not enroll in a required course because of the
length of time it takes for them to find out which courses that they have
received transfer credit for. Armed with such knowledge, the dean could
inform other campus departments of the impact their processes have on
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advisement within her college, and on retention and time to degree for
students as well as how these issues impact her college.
Similarly, deans should continue to teach. In order to know what is
happening in the trenches of their college, deans should teach. As
teachers, deans experience students as their faculty does. Also, through
teaching deans learn the type of students that are attending the college
as well as their needs and abilities. Teaching also helps deans
understand faculty concerns because they do what faculty do. Finally,
because deans rarely are able to continue their scholarly pursuits while
in the deanship, teaching gives deans credibility in the eyes of their
faculty. Such credibility helps when deans and faculty converse about
the learning environment, demands on faculty, and student needs.
6. Assess your college’s learning environment. As stated earlier, it is the
responsibility of the dean to provide students a good education.
Understanding one’s learning environment is a key component. Also,
being able to show faculty quantitative data rather than anecdotal
observation data is powerful. In order to do this, the dean should review
course passing rates and observe trends. Upon compiling the data, the
dean should ask faculty about the findings, e.g., what are the causes, or
what can be done about them. Then, the dean should ask faculty about
seeking solutions to the findings. To this end, the dean could create
committees of interested faculty to address the concerns found. After
149
modeling such behavior, the dean could ask department chairs to follow
her lead and assess their learning environments department by
department to find what is working and what needs to be improved. The
dean could partner with the Registrar’s Office or Office of Institutional
Research to obtain necessary course statistics on a regular basis.
Knowing the learning environment allows the dean to encourage faculty
to make changes to support student achievement.
7. Participate in hiring of faculty. Deans are to provide students a good
education. That education begins with faculty. During the hiring process
deans can inform candidates of their expectations of faculty. The deans
can also determine if the candidate is a fit for the students, the climate,
culture and mission of the college. In other words, deans can hire
faculty who can help deans move their agenda forward and support
students. Deans do not operate in a vacuum and need buy-in from
faculty to move their agenda forward. Hiring like-minded people helps
the dean help the students. Lastly, the dean can hire to fill needs of the
college in terms of role models, curriculum and pedagogy. For example,
deans can use hiring to advance racial diversity in the college to provide
students with examples of scholars like them. Seeing such faculty lets
students know that they can be successful.
8. Work to improve student preparedness in mathematics. The uniqueness
of the context in which this study was conducted led the researcher to
150
this recommendation. Because this study was conducted on an urban
campus surrounded by feeder schools located in low socio-economic
areas, underpreparedness is an issue. Being underprepared in
mathematics can make the pursuit of a science degree difficult. A dean
serious about persistence of underrepresented minority students to
science degrees would be remiss in not addressing mathematics
preparedness. One way to address preparedness is to partner with feeder
high schools and community colleges to improve mathematics
education on their campuses. Other ways are to support learning
communities, small class size, and supplemental instruction models.
9. This study suggests that in this context there is a respect for student-
centeredness. This is only one model. In another context, such attitude
may present challenges. For example, in a research institution, deans
would have to consider how student needs could be balanced with the
pursuit of scholarly research? Therefore, an understanding of the
institution’s context and culture is important.
Suggestions for future research
Prior research on deans gave demographics of those serving in the deanship
as well as deans’ understanding of their roles, conflicts and ambiguities they faced,
and possible challenges for the future (Wolverton, Montez, & Gmelch, 2000), or
measured their effectiveness (Rosser et al., 2003). This study focused on one dean
of one majority minority campus. Because of this small sample size, this study’s
151
finding may not be generalizable to other sites. From this study’s findings,
suggestions for future research emerged.
First, the site selected for this study was a majority minority campus. A
study that examines how a dean supports persistence of underrepresented minority
students on a predominately white university would be insightful. The percentage
of underrepresented minority students attending PWIs would be significantly lower
than that in the present study offering a different campus dynamic. Since the
numbers of minority students attending PWIs continues to increase, such study
would inform deans of how their roles can support their minority student
population.
Similarly, because there were no studies found in the literature in which the
role of deans and student persistence intersected, studies in this area, from differing
perspectives would be informative. This study focused on underrepresented
minority students in natural and physical science majors. Other perspectives
focusing on persistence of all students, not simply underrepresented minority
students is a possible area of research. Comparative studies of students who
participate in STEM programming designed to increase the numbers of students
persisting to degree versus those who do not participate in such programs is another
area of possible research. Further, it is known that there are gender issues in STEM
similar to those of majoring versus minority students in STEM. A study focusing
on how deans support persistence of women pursuing STEM degrees is another
area for research. Moreover, questions about the decline of African American
152
males in higher education abound. A study focused on how deans support this
population’s persistence is yet another area of possible research. Also, because this
study excluded engineering and technology deans, a study that focused on how they
affect persistence would add to literature in this area.
