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Latina superintendents take center stage in California's rural school districts: a model for culturally responsive school leadership

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Latina superintendents take center stage in California's rural school districts: a model for culturally responsive school leadership

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Content Latina Superintendents Take Center Stage in California’s Rural School Districts: A Model
for Culturally Responsive School Leadership
Maria Lorenza “Lori” Gonzalez
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2024

© Copyright by Maria Lorenza “Lori” Gonzalez 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Maria Lorenza “Lori” Gonzalez certifies the approval of this Dissertation.
David Cash
Bradley Ermeling
Maria Ott, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

iv
Abstract
This study investigated Latina superintendents’ roles and contributions in rural California school
districts, focusing on their implementation of culturally responsive leadership practices as
outlined by the culturally responsive school leadership framework. It aimed to understand how
these practices align with the framework and assess their impact on fostering more inclusive and
responsive school communities. Additionally, the research explores the experiences of Latina
superintendents in attaining their positions, the challenges and barriers they encounter, and the
motivations behind their choice to work in rural settings. This study provides insights into the
characteristics and challenges of rural education leadership and the strategies employed to create
culturally responsive environments. The findings highlight such leadership in promoting equity
and inclusivity, offering significant contributions to the discourse on education policy and
practice. This work stems from the need for a more equitable and inclusive education system,
advocating for the recognition and support of diverse leadership. The study enriches the
understanding of culturally responsive leadership in rural contexts and its role in improving
education outcomes. The insights gained serve policymakers, educators, and researchers in
fostering culturally responsive districts.

v
Dedication
To my Mami, the epitome of strength and the essence of courage. It is her enduring spirit, faith,
and steadfast love that have taught me to persevere and chase my dreams with relentlessness.

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Acknowledgements
I extend my heartfelt gratitude to my dissertation chair, Dr. Maria Ott, for her unwavering
belief in my abilities. Her confidence in my potential to contribute significantly to the education
field, particularly in elevating Latina leaders and highlighting the needs of rural schools, has
been a source of inspiration. Additionally, an incredible note of appreciation to Dr. David Cash
and Dr. Bradley Ermeling for their invaluable assistance and guidance. The wisdom and insights
of my entire dissertation committee have been indispensable in this journey.
The pillars of my life who have supported me through this journey must also be
acknowledged. My beloved husband’s extensive support and unwavering love have been my
constant source of strength throughout this entire journey. My children, whom I love so dearly
and am incredibly proud of, have given me endless encouragement and love and have been a
guiding light throughout this process. Y a mi Mami y Papi, a quienes adoro y les tengo tanto
afecto y amor que se me sale del corazón, y que siempre me han dado tanto amor y ánimo que
me llena la vida.
To my USC friends I have made along this path, words fall short of expressing my
profound gratitude for your friendship and collegiality. Your camaraderie has enriched this
academic journey and transformed it into a tapestry of cherished memories and lasting bonds.
Likewise, to my work family, mentors, allies, and friends, who have also provided such support
and encouragement that I must recognize. It is with the utmost gratitude that I give to each one of
you, and especially to those within the El Nido and Lamont Elementary School Districts who
have been there for me in one capacity or another.
And to my soul sisters, whom I absolutely adore, our connection is a testament to the
remarkable power of genuine friendship. It’s astounding how we’ve grown from colleagues to

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confidantes, weaving a bond that transcends the ordinary. As we stand at the cusp of new
beginnings, I eagerly anticipate the countless adventures and shared triumphs that lie ahead in
our journey together. Our friendship is a beacon that illuminates the path forward, a source of joy
and strength as we continue to nurture and celebrate this incredible bond.
Finally, to all the Latinas, know that your dreams are achievable. Let this work be a
testament that with perseverance, anything is possible. Remember, there are those who resemble
you and are ready to support your journey. Reach out, for you are not alone in your aspirations.

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Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables....................................................................................................................................x
List of Figures................................................................................................................................ xi
Chapter One: Introduction ...............................................................................................................1
Background ............................................................................................................................3
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................4
Purpose of the Study ..............................................................................................................7
Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................7
Research Questions................................................................................................................8
Limitations and Delimitations................................................................................................8
Organization of the Study.......................................................................................................9
Chapter Two Literature Review.....................................................................................................10
Latina Superintendents.........................................................................................................11
Gender Gap ..........................................................................................................................12
Ethnicity Gap........................................................................................................................13
Career Gap............................................................................................................................14
Representation Gap ..............................................................................................................15
Rural School Communities ..................................................................................................16
Culturally Responsive Leadership Practices........................................................................19
The Latina Superintendent’s Education Ecosystem.............................................................20
Culturally Responsive School Leadership Framework........................................................24
Cultural-Historical Activity Theory Model..........................................................................29

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Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................................30
Conclusion............................................................................................................................31
Chapter Three Methodology ..........................................................................................................34
Restatement of Problem, Purpose, and Research Questions................................................34
Research Design...................................................................................................................35
The Researcher.....................................................................................................................40
Data Collection.....................................................................................................................42
Data Analysis........................................................................................................................42
Summary ..............................................................................................................................43
Chapter Four: Results and Findings...............................................................................................44
Participants...........................................................................................................................45
Setting the Scene: Latina Leadership in Rural California Schools......................................50
Results for Research Question 1 ..........................................................................................53
Results for Research Question 2 ..........................................................................................59
Summary ..............................................................................................................................65
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations..........................................................................67
Discussion of Findings.........................................................................................................67
Limitations and Delimitations..............................................................................................72
Recommendations for Practice.............................................................................................73
Recommendations for Future Research ...............................................................................77
Conclusion............................................................................................................................79
References............................................................................................................................80
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ....................................................................................................88
Appendix B: Screening Survey ............................................................................................90
Appendix C: Informed Consent Form ...........................................................................................92