Another aspect of this study was that the subject of this study was a female
Latina. Another area of study could be to determine if there are differences in how
the dean’s leadership supports persistence according to their gender or race. For
example, would female deans be more sensitive to the needs of students and have
student achievement and persistence as a priority more so than males? This study
suggests a greater commitment and sense or nurturance. Further, not all women and
Latinos act the same. To further explore these aspects, a comparative study is
recommended. Along the same lines, a study focused on race of deans would add
insight to how this may impact deans’ leadership roles concerning supporting
persistence of underrepresented minority students.
The dean in the study continued to teach. Because teaching is not a role of
the dean found in literature, a study focused solely on its effects on leadership is
another possible area of research. An in-depth look at deans who teach in
comparison to those who do not would add understanding about the role of
teaching with respect to leadership. It may inform us of the benefits leaders gain
from remaining in the classroom. It may also inform us how deans use the
experience of teaching to impact their activities and conversations. Further, it may
153
provide insight as to how such connection with students affects the leadership
styles or roles of deans.
In a different vein, this study lacks the student’s voice. Students may not be
able to speak about the dean’s leadership and how it affects their persistence
because they rarely interact with the dean. However, students can speak to what
they believe supported their persistence to their degrees. Asking students why they
were able to persist to degree would offer insight to what has worked. There are
myriad studies about why students drop out. The type of study suggested here
would turn a positive spin on that literature. In other words, we know what does not
work, so let’s look at what does work to gain knowledge of best practices for
leaders from the student’s perspective. Knowing what has worked for students from
the mouths of students to support their persistence could inform administrators and
faculty of how their roles may support this.
This study did not take a close look at the dean’s decision-making. It is one
thing to report on how a dean supports persistence of underrepresented minority
students and another to know how the dean decides to implement activities or
policy toward that end. For example, is decision-making data driven or something
else? New deans, especially, could learn from a study on what deans take into
consideration when making decisions about their college, budget, etc.
Lastly, this researcher did not have access to retention data for this dean’s
tenure. Therefore, this study did not get at whether this dean’s leadership actually
made a difference. It is important to study institutions that have data. At such
154
institutions, we can identify if the dean’s leadership had an impact on persistence.
Comparative studies regarding low persistence and high persistence as well as
those comparing environments to outcome measures could make a contribution that
would help deans and other stakeholders aware of how they can support
persistence.
Conclusion
This study was birthed from my own experiences as an underrepresented
minority female who survived of a mathematics degree. I use survived because it
felt like I was left alone to make it or die trying. In addition I never felt I belonged
because there was no faculty or staff within the department that shared my race and
only one, a visiting professor for one quarter, who shared my gender. In this
conclusion, I share something personal that I learned from this study as well as
what this study contributes to the literature on the deanship.
On a personal note, from this study I expected to find that students
experienced the same uncaring, isolated environment that I did as an
undergraduate. I was pleasantly surprised to find that was not the case. These
students were in a college that had a dean with a student-centered attitude who
modeled that for her faculty and staff. I was also surprised to find racial diversity
among the faculty. I was so impressed with this that on one of my early visits to the
campus, I remarked to a vice-president that I believed that I could have thrived
here. I added that I may have had the confidence to pursue a doctorate in
mathematics had I been in this type of environment. Further, from interviews with
155
the dean and her faculty as well as other campus constituents, I learned that there
are people within the academy who care that minority students persist in the natural
and physical science majors and who provide opportunities that support that effort.
Through observations of classrooms and program meetings, I witnessed the caring
attitudes and believed they were genuine.
This study informs deans and other administrators and faculty that deans
have tremendous power over student persistence. This power stems from being
committed to a belief that students matter and using their roles toward students’
success. It infiltrates their college through the dean’s language and actions.
Technical skills of deans were mentioned in the literature. However, this study adds
that they are not enough. It is the attitude, commitment and role modeling of deans
coupled with the technical skills that can make the difference in student persistence.
This study suggests that deans interested in supporting students’ persistence should
have a mindset that considers students first in every action.
156
Glossary
Weed-out courses – introductory level courses that are prerequisite offerings for
future coursework and used to remove students who do not fair well in the
traditional sense.
Persistence – the ability of a student or group of students to remain in college as
opposed to dropping out.
Pipeline – term used to describe the track that people follow en route to a career in
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields.
Underrepresented minority – term used to describe people of African American,
Hispanic, or Native American heritage.
Attrition – term used to describe the process of student departure from a particular
major.
Climate – the attitudes and behaviors of faculty, staff and students that affect the
learning environment.
Culture – a pattern of shared basic assumptions of a group
157
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Watson, L. W., Terrell, M. C., Wright, D. J., & Associates. (2002). How minority
students experience college: The implications for planning and policy.
Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.
166
Wolverton, M. & Gmelch, W. H. (2002). College Deans: Leading from within.
Westport, CT: Oryx Press.
Wolverton, M., Gmelch, W. H., Montez, J., & Nies, C. T. (2001). The changing
nature of the academic deanship. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report
Volume 28, Number 1.
Wolverton, M., Montez, J. & Gmelch, W. H. (2000). The roles and challenges of
deans: Paper presented at the Annual meeting of the Association for the
Study of Higher Education. November 18, 2000, Sacramento, CA).
Wolverton, M., Wolverton, M. L., & Gmelch, W. H. (1999). The impact of role
conflict and ambiguity on academic deans. The Journal of Higher
Education: 70(1), 80-106.
167
Appendix A: Interview Protocol - Dean
1. What are your perceptions of the priorities of the leadership of CSULA? (A,
B, C)
Follow-up – Is their anything in particular given the range of disciplines
you work with that is on your agenda for the next couple of years?
Follow-up – As dean, how do you move your agenda forward?
Follow-up – What challenges do you face when trying to move your agenda
forward?
2. Talk to me about your successes. What are you most proud of?
3. What challenges does your college face? (A, B, C)
Follow-up – How do you prioritize for budget?
Follow-up – How do you get and keep good people?
Follow-up – What about faculty of color?
4. The literature says that the college classroom plays an important role in
persistence. How does your leadership influence what happens in the CNSS
classroom? (B, C)
e.g. professional development, pedagogy, instructional activities
5. Could you describe what you believe to be the experience of
underrepresented minority students majoring in math or science in your
college? (B,C)
Follow-up – What role do you play in the experiences of underrepresented
minority students in science and math?
Follow-up – Could you describe something you’ve done/implemented to
affect their experience?
Follow-up - If I were to walk into a typical STEM class within CNSS, what
would I see happening? (B, C)
(Follow-up) What would the professor be doing?
(Follow-up) What would the students be doing?
A. What does a dean perceive to be his/her role in supporting minorities in
STEM?
168
B. How does the dean’s leadership in STEM disciplines influence the
climate of his/her department related to creating an inclusive
environment for all students?
C. How does the dean institute change pertaining to curriculum,
instruction, and programming related to supporting the academic
achievement of all students?
169
Appendix B: Protocol - Faculty
1. How would you characterize the climate of CNSS for those majoring in the
natural and physical sciences? (B)
(Follow-up) How does the dean’s leadership affect the climate?
(Follow-up) What about encouragement of faculty/student interaction,
professional development, workshops/discussions.
(Follow-up) What was the climate like prior to this dean’s tenure?
2. How would you describe the experiences within CNSS of underrepresented
minority students majoring in science and math? (B, C)
(Follow-up) How does the dean come into play in their experiences?
(Follow-up) What about professional development, sponsored events,
programming, workshops, college sponsored financial awards, program
support, for example?
3. How does CNSS support underrepresented minority students within the
college who major in the sciences and mathematics? (C)
(Follow-up) If they mention programming, ask since it is my understanding
that those programs are funded by grants, how does the dean support them?
(matching funds, release time, outreach, recruitment, workshop, events,
etc.)
(Follow-up) I understand that the percentage of students participating in the
programs is not a majority, so how are non-participants supported?
(Follow-up) How accessible is faculty, what about learning communities,
tutoring, faculty/student interaction, mentoring, mission, for example?
(Follow-up) How has the dean communicated her belief of her role in
supporting these students? (A) What messages does she send during CNSS
conversations such as faculty meetings/ retreats?
(Follow-up) How has she demonstrated it?
(Follow-up) How has that affected what you do? (B, C)
(Follow-up) How does faculty make sense out of what it is that they need to
do to serve underrepresented minority students?
(Follow-up) As a community, how have you struggled with talking through
this?
(Follow-up) The number of Latino, African American and Native American
students who initially pursue science and math majors is larger than the
number who persists to degree. (Follow-up) What conversations are taking
place about this?