x
List of Tables
Table 1: Participant Personal and Profession al Demographic Information 49
Table 2: Connections of Themes to CRSL Framework 72

xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 31

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Chapter One: Introduction
The disproportionate number of Latinas in superintendent positions exemplifies racial
and gender divides and inequities (Castillo et al., 2021; Luna, 2020; Rodríguez, 2019). Current
national statistics indicate that, of the 7,292 school superintendents in the United States, 71.5%
are men, and 28.5% are women. The most common ethnicity among them is White, at 65.3%,
followed by Hispanic/Latino, at 14.5% (Zippia, n.d.). According to federal data and a survey
conducted by the School Superintendents Association (AASA), 76% of teachers are women, and
24% of superintendents are women, with 3.72% being women of color (Ramaswamy, 2020).
Similarly, a report by Chiefs for Change (2019) found that 77% of teachers and 31% of
district chiefs are women. The report provided data for women of color in K–12 education,
indicating that 15% of teachers and 11% of district chiefs are women of color. The report calls
for increasing the number of women of color, as “a diverse teacher and leader workforce make a
strong, positive impact on our students and schools” (Chiefs for Change, 2019, p. 3). Castillo et
al. (2021) revealed that “Latina superintendents are attracted to small rural districts with a
familial environment with high levels of parental and community involvement” (p. 1). The
authors further asserted that nationally, women of color seeking the superintendency have a
higher success rate in rural school districts than urban ones (Castillo et al., 2109).
Leadership is “based on many things, from your cultural orientation and experiences to
your personal beliefs, attitudes, and values” (Northouse, 2022, p. 3). Significant factors in an
education organization are leadership and how that leadership consistently and intentionally
reviews policy, practices, procedures, regulations, and guidelines to transform the organization
and disrupt the status quo. The complexity of leadership includes the engagement and attention
of all education partners, addressing inequities, disproportionalities, and academic achievement,

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setting a vision and mission that embodies the community’s aspirations, and addressing race,
diversity, and social justice (Ladson-Billings, 2006). Leadership is continuous and must fluctuate
between multiple leadership theories and practices to meet students’ needs and ensure their
cultural wealth is accepted and validated.
Adopting a systems-level perspective necessitates comprehending the organizational
requirements as directly informed by students’ needs. It is imperative for the superintendent to
establish systems and frameworks that are inherently equitable and just across the organization.
Achieving a district’s transformation into an entity characterized by a pursuit of inquiry and
advancement yields an organization committed to challenging and reforming traditional norms
and practices. Such an organization prioritizes and respects racial, cultural, and traditional
values, fostering an environment of continuous growth and equality. Wilkins (2006) stated,
The schools and school systems that are helping students of color achieve at high levels
are those that have responded to racism and poverty differently. Instead of giving up, they
have chosen to fight – fight hard and fight smart for the lives of children of color. (p. 3)
Kennedy (2019) emphasized leadership adopting a color-blind perspective within a framework
of care and equity to meet all students’ social and emotional needs. Exploring culturally
responsive school leadership, Khalifa et al. (2016) examined district-level administrators’
influence on education reform. They underscored these leaders’ transformative role in addressing
the needs of underprivileged children of color. The superintendent serves as a bridge between the
district and students of color by employing culturally responsive leadership practices. These
leaders are instrumental in shaping student outcomes by fostering culturally responsive
environments. Doing so involves active engagement, establishing a clear district vision, devising
appropriate funding protocols, and celebrating diversity, as Marx (2008) detailed.

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The largest population of students in U.S. schools is predominately Latinx. The
California Department of Education (CDE) reported a total enrollment of 5,892,240 students in
California schools in the 2021–22 term. Among them, 3,291,260 were Hispanic or Latino. As
such, more than half (55.86%) of the state’s students are Latinx (CDE, 2022). Despite these
enrollment numbers and the continued growth of the Latinx population in California, statistics
demonstrate the need for equal representation among school leaders (Luna, 2020; Rodríguez,
2019).
Background
Current education systems’ policies, practices, and procedures fail to accurately represent
students’ diverse cultural backgrounds, resulting in a barrier to learning and contributing to
disproportionate student outcomes (Love, 2019). These foundational elements of education can
spearhead organizational transformations to guarantee students’ access to and engagement with
learning, thereby fostering positive academic outcomes. However, there is a need for school
districts nationwide to modify their systems and structures to address this gap and align with a
model of culturally responsive school leadership.
Culturally responsive school leadership is instrumental in improving academic
performance through inclusive teaching methods and culturally relevant programs (Khalifa,
2020). Ladson-Billings (1995) and Love (2019) emphasized the role of culturally relevant
education in promoting student success and fostering education and teaching environments
grounded in social justice and the removal of obstacles. Kennedy (2019) called for incorporating
care and equity into education practices, particularly in today’s context of racial disparities, postpandemic recovery, and economic challenges. Neitzel (2018) advocated for including
perspective-taking in essential discussions about race, noting its significance in cultural

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leadership by ensuring biases are addressed and facilitating the creation of environments
conducive to open dialogues. Recognizing the centrality of culturally responsive education in
addressing and dismantling systemic inequities is essential for effecting meaningful change. By
enacting culturally responsible practices, leaders can effect positive change in the transitional
kindergarten through Grade 12 (TK–12) setting and influence others by serving as role models.
Recognizing the disproportionate number of women of color who hold the role of
superintendent, it is imperative to enhance their representation in education leadership
(Ramaswamy, 2020). Specific to this study, the growing need for inclusivity and recognition of
diverse school populations warrants research on the leadership practices of Latina
superintendents. The gap in academic achievements among Latinx students further illustrates the
urgency for such studies. While much of the current literature focuses on principals as key agents
of change in schools, there is a compelling need to expand this research to Latina
superintendents’ role in practicing culturally responsive school leadership. Delving into their
experiences, ascension to leadership positions, and strategies for creating inclusive and
successful education environments will yield insights into the potential for culturally responsive
districts to transform education.
Statement of the Problem
This study addressed the problem of practice of the lack of understanding of Latina
superintendents’ leadership practices and the significance of cultural responsiveness in their
districts, which encompass students, teachers, administrators, and the broader community.
Deficiencies in equity, access, inclusivity, and diversity acceptance mark the education system’s
prevailing organizational structures. This phenomenon underscores a pressing demand for a
culturally responsive approach that promotes academic success for all students and emphasizes