(Follow-up) What is the dean doing about it?
4. How has the CNSS changed over time? Do you see deans, in general, as
instrumental in that change? Explain.
170
Can you give me a specific example of a change implemented by a dean?
For example, curriculum, instruction, recruitment, hiring, focusing
resources toward efforts
What can you tell me about the push to have science educators within
CNSS? How has the dean been involved in this effort?
How do they affect student achievement?
How do they affect instruction and curriculum?
What can you tell me about the changes to calculus classes?
5. What changes have been made to the curriculum during this dean’s tenure?
(C)
(Follow-up) How has the dean influenced those changes?
6. What changes have been made to instruction during this dean’s tenure? (C)
(Follow-up) How has the dean influenced those changes?
(Follow-up) How has it changed what you do?
(Follow-up) Does the dean encourage innovation in the classroom? If so,
how?
7. If I were to walk into a typical CNSS natural or physical science classroom,
what would I see happening? (B,C)
(Follow-up) What would the professor be doing?
(Follow-up) What would the students be doing?
8. Could you describe your interaction with students outside the classroom?
(Follow-up) How does the dean influence this?
(Follow-up) How does the dean communicate her beliefs about this?
9. Are you involved in any programs that support underrepresented minority
students in STEM majors? (B, C)
(Follow-up) In what capacity are you involved?
(Follow-up) What are your beliefs about these programs?
(Follow-up) Has the dean influenced your beliefs? Explain.
10. In your opinion, what is the dean doing right? What could she be doing?
A. What does a dean perceive to be his/her role in supporting minorities in
STEM?
171
B. How does the dean’s leadership in STEM disciplines influence the
climate of his/her department related to creating an inclusive
environment for all students?
C. How does the dean institute change pertaining to curriculum,
instruction, and programming related to supporting the academic
achievement of all students?
172
Appendix C: Interview Protocol - President and Provost
1. How would you characterize the campus culture? (B)
2. What is the role of the CNSS dean on this campus? (A, B, C)
3. What do you expect from your deans? (A, B, C)
4. How much authority do deans have in leading their colleges? (C)
(Follow-up) Could you give specific examples that demonstrate their authority,
perhaps an example using CNSS?
A. What does a dean perceive to be his/her role in supporting minorities in STEM?
B. How does the dean’s leadership in STEM disciplines influence the climate of
his/her department related to creating an inclusive environment for all students?
C. How does the dean institute change pertaining to curriculum, instruction, and
programming related to supporting the academic achievement of all students?
173
Appendix D: Interview Protocol - Student Affairs Professionals
1. How would you characterize the campus culture? (B)
2. How are underrepresented minority students supported on campus? (B, C)
3. What do you notice in terms of retention of underrepresented minority students,
in general? (B, C)
(Follow-up) What patterns do you see?
(Follow-up) Are there specific concerns regarding math and science for
minority students?
4. For underrepresented minority students majoring in math and the sciences, what
do you notice? (B, C)
5. In your opinion, what is the dean of CNSS doing right for underrepresented
minority students who major in math and the sciences? (B, C)
(Follow-up) What could she be doing?
A. What does a dean perceive to be his/her role in supporting minorities in STEM?
B. How does the dean’s leadership in STEM disciplines influence the climate of
his/her department related to creating an inclusive environment for all students?
C. How does the dean institute change pertaining to curriculum, instruction, and
programming related to supporting the academic achievement of all students?
174
Appendix E: Interview Protocol – Students
Could you tell me your first name, major and class year?
This opening question is for rapport building within the group of students
(will not be audio taped).
1. Where do you feel most at home on campus? (B)
(Follow-up if not within CNSS) – None/few of you mentioned CNSS, can
you talk about that?
2. How would you characterize the climate of CNSS? (B)
3. Who or what do you think supports the success of minority students in
science and math majors on this campus? (B, C)
(Probe) What about the dean, faculty, programming such as EOPS, MESA,
etc.?
4. If I were to walk into a typical CNSS classroom, what would I see
happening? (B,C)
(Follow-up) What would the professor be doing?
(Follow-up) What would the students be doing?
5. What type of interactions do you have with CNSS faculty?
(Follow-up) What relationship(s) have you formed with them?
(Follow-up) What about faculty of color?
6. When you started the program, how many minority students were there? (B,
C)
(Follow-up) How many are their now?
(Follow-up) Can you talk to me about your perceptions of why minority
students leave science and math majors?
A. What does a dean perceive to be his/her role in supporting minorities in
STEM?