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student culture and the learning process (Kumar et al., 2018). A culturally responsive school
leadership (CRSL) model is a cohesive approach that values all students and provides a vehicle
for addressing pedagogy, student agency, and social-emotional growth. It focuses on closing the
achievement gap by eliminating barriers, ensuring equity and equality in education, and
respecting students’ cultures and voices. Furthermore, students are motivated to learn and feel
connected to their learning by having their cultural identity recognized and celebrated. It
provides meaningful engagement with the instruction (Kumar et al., 2018).
Time, funding, resources, and professional development opportunities directly affect the
implementation of an effective, responsive education system. Staff needs responsive education
materials and much-needed professional development, which is expensive, time-consuming, and
inconsistent. Schools, too, need restructuring and a deeper awareness of what proper responsive
education implies. Current culturally responsive school practices that exhibit mere tokenism
provide cultural connections and understanding yet must change to represent culturally
responsive education. Culturally responsive education for staff and schools needs much focus
and structure to attain positive student outcomes, and the superintendent must set that vision.
The district instructional vision serves to align efforts to ensure equity in education and
continuous improvement in student achievement. Key concepts embedded in district
instructional visions should include diversity, equity, and the inclusion of all student cultures.
Policies, practices, and procedures should also directly align with the district instruction vision
and be readily available for schools to refer to and fully implement. A clear district-shared vision
of instruction articulates the why behind all aspects of the district’s intent to provide an equitable
education for every student. School districts must articulate the shared vision with schools and
staff and ensure the vision is grounded in culturally responsive education practices. Leadership

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and trustees must critically analyze district board policies to determine their alignment with
responsive education. These are essential in ensuring students attain a responsive education
experience and providing staff and the community with a solid foreground to the district’s vision
of academic achievement for all students. Furthermore, it guides administrators to lead their
schools with a culturally responsive leadership approach.
The community includes families, businesses, and potential partners, significantly
influencing student achievement. Education partners’ involvement and engagement can support
culturally responsive education. Lack of engagement with schools reduces trust in the education
system, advocacy, partnership, and opportunities for education partners to benefit. The gains in
student achievement will improve the community and lead to cohesion and respect. Education
partners must be included in developing a culturally responsive education organization, as
students need to see they are part of an entire community.
The common aspects of current policies, practices, and procedures focus solely on
academics and delivery. Lacking is a culturally responsive approach that connects students’
cultural backgrounds and identities. A culturally responsive system allows students to connect
with learning and validates them throughout the learning process. This approach must guide
school districts in creating policies, practices, and procedures that provide cultural
responsiveness and permit the organization to recognize its strengths and establish a systematic
organization. The CRSL framework provides leaders with specific guidelines and requirements
to include cultural responsiveness in education systems and structures. The framework
substantiates the inclusion of a student’s culture, historical background, language, and identity in
academic instruction and sets the tone for a school district as an organization. Culturally
responsive education policies, practices, and procedures take precedence. Each then forms the

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alignment of the academic structures in an education system and drives all aspects of the
organization (Kumar et al., 2018).
Purpose of the Study
A responsive education system is lacking in schools, affecting students’ ability to connect
with the school and their cultures and community, resulting in low academic achievement and
widening the achievement gap. These outcomes are disproportionate for students of color at a
more significant intellectual and personal level. A school system that exemplifies responsive
education systems may be an even greater need as the nation’s current racial divide adds strain
on students’ future success.
This qualitative study aimed to delineate the culturally responsive leadership practices of
Latina superintendents in rural school districts. Additionally, it sought to align these leadership
practices with the CRSL as proposed by Khalifa et al. (2016). The research also explored the
defining features of rural school districts and investigated the motivations behind the
participants’ decisions to build their careers in these settings. Through this analysis, the study
contributes insights into the intersection of culturally responsive leadership and rural education
environments.
Significance of the Study
The importance of this study stems from the need to identify culturally responsive
practices that promote racial and social justice and equity for all students. Ladson-Billings’
(2006) work examined education outcomes beyond the achievement gap, uncovering an
educational debt regarding disproportionate academic outcomes for students of color. Relevant to
this study, CRSL practices play a significant role in closing the achievement gap and ending the
educational debt when the school leader is prepared to intervene and include CRSL practices that

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create opportunities for inclusivity and engagement (Ladson-Billings, 2006). Because there is a
need to better understand specific CRSL practices, this study examined the implementation of
these practices as identified through critical questions based on the CRSL framework.
Specifically, this study investigated Latina superintendents’ culturally responsive leadership
practices to increase their use in school districts.
Based on my journey as a superintendent, I recognize room for improvement in defining
CRSL practices. This study aimed to establish a framework for culturally responsive leadership,
enabling superintendents to address and rectify disproportionate academic outcomes. Moreover,
this research sought to provide superintendents with practical guidance for immediate
implementation in their districts, leading to a more equitable and successful education
ecosystem.
Research Questions
1. What leadership practices do Latina superintendents in rural California schools identify
in support of cultural responsiveness?
2. What impact, if any, do Latina superintendents in rural California schools believe their
leadership practices have on their school community?
Limitations and Delimitations
The study entailed three limitations. The sample was small, which may have hindered the
findings’ generalizability. Also, the study’s design, which employed an insider’s perspective,
made qualitative research a personal and subjective research style. Researcher bias was a
limitation since I am Latina and a superintendent in California. My perceptions and personal
experiences may have paralleled those of the participants.