B. How does the dean’s leadership in STEM disciplines influence the
climate of his/her department related to creating an inclusive
environment for all students?
175
C. How does the dean institute change pertaining to curriculum,
instruction, and programming related to supporting the academic
achievement of all students?
176
Appendix F: Interview Protocol – Department Chair
1. How would you characterize the climate of CNSS? (B)
2. How has CNSS changed over time?
(Follow-up) Do you see deans as instrumental in that change? Explain.
3. How much authority does the dean have in leading CNSS? (B, C)
(Follow-up) How does shared governance come into play in this?
4. Department chairs are a key link between the faculty and the dean. What does
that relationship look like when it is working well?
(Follow-up) What does it look like when it’s not working well?
5. How does the dean influence change in curriculum and instruction? (C)
6. How would you describe the experiences within CNSS of underrepresented
minority students majoring in science and math? (B, C)
7. How does CNSS support underrepresented minority students within the college
who major in the sciences and mathematics? (C)
(Follow-up) How has the dean communicated her belief of her role in
supporting these students? (A)
(Follow-up) How has that affected what you do? (B, C)
(Follow-up) How does faculty make sense out of what it is that they need to do
to serve minority students?
(Follow-up) As a community, how have you struggled with talking through
this?
8. If I were to walk into a typical CNSS classroom, what would I see happening?
(B,C)
(Follow-up) What would the professor be doing?
(Follow-up) What would the students be doing?
A. What does a dean perceive to be his/her role in supporting minorities in
STEM?
177
B. How does the dean’s leadership in STEM disciplines influence the climate
of his/her department related to creating an inclusive environment for all
students?
C. How does the dean institute change pertaining to curriculum, instruction,
and programming related to supporting the academic achievement of all
students?
178
Appendix G: Classroom Observation Protocol
Background Information
Date of observation__________________
Time of observation__________________ Length of observation
____________
Professor’s rank Full-time Adjunct
Section One: Contextual Background
I. Demographics and Context
A. Estimate the total number of students at the time of the
observation.________
B. What is the approximate percentage of underrepresented minority
students in the classroom? _________
C. What is the number of underrepresented minority students in the
classroom?
African American_____
Hispanic American____
Native American or Alaskan Native ______
D. Indicate the professor’s:
1. Gender _______
2. Race/Ethnicity
African American_____ Native American or Alaskan
Native ______
Asian or Pacific Islander _____ Hispanic _____
White ____ Other _____
II. Physical Environment
Describe the physical environment. (Include information on space
layout, resources and technologies, and whether it facilitates activities
among students, décor).
179
III. Lesson Description
In a paragraph or two, describe the lesson observed.
Section Two: Classroom Activities
A. Describe the instructional practices used (lecture, small group, discussion,
student presentations, lab etc.).
B. Describe the interactions between classroom participants (What happens,
who sits or does not sit next to whom, rapport, who asks questions, who
gets called on by professor, etc.).
1. Professor to students
2. Student to student
180
C. Describe the activities of students in this lesson (listened to a presentation
(by whom?), engaged in discussions, or problem-solving, etc.).
D. Describe the behaviors of:
1. The professor
2. The students
Section Three: Miscellaneous
A. Other observations (e.g. discussion of contributions made by minorities and
women in the field, fun/tense environment, etc.).
B. Observer comments, feelings, reflections.
181
Appendix H: Support Program Observation Protocol
Background Information
Date of observation__________________
Time of observation__________________ Length of observation
____________
Section One: Contextual Background
IV. Demographics and Context
D. Estimate the total number of students at the time of the observation.
E. What is the approximate percentage of underrepresented minority
students in the classroom?
F. What is the number of underrepresented minority students in the
classroom?
African American_____
Hispanic American____
Native American or Alaskan Native ______
D. Indicate the professor’s:
3. Gender ________
4. Race/Ethnicity
African American_____ Native American or Alaskan
Native ______
Asian or Pacific Islander _____ Hispanic _____
White ____ Other _____
V. Physical Environment
Describe the physical environment. (Include information on space
layout, resources and technologies, and whether it facilitates activities
among students, décor).
VI. Lesson Description
In a paragraph or two, describe the lesson observed.
182
Section Two: Activities
E. Describe the purpose of the meeting.
F. Describe the activities taking place during the meeting.
G. Describe the interactions of the participants
1. Director to students
2. Student to student
H. Describe the conversations taking place.
183
Note: If there is a guest speaker – describe topic, race/ethnicity; purpose of talk.