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The study’s delimitations encompassed four areas. The interviewees were Latina
participants from rural school districts. They worked and lived in California. The interview time
was 45 to 60 minutes. Superintendents’ lack of a clear understanding of the CRSL framework
required me to make a clear association with CRSL practices by creating research questions that
included cultural responsiveness language identified in the CRSL framework (Khalifa et al.,
2016).
Organization of the Study
The study focused on understanding CRSL practices from the perspective of Latina
superintendents leading school districts in rural California and their impact on Latinx students.
This study’s results may guide superintendents, male or female, in their approaches to
implementing CRSL practices that create inclusive and accepting environments for every
student.
Chapter Two will be a comprehensive literature review of Latina superintendents, their
leadership practices, and CRSL. Chapter Three covers the research design and details how the
study was conducted. Chapter Four will consist of the results. Chapter Five will provide an
overview of the findings.

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Chapter Two Literature Review
The absence of a culturally responsive education system in many schools directly
contributes to low academic achievement and an expanding achievement gap. This shortfall
hinders students’ connection to their school, cultural heritage, and community and has a
disproportionate and negative effect on the intellectual and personal development of students of
color (Kumar et al., 2018). Given the nation’s racial divide, the school system must embody
culturally responsive education. The education system can bridge gaps and foster an environment
conducive to all learners’ achievement, which is particularly necessary as education is a primary
influence on students’ future success (Fullan, 2020; Khalifa et al., 2016). To tackle this
challenge, district practices, procedures, and policies must deconstruct conventional, colonized
education systems devoid of culturally responsive frameworks. This approach is essential for
creating an inclusive and equitable learning environment that acknowledges and values students’
diverse cultural backgrounds (Hitt & Tucker, 2016; Khalifa et al., 2016; Ladson-Billings, 1995,
2006; Santamaría, 2014). Achieving this goal requires increasing the number of education
leaders who resemble the population of students of color in today’s education system and who
implement CRSL practices.
This study aimed to uncover and analyze key leadership practices that embody culturally
responsive leadership strategies, emphasizing race, social justice, and equity for all students.
Through a qualitative lens, this research compared these leadership practices against the CRSL
framework to examine how these practices align with and support the framework’s principles.
This approach sought to highlight effective leadership strategies and reinforce the foundational
role of culturally responsive leadership in fostering inclusive and equitable education
environments (Khalifa et al., 2016). The outcomes of this study contribute to research on

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Latina superintendents who have implemented CRSL practices. The findings pertain to the
role of culturally responsive leadership practices in addressing disproportionate academic
outcomes. As a Latina superintendent of a rural school district, I have first-hand experience in
implementing these practices.
The chapter consists of three sections, each reviewing current literature on a specific
topic. The first section focuses on the Latina superintendency and rural school communities,
while the second section discusses culturally responsive leadership practices. The third section
discusses the education ecosystem these leaders establish through their culturally responsive
leadership practices influenced by their gender and commitment to meeting their students’ needs
(cultural responsiveness and proficiency). The chapter concludes by describing the CRSL
framework.
Latina Superintendents
According to recent data from AASA, as of its 2022–2023 superintendent salary and
benefits study, approximately 26% of school district superintendents in the United States are
female, compared to males, who comprise 73% (Thomas et al., 2023). Although there was a
noted increase from the 2014–2015 term when only 21% of superintendents were female, there
continues to be a need to increase female representation among district superintendents (Finnan
et al., 2015). Further review of the 2022–2023 study denotes a significant disproportionality of
female district superintendents identifying as Hispanic or Latino at a rate of 4% compared to
86% identifying as White females, 90% as White males, and 3% Hispanic or Latino males. It is
important to note that the study included a significantly larger number of responses from males
at 1,614 compared to 556 from female respondents (Thomas et al., 2023). The study found that
female superintendents in the United States were more likely to hold advanced degrees than their

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male counterparts. Specifically, the study found that 51% of female superintendents held a
doctorate or another advanced degree, compared to 39% of male superintendents (Thomas et al.,
2023).
Gender Gap
The absence of uniform and dependable national data on the quantity and percentage of
female superintendents across the country perpetuates the gender gap in education leadership
(Shakeshaft, 2006). “Numbers allow comparisons as well as accountability” (Shakeshaft, 2006,
p. 498), so the persistence of the gender gap and its contribution to ongoing disproportionality
can only be fully appreciated by having comparable data available. Per Shakeshaft, without such
data, it is challenging to determine the extent of women’s underrepresentation in education
leadership roles or to track changes over time.
Factors that contribute to the gender gap for women who aspire to become
superintendents include biased hiring practices, lack of mentorship opportunities, and gender
stereotypes, as well as career and education expectations, limited access to networks and
mentors, and societal expectations about women’s roles and behaviors (Bernal et al., 2017;
Castillo et al., 2021; Grogan & Brunner, 2005; Hoff & Mitchell, 2008; Manuel & Slate, 2003;
Méndez-Morse, 2000; Robinson et al., 2017; Rodríguez, 2019; Salazar Montoya & Kew, 2020;
Shakeshaft, 2006). Bernal et al. (2017) asserted that school boards and search firms often serve
as gatekeepers, creating barriers that prevent more women from becoming superintendents. For
example, Castillo et al. (2021) and Manuel and Slate (2003) found that minority female
superintendents are more likely to hold advanced degrees than male superintendents. Manuel and
Slate’s research further suggests that female superintendents were more likely to have earned a
doctorate than their white male counterparts.