184
Appendix I: Email Solicitation
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
EMAIL SOLICITATION FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
How Academic Deans’ Leadership Supports the Persistence of
Underrepresented Minority Students in Science, Technology, Engineering,
and Mathematics
Hello. I am Karen Carmichael, a doctoral student at USC. The purpose of this
email is to invite your participation in a research project called “How Academic
Deans’ Leadership Supports the Persistence of Underrepresented Minority Students
in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics”. I am working with Dr.
Adrianna Kezar in USC’s School of Education.
Please read the information below and then let me know if you would consider
participating. At that time, I would set up a time to meet with you. Then, I would
give you a consent form that outlines the process and explains your legal rights.
You were selected for this study because you are a faculty member, staff member,
or student associated with science, technology, engineering, or mathematics
through teaching, support programs, or majors. I will be interviewing
approximately {12 faculty members, 5 department chairs, 3 staff members, 20
students} like you for this research either one-on-one or in a focus group (students
only). In addition, I will observe one class session each of six of the faculty
members (department chairs included). Your participation in this study is
voluntary. Even if you decide to participate, you may still stop the interview at any
time without any consequence to you.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to learn more about the persistence of underrepresented
minority students in STEM majors and how the dean’s leadership supports this. As
a {faculty member, department chair, staff member, student}, your perspectives are
of interest to me.
Procedures
You will be asked to share some reflections in an interview (faculty, staff) or focus
group (students) with me. The interview will last about one hour. Focus groups
185
will last about 90 minutes. Before the interview or focus group, I will seek your
permission to audio-tape our dialogue. Afterwards, I will transcribe your words.
Finally, the audio recording will be erased, and the transcription will only be
identified by a code.
I would like to interview you at a time and place convenient to you on your campus
or by telephone. This can be a faculty office, Library room, or even dining facility.
If you are a faculty member who will be observed in a classroom setting, in
addition to the interview, you will allow me to sit in on one of your classes that you
choose for 30 – 50 minutes. During this time, I will take handwritten notes about
the activities and behaviors taking place. After the observation, I will transcribe the
notes. The transcription will only be identified by a code.
Risks and Benefits
For interviews, you may become uncomfortable discussing the dean, faculty,
college, or institution. You will be able to discontinue the interview, not answer the
question or leave the focus group. For classroom observations, you may become
uncomfortable having someone observe your behaviors. You will be able to
discontinue the observation by asking me to leave. You may also withdraw from
the study at any time. There are no direct benefits to you, and you will not be paid
for participating in this research study.
Confidentiality
For interviews, only I will have access to the audio recordings. They will be stored
first on the recording device and then transferred to a computer in my home or
office. No identifying information will be recorded on the audio tapes and your
identity will not be associated with the research data. For observations, data will
be stored first as handwritten notes and then transcribed on my personal computer.
Only I have access to this computer. After they are transferred to my computer, I
will destroy the handwritten notes. Documents pertaining to this study will be
password protected. After I destroy the original audio recordings or notes, the data
will only be identified by a code.
Participation and Withdrawal
You can choose to participate or refuse to participate. If you volunteer to
participate in an interview, you may still withdraw at any time without any
consequence to you. By answering the questions that I will ask, you are
consenting to participate in this research project, including having the dialogue
recorded. You may not participate in an interview if you do not want to be audio-
taped. For an observation, by allowing me to observe your program meeting, you
186
are consenting to participate in this research study, including allowing me to take
handwritten notes.
Identification of Investigators
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please contact Dr. Kezar
at 213-821-1519 or kezar@usc.edu, USC Rossier School of Education, WPH
Room 703C, Los Angeles, CA 90089 or Karen Carmichael, (310) 216-6701,
carmicha@usc.edu, or Desdemona Cardoza, at 323-343-2000 or
dcardoza@calstatela.edu, CSULA College of Natural and Social Sciences, King
Hall, D1050, Los Angeles, CA 90032.
Rights of Research Subjects
You may withdraw your consent at any time without any consequence to yourself.
You are not waiving any legal claims, rights, or remedies because of your
participation in this research study. Further, granting consent does NOT waive
your legal rights. If you have questions regarding your rights as a research subject,
contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research, Grace
Ford Salvatori Hall, Room 306, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1695, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu.
Contact Information
Do you have time to participate in this research study? If so, let’s schedule it for a
time and place convenient to you. Contact Karen Carmichael at carmicha@usc.edu
or (310) 216-6701 to indicate your interest and schedule a meeting.