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While research refutes certain factors believed to contribute to the gender gap in
achieving the superintendency, there remains a significant gender disparity in this leadership role
(Manuel & Slate, 2003). Nevertheless, despite efforts to address these factors and the many
strides made toward gender equality, the gender gap in leadership positions persists, highlighting
the need for continued action and vigilance in addressing this issue, especially in regard to the
Latina superintendent (Bernal et al., 2017; Castillo et al., 2021; Grogan & Brunner, 2005; Hoff &
Mitchell, 2008; Manuel & Slate, 2003; Méndez-Morse, 2000; Robinson et al., 2017; Rodríguez,
2019; Salazar Montoya & Kew, 2020; Shakeshaft, 2006).
Ethnicity Gap
The scarcity of minority women in superintendency positions is more concerning than the
general gender gap, indicating the presence of an ethnicity gap (Manuel & Slate, 2003).
Rodríguez (2019) noted that in the selection of superintendents, women of color face indirect
biases based on their race, ethnicity, and gender. Furthermore, research states that young
working-class Latina women face challenges navigating class identity (Bettie, 2000). Through
insights on the intersectionality of race, gender, and class, Bettie (2000) shed light on the
obstacles young working-class Latina women face in pursuing leadership roles, underscoring the
need for diverse representation. Bettie further argued that societal expectations of Latinas as
passive and hypersexualized limit their opportunities for upward mobility and leadership roles,
noting the need for a strong sense of identity and community, supportive networks and
mentorship opportunities, and representation of Latina women in leadership positions.
Further substantiating the ethnicity gap, Hispanic women are seldom appointed to the
superintendent position (Manuel & Slate, 2003; Méndez-Morse, 2000). Given their limited
numbers, Castillo et al. (2021) stressed the need for more research on Latina superintendents.

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Their experiences could guide aspiring superintendents, and their testimonials would offer
insights and inspiration for others to follow in their path.
Career Gap
Research reveals that Latina women encounter substantial barriers to securing leadership
roles in the education sector, pointing to a pronounced career disparity (Bernal et al., 2017;
Castillo et al., 2021; Garrett-Staib & Burkman, 2015; Manuel & Slate, 2003, 2003; Robinson et
al., 2017; Shakeshaft, 2006). In pursuing leadership positions in education, females frequently
encounter obstacles that hinder their progression, encompassing challenges that span from
internal to external factors (Robinson et al., 2017). These include delayed entry into
administration compared to men, the need to complete job requirements before applying, and
waiting for their children to grow up before entering administration (Hoff & Mitchell, 2008;
Robinson et al., 2017). Additionally, women tend to teach longer than men and wait until they
complete all or most of the job’s requirements before applying (Manuel & Slate, 2003). Studies
also find that females tend to change districts to advance their careers compared to men (GarrettStaib & Burkman, 2015). Moreover, women may also encounter barriers that affect their
confidence, motivation, and aspirations (Robinson et al., 2017). As Robinson et al. (2017) noted,
low self-image, lack of confidence, and lack of motivation are key factors that contribute to a
confidence gap between male and female aspiring superintendents.
On a national level, evidence suggests that female superintendents may earn less than
their male counterparts, yet the AASA 2023 found “the median salary of female superintendents
was slightly higher than that of males for the 6th time during the last 11 years” (Thomas et al.,
2023, p. 24). Female superintendents earned a median salary of $146,03 compared to an average
salary of $145,000 for male superintendents. The AASA authors also noted that the findings of

15
the 2022–2023 salary and benefits study contrast with pre-pandemic national wage data. They
further reference the Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce’s 2018
report, which states despite making educational gains and pursuing high-wage majors, women
still earn less than men, and nationally, women earn about 82% of what men earn across all job
categories and levels of education (Thomas et al., 2023). These findings suggest that there may
be gender disparities in superintendent salaries, with female superintendents earning less than
male superintendents on average. However, it is important to note that these studies focus on
superintendent salaries at the national and state levels and that there may be variation in
superintendent salaries in specific districts or regions.
Representation Gap
“Lack of female representation is a problem not only because of fairness and equity but
also because diversity brings improvements in leadership and learning” (Robinson et al., 2017, p.
2). Specifically, today’s schools require the representation of Latina superintendents, as
highlighted by the CDE’s enrollment statistics. With 56.4% of students identifying as Hispanic
or Latino, equitable representation at the leadership level will ensure a greater understanding of
the student population. Additionally, with 2,841,846 female students (48.5%), female leaders can
be role models for young women (CDE, 2022). Promoting diverse representation in leadership
positions, schools, and districts can create a more supportive and inclusive environment that can
benefit all students (Castillo et al., 2021; Luna, 2020; Martínez et al., 2020; Rodríguez, 2019). It
is worth noting that “Hispanic women are more likely to be selected for superintendent positions
in areas dominated by large populations of Hispanic students, in comparison to areas where there
is a low concentration of Hispanic students” (Manuel & Slate, 2003, p. 33).

16
Studies consistently demonstrate that students are more likely to feel connected, have
enhanced self-esteem, and achieve academically when they see leaders who mirror their racial,
ethnic, or gender identities (Egalite et al., 2015; Helgesen & Goldsmith, 2018; Rodríguez, 2019).
This effect is especially pronounced among female students of color, who have historically seen
few women in education leadership positions. Latina superintendents are role models and
champions for their students, fostering a culture of pride and empowerment within Latina/o
communities (Castillo et al., 2021). Moreover, their leadership challenges prevailing stereotypes
and biases regarding race, gender, and leadership, cultivating a more inclusive and just education
landscape (Castillo et al., 2021).
The scarcity of Latina superintendents underscores a significant gap in representation,
reinforcing the urgent call for increased research in this field (Castillo et al., 2021; Rodríguez,
2019; Salazar Montoya & Kew, 2020). Castillo et al. (2021) underscore the potential for their
experiences to serve as role models for aspiring Hispanic women seeking leadership roles in
education, including that of the superintendency.
Rural School Communities
According to the KidsData 2018 Report, children in rural areas constitute 4.4% of the
nation’s population, while those in urban areas make up 95.6% (Population Reference Bureau,
n.d.). These rates add to the prevailing perception of inequality in education existing primarily in
urban schools (Gutierrez, 2016). Rural schools in California face challenges different from those
of their urban counterparts. According to the CDE (n.d.-a), approximately 363 rural school
districts in the state serve nearly 337,251 students. These schools often have smaller student
populations, limited resources, and difficulty attracting and retaining qualified teachers. In
addition, rural areas often have higher rates of poverty and unemployment, which can lower

17
student achievement and well-being. Despite these challenges, rural schools in California have
shown resilience and success in serving their communities (2U, Inc., n.d.; CDE, 2022; Bard et
al., 2006; Gutierrez, 2016; National Center for Education Statistics, n.d.-a, n.d.-b; U.S. Census
Bureau, n.d.; U.S. Department of Education, n.d.).
Per the CDE (n.d.-b), rural school districts can be in various community types, including
incorporated and unincorporated areas. An incorporated area is a city, town, or other
municipality officially incorporated as a self-governing entity by the state government. These
areas have their own elected officials and government services, such as police and fire
departments. An unincorporated area is a region not part of any municipality or city. These areas
are governed by the county government and may not have their own police or fire departments.
The specific distribution of rural school districts by community type would depend on the
individual districts, as they may be located in various areas in California (2U, Inc., n.d.; Bard et
al., 2006; Gutierrez, 2016; National Center for Education Statistics, n.d.-a, n.d.-b; U.S. Census
Bureau, n.d.; U.S. Department of Education, n.d.; CDE, n.d.-b).
With a growing recognition of the significance of rural schools, both nationally and at the
state level, leadership associations have emerged as sources of support for school districts and
their superintendents. Based on the size of their district, school districts join associations and, in
return, gain access to benefits such as advocacy, resources, and technical assistance to navigate
forthcoming regulations and laws. The Small School Districts’ Association (SSD, n.d.), a
California-based education association representing over 350 districts, focuses on supporting
small rural schools in California with an average daily attendance of fewer than 5,000 students.
On a national level, the National Rural Education Association (NREA), positioned as the
national voice for rural schools and communities, recently launched its research agenda for

18
2022–2027. This agenda outlines a 5-year research plan for rural education, aiming to explore
innovative practices, tackle specific challenges, and leverage rural strengths. The plan aims to
ensure equitable opportunities and experiences in education for the approximately 20% of
students attending schools in rural U.S. communities (National Rural Education Association,
n.d.).
Studies conducted by Grogan and Brunner (2005) indicated that more men serve in
districts with fewer than 3,000 students than women. Additionally, research by Grogan and
Brunner suggested that superintendents of color are more likely to be hired by diverse school
boards. Manuel and Slate (2003) found that 21.7% of Hispanic women superintendents reported
leading districts with fewer than 300 students, while 43.7% reported leading districts with at least
3,000 students. Further research and data will yield deeper insights into rural schools,
specifically regarding the representation of female superintendents of color and the enrollment
numbers of students of color. However, the data do not allow for the differentiation of
community types in which districts are situated. Also, it is important to note that in California,
where there are approximately 1,018 school districts with an average enrollment of 5,749
students, districts of this size would not meet the classification of rural according to the Small
School District Association’s (SSDA) 5,000-student cap, but not by much, suggesting that rural
schools offer viable opportunities for Latina superintendents (CDE, 2022).
In terms of superintendent preferences, Castillo et al. (2021) highlighted that women
choose to work in rural schools to establish personal connections with families and advocate for
the community. Rural schools’ smaller size allows for a more culturally responsive approach and
personal relationships with students and families (Grogan & Brunner, 2005; Manuel & Slate,
2003; Robinson et al., 2017; Rodríguez, 2019). Compared to their White counterparts, Latina

19
superintendents often view themselves as change agents committed to enhancing education
opportunities and promoting equitable access (Grogan & Brunner, 2005; Manuel & Slate, 2003;
Robinson et al., 2017; Rodríguez, 2019). They bring in-depth knowledge of curriculum and
instruction as well as responsiveness to communities with a significant percentage of socially
disadvantaged students and students of color (Grogan & Brunner, 2005; Manuel & Slate, 2003;
Robinson et al., 2017; Rodríguez, 2019). Therefore, they help ensure that rural schools’ needs
and challenges are addressed.
Culturally Responsive Leadership Practices
Culturally responsive school leadership prioritizes the diversity of students and staff and
works to create a school culture that supports and values all cultural backgrounds. According to
Ladson-Billings (1995), culturally responsive leadership is “an approach to leadership that
recognizes and incorporates the knowledge, skills, and experiences of diverse communities into
school policies and practices” (p. 470). Culturally responsive leadership provides the opportunity
to see gains in academic outcomes, inclusive instructional practices, culturally relevant program
implementation, and a positive school climate. Accordingly, it calls for a district vision that
values cultures, incorporates cultural awareness, and provides an education system that meets all
students’ needs (Khalifa et al., 2016; Santamaría, 2014).
The focus on CRSL practices of the “building-level leaders, or principals and assistant
principals” affirms the “deep impact superintendents and other district-level administrators can
have on education and school reform” (Khalifa et al., 2016, pp. 1273–1274). Leadership that
amplifies cultural relevance and culturally responsive teaching will incorporate and attend to
professional learning opportunities that promote capacity building for themselves and staff in
fulfilling the vision and ensuring continuous professional learning (Hitt & Tucker, 2016).