187
Appendix J: Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
CONSENT FORM FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
How Academic Deans’ Leadership Supports the Persistence of
Underrepresented Minority Students in Science, Technology, Engineering,
and Mathematics
You are asked to participate in a research study called “How Academic Deans’
Leadership Supports the Persistence of Underrepresented Minority Students in
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics” with Karen Carmichael
(doctoral student at USC) and Dr. Adrianna Kezar in USC’s School of education.
You were selected for this study because you are a faculty member, staff member,
or student associated with science, technology, engineering, or mathematics
through teaching, support programs, or majors. I will be interviewing
approximately {12 faculty members, 5 department chairs, 3 staff members, 20
students} like you for this research either one-on-one or in a focus group (students
only). In addition, I will observe one class session each of six faculty members
(department chairs included). Your participation in this study is voluntary. Even if
you decide to participate, you may still stop the interview at any time without any
consequence to you. Participants must be 18 or older.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to learn more about the persistence of underrepresented
minority students in STEM majors and how the dean’s leadership supports this. As
a {faculty member, department chair, staff member, student}, your perspectives are
of interest to me.
Procedures
You will be asked to share some reflections in an interview (faculty, staff) or focus
group (students) with me. The interview will last no more than one hour. Focus
groups will last about 90 minutes. Before the interview or focus group, I will seek
your permission to audio-tape our dialogue. Afterwards, I will transcribe your
words. Finally, the audio recording will be erased, and the transcription will only
be identified by a code.
188
I would like to interview you at a time and place convenient to you on your campus
or by telephone. This can be a faculty office, library room, or even dining facility.
If you are a faculty member who will be observed in a classroom setting, in
addition to the interview, you will allow me to sit in on one of your classes that you
choose for 30 – 50 minutes. During this time, I will take handwritten notes about
the activities and behaviors taking place. After the observation, I will transcribe the
notes. The transcription will only be identified by a code.
Risks and Benefits
For interviews, you may become uncomfortable discussing the dean, faculty,
college, or institution. You will be able to discontinue the interview, not answer the
question or leave the focus group. For classroom observations, you may become
uncomfortable having someone observe your behaviors. You will be able to
discontinue the observation by asking me to leave. You may also withdraw from
the study at any time. There are no direct benefits to you, and you will not be paid
for participating in this research study.
Confidentiality
For interviews, only I will have access to the audio recordings. They will be stored
first on the recording device and then transferred to a computer in my home or
office. No identifying information will be recorded on the audio tapes and your
identity will not be associated with the research data. For observations, data will be
stored first as handwritten notes and then transcribed on my personal computer.
Only I have access to this computer. After they are transferred to my computer, I
will destroy the handwritten notes. Documents pertaining to this study will be
password protected. After I destroy the original audio recordings or notes the data
will only be identified by a code.
Participation and Withdrawal
You can choose to participate or refuse to participate. If you volunteer to
participate in an interview, you may still withdraw at any time without any
consequence to you. By answering the questions that I will ask, you are
consenting to participate in this research project, including having the dialogue
recorded. You may not participate in an interview if you do not want to be audio-
taped. For an observation, by allowing me to observe your classroom, you are
consenting to participate in this research study, including allowing me to take
handwritten notes.
Identification of Investigators
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please contact Dr. Kezar
at 213-821-1519 or kezar@usc.edu, USC Rossier School of Education, WPH
189
Room 703C, Los Angeles, CA 90089 or Karen Carmichael, (310) 216-6701,
carmicha@usc.edu, or Jose Galvan, 323-343-3820, jgalvan@cslanet.calstatela.edu.
Rights of Research Subjects
You may withdraw your consent at any time without any consequence to yourself.
You are not waiving any legal claims, rights, or remedies because of your
participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding your rights as a
research subject, contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for
Research, Grace Ford Salvatori Hall, Room 306, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1695,
(213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.
THIS PROJECT HAS BEEN REVIEWED BY THE CALIFORNIA STATE
UNIVERSITY, LOS ANGELES INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD FOR THE
PROTECTION OF HUMAN SUBJECTS IN RESEARCH. ADDITIONAL
CONCERNS AND COMPLAINTS, OR QUESTIONS REGARDING YOUR
RIGHTS AS A RESEARCH PARTICIPANT, SHOULD BE DIRECTED TO THE
DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH ADMINISTRATION (Phone number: 323-343-
5366).
190
SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH SUBJECT
I understand the procedures described above, and I understand fully the rights of a
potential subject in a research study involving people as subjects. My questions
have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I
have been given a copy of this form.