20
Aguayo et al. (2023) explored culturally responsive practices at the district level. The
authors discussed how these practices can improve education outcomes for diverse student
populations. Research calls for districts to recognize and value cultural diversity among students,
families, and staff and to implement strategies and policies that promote inclusivity, equity, and
cultural responsiveness in all district operations. The authors provided examples of promising
practices at the district level, such as professional development, curriculum development, family
engagement, and community partnerships that can support culturally responsive education. They
emphasized the role of district leaders in fostering a district-wide culture that prioritizes and
supports culturally responsive practices. The authors also recommended that district leaders
promote and sustain culturally responsive practices throughout their education systems. They
also emphasized district-level initiatives in promoting culturally responsive education and
ensuring equitable outcomes for all students, highlighting the need for endorsement of culturally
responsive practices from the district level (Aguayo et al., 2023). They stated that “The message
from the top, the district level, needs to clearly endorse the importance of [culturally responsive
practices] in the classroom and schools” as evidence of this significance (Aguayo et al., 2023, p.
18).
The Latina Superintendent’s Education Ecosystem
Latina superintendents bring a distinctive leadership approach to their school
communities that forms an education ecosystem drawn from their personal characteristics,
cultural influences, career experiences, leadership styles, and the barriers and challenges
encountered in their professional paths (Castillo et al., 2021; Luna, 2020; Manuel & Slate, 2003;
Méndez-Morse, 2000; Rodríguez, 2019 Salazar Montoya & Kew, 2020). An education
ecosystem is a network of factors and interactions that shape education experiences and

21
outcomes for students. These include the formal aspects of schooling, such as curriculum and
instruction, and the informal aspects, such as social and cultural factors, community resources,
and economic and political contexts. According to Dmitrieva and Yulmetova (2021),
“Ecosystem thinking provides an opportunity to create an effective learning environment with
constant interaction, real-life practice, involvement of the culture and knowledge of local
communities” (p. 1).
During this research, I identified leadership practices, styles, characteristics, and traits
that were common among female leaders, including those of female superintendents. It is
important to note that findings are not universal, and individual differences and contextual
factors may shape leadership practices and styles (Eagly & Johnson, 1990). Additionally, there is
a need for more research that directly compares female and male superintendents and explores
how gender interacts with other factors to shape leadership in education settings (Bernal et al.,
2017). While it is important to note that gender is just one aspect of a leader’s identity and that
there can be significant variation within gender groups, few studies have found some general
differences in leadership practices and priorities between male and female superintendents
(Bernal et al., 2017; Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Garrett-Staib & Burkman, 2015).
In addition to gender, research should investigate the leadership practices, styles,
characteristics, and traits specific to the female leader (Castillo et al., 2021; Méndez-Morse,
2000; Rodríguez, 2019). As Méndez-Morse (2000) asserted, “When discussing the presence of
Latina superintendents, their small number [does] not signify a negligible factor in furthering an
understanding of leadership” (p. 595).
Despite the limited research, this investigation revealed several recurring practices,
styles, characteristics, and traits. Luna’s (2020) autoethnographic account identified these shared

22
traits and characteristics. That study “presents specific insights and lessons learned that can assist
Latinas and people of color who are high-level and district administrators or those who aspire to
the superintendency” (Luna, 2020, p. 61). Identifying these shared practices, styles,
characteristics, and traits through research can create an education environment that caters to all
students’ needs and, furthermore, boost Latina superintendents’ representation.
With this objective in mind, I developed themes based on the relevant practices for
leading rural school communities effectively. “Efficacy” is a common denominator in the
overarching themes collated from the research. I incorporated the term “efficacy” into each
theme to depict or signify the success or effectiveness of the practices, styles, characteristics, and
traits examined.
Self-Efficacy
The research revealed common traits such as having a strong belief in their ability to
overcome obstacles, facing personal and professional challenges with resilience, receiving
support from their families, and actively pursuing further education” (Castillo et al., 2021;
Manuel & Slate, 2003; Rodríguez, 2019; Salazar Montoya & Kew, 2020). Furthermore, Latinas’
self-motivation and flexibility in their career trajectories also played a significant role in their
attainment of superintendent positions (Castillo et al., 2021; Rodríguez, 2019). Referring to
Latina superintendents, Salazar Montoya and Kew (2020) stated, “All participants agreed that the
primary reasons they succeeded professionally were their resiliency, perseverance, and
commitment to the profession” (p. 7). Rodríguez (2019) reinforced the self-efficacy theme with
the following quote: “These superintendents demonstrated determination and are willing to
endure whatever ethical challenges the position presents. They have developed a strong sense of

23
self-efficacy as they have ascended a multifaceted educational career ladder and are determined
to provide equitable educational opportunities for all students” (Rodríguez, 2019, p. 3)
Culturally Responsive Efficacy
Latina superintendents prioritize students’ needs and strive for equality, inclusivity, and
diversity. According to Castillo et al. (2021), “as Latinas, they understood the importance of
respecting and preserving Mexican American cultural and linguistic customs and practices in the
daily lives of students at their schools” (p. 6). They are dedicated to promoting positive student
outcomes and tend to work in socioeconomically disadvantaged districts. They are committed to
improving education for all students while advocating for equity and cultural responsiveness.
Additionally, they value representation in communities that resemble their own and often have a
personal connection to the communities they serve (Castillo et al., 2021; Manuel & Slate, 2003;
Rodríguez, 2019; Salazar Montoya & Kew, 2020). When referring to the education setting,
Castillo et al. (2021) asserted, ‘These practices contribute to a nurturing, safe, and culturally
compatible school environment in all three districts” (Castillo et al., 2021, p. 4).
Latina superintendents are particularly drawn to rural schools in small communities,
where they can forge meaningful connections with families and engage with the community at
large. As Manuel and Slate (2003) noted, “among all women superintendents, minority women
are more likely than white women to be appointed to school districts with high percentages of
disadvantaged students” (p. 34). Mexican American female superintendents are often selected to
lead small, rural, isolated school districts with large Hispanic populations, which are viewed as
challenging districts (Rodríguez, 2019). Although Castillo et al. (2021) discussed this
population’s underrepresentation, the researchers observed that Latina women occupying
superintendent roles preferred working in rural school communities. They attribute this

24
preference to enhanced opportunities for personal communication with parents, a more
pronounced sense of family in the community, and opportunities to advocate for their schools
and communities.
Collective Efficacy
The research indicates that Latina superintendents prioritize building strong relationships
with various stakeholders, such as families and the community, through effective communication
and increased visibility. This approach fosters a collective focus on students’ needs and promotes
a more inclusive, equitable, and culturally responsive education environment. In particular, these
leaders emphasize communicating with families, recognizing their role in shaping their
children’s education experiences (Castillo et al., 2021b; Rodríguez, 2019; Salazar Montoya &
Kew, 2020). Rodríguez (2019) noted their collective efficacy in overcoming cultural disparities
and political challenges by emphasizing “the significance of social capital, sponsorship, and
networking for Latina leadership” (Rodríguez, 2019, p. 3).
Culturally Responsive School Leadership Framework
The CRSL framework enables school leaders to effectively support minoritized students
who have historically faced marginalization in schools. It centers on the effects of engaging
students, parents, teachers, and communities in a manner that fosters positive learning outcomes,
all while honoring the students’ culture (Khalifa, 2020; Khalifa & Delpit, 2018; Khalifa et al.,
2016). Khalifa et al.’s (2016) work primarily centers around the role of building leaders;
however, it emphasizes that culturally responsive school leaders operate at multiple levels and in
diverse contexts. These leaders include district-level and community leaders, teacher-leaders,
and various other positions. The authors recognized the significant influence that superintendents

25
and other district-level administrators can have on education and school reform (Khalifa et al.,
2016).
According to Khalifa and Delpit (2018), CRSL emphasizes three fundamental premises.
First, cultural responsiveness is an essential element of effective school leadership. Second,
school leaders must be the primary promoters of cultural responsiveness for it to be present and
enduring in schools. Third, a distinct set of core leadership behaviors defines CRSL.
The CRSL framework (Khalifa & Delpit, 2018) is built on four dimensions. First, the
leader engages in critical self-reflection about leadership behaviors. Culturally responsive leaders
must have a deep understanding of their cultural background and how it shapes their worldview,
as well as an understanding of the cultural backgrounds of their students, staff, and community.
Second, the leader fosters the development and sustainability of teachers and curricula that are
culturally responsive. Culturally responsive leaders must work to create a curriculum that is
responsive to their students’ cultural backgrounds and incorporates culturally relevant materials
and pedagogies. Third, the leader advocates for inclusive and anti-oppressive school
environments. Culturally responsive leaders must create an inclusive school culture that values
diversity and works to eliminate systemic barriers that may prevent students from succeeding.
They must work to dismantle systemic barriers that may prevent students from accessing
education opportunities and prioritize equity in all aspects of their leadership. They need the
right knowledge, skills, and attitudes to work with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds
effectively. Lastly, the leader actively engages with students in their community. Culturally
responsive leaders must engage with families and communities to build partnerships that support
student success and promote cultural understanding. Khalifa stated that these dimensions are
interconnected and must be integrated to create a culturally responsive school culture. He also

26
emphasizes ongoing professional development for leaders to build their cultural competence and
effectively implement this framework.
Genao (2021) explored reflexivity’s importance in CRSL. The author stated that CRSL
goes beyond superficial diversity initiatives and requires leaders to critically examine their
biases, beliefs, and assumptions about race, culture, and identity. The author emphasizes that
school leaders need to engage in ongoing self-reflection to understand their cultural backgrounds
and how these backgrounds may influence their leadership practices. Through reflexivity, school
leaders can develop a deeper understanding of the cultural dynamics in their schools and
communities and make more informed and effective decisions. Furthermore, the article
emphasizes the need for reflexivity in day-to-day leadership practices. School leaders should
regularly reflect on their interactions with students, staff, and families from diverse backgrounds
and continually evaluate the impact of their leadership on different cultural groups. Reflexivity
can help school leaders identify and address any biases or inequities in their leadership practices
and foster a more inclusive and culturally responsive school environment.
Banwo et al. (2021) focused on the concept of trust in the context of school leadership,
with an emphasis on cultural responsiveness and positivity. The authors examined trust in
building effective leadership practices in culturally diverse schools and its effect on student
outcomes. The authors noted the significance of understanding cultural nuances and being
responsive to the needs of diverse school stakeholders, including students, families, and staff, to
foster trust. The authors also discussed the role of positive leadership behaviors, such as open
communication, transparency, and fairness, in cultivating trust among school communities. They
underscored that trust is central to effective school leadership, particularly in culturally diverse

27
settings (Banwo et al., 2021). It offers insights and recommendations for education leaders to
enhance their leadership practices through a culturally responsive and positive approach.
Latina superintendents promote CRSL by leveraging their understanding of curriculum
and instruction, commitment to equitable access, and responsiveness to the needs of socially
disadvantaged students and students of color (Castillo et al., 2021b; Rodríguez, 2019; Salazar
Montoya & Kew, 2020). They establish personal connections with families, advocate for the
community, and create culturally responsive education experiences (Castillo et al., 2021b;
Rodríguez, 2019; Salazar Montoya & Kew, 2020). It