I agree to be audio-taped I disagree to be audio-taped
Name of Subject
Signature of Subject Date
SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR
I have explained the research to the subject or his/her legal representative and
answered all of his/her questions. I believe that he/she understands the information
described in this document and freely consents to participate.
Karen Carmichael________________
Name of Investigator
Signature of Investigator Date (must be the same as
subject’s)
THIS PROJECT HAS BEEN REVIEWED BY THE CALIFORNIA STATE
UNIVERSITY, LOS ANGELES INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD FOR THE
PROTECTION OF HUMAN SUBJECTS IN RESEARCH. ADDITIONAL
CONCERNS AND COMPLAINTS, OR QUESTIONS REGARDING YOUR
RIGHTS AS A RESEARCH PARTICIPANT, SHOULD BE DIRECTED TO THE
191
DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH ADMINISTRATION (Phone number: 323-343-
5366).
192
Appendix K: Email Solicitation - Programs
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
EMAIL SOLICITATION FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
How Academic Deans’ Leadership Supports the Persistence of
Underrepresented Minority Students in Science, Technology, Engineering,
and Mathematics
Hello. I am Karen Carmichael, a doctoral student at USC. The purpose of this
email is to invite your participation in a research project called “How Academic
Deans’ Leadership Supports the Persistence of Underrepresented Minority Students
in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics”. I am working with Dr.
Adrianna Kezar in USC’s School of Education.
Please read the information below and then let me know if you would consider
participating. At that time, I would set up a time to meet with you. Then, I would
give you an information sheet that outlines the process and explains your legal
rights.
You were selected for this study because you are a director of programming
associated with supporting science, technology, engineering, or mathematics
majors. I will be observing one program like yours for this research. Your
participation in this study is voluntary. Even if you decide to participate, you may
still stop the observation at any time without any consequence to you.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to learn more about the persistence of underrepresented
minority students in STEM majors and how the dean’s leadership supports this. As
a program director, your perspectives are of interest to me.
Procedures
You will be asked to allow me to sit in on one of your group meetings for 30 – 50
minutes. During this time, I will take handwritten notes about the activities and
behaviors taking place. After the observation, I will transcribe the notes. The
transcription will only be identified by a code.
I would like to attend one of your program meetings as an observer at a time
convenient to you on your campus.
193
Risks and Benefits
You may become uncomfortable having someone observe your behaviors. You will
be able to discontinue the observation by asking me to leave. There are no direct
benefits to you, and you will not be paid for participating in this research study.
Confidentiality
As stated above, the transcription will be identified by a code. No identifying
information will be written on the observation sheet and your identity will not be
associated with the research data. Observation data will be stored first as
handwritten notes and then transcribed on my personal computer. Only I have
access to this computer. After they are transferred to computer, I will destroy the
handwritten notes.
Participation and Withdrawal
You can choose to participate or refuse to participate. If you volunteer to
participate, you may still withdraw at any time without any consequence to you.
By allowing me to observe your program meeting, you are consenting to participate
in this research project, including allowing me to take handwritten notes.
Identification of Investigators
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please contact Dr. Kezar
at 213-821-1519 or kezar@usc.edu, USC Rossier School of Education, WPH
Room 703C, Los Angeles, CA 90089 or Karen Carmichael, (310) 216-6701,
carmicha@usc.edu.
Rights of Research Subjects
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Abstract (if available)

Abstract Traditionally, white males have filled science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) workforce needs. Demographic projections indicating that the number of white males in the population is declining suggest that the United States must educate all its human capital, not only white males, in order to remain a leader in scientific innovation. Currently, underrepresented minority students leave STEM majors at a greater rate than white students, and have a lower graduation rate than white students. This study explored how an academic dean can support the persistence of underrepresented minority students in science and mathematics.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Carmichael, Karen Y. (author)

Core Title Plugging the leaky pipeline: how academic deans support the persistence of underrepresented minority students in science and mathematics

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 06/07/2009

Defense Date 05/08/2007

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag deans,OAI-PMH Harvest,persistence,STEM,underrepresented minority

Place Name California (states), educational facilities: California State University Los Angeles (geographic subject), Los Angeles (city or populated place), Los Angeles (counties), USA (countries)

Language English

Advisor Kezar, Adrianna (committee chair), Person, Dawn (committee member), Sundt, Melora A. (committee member)

Creator Email kycarmichael@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m522

Unique identifier UC1116180

Identifier etd-Carmichael-20070607 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-504566 (legacy record id),usctheses-m522 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Carmichael-20070607.pdf

Dmrecord 504566

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Carmichael, Karen Y.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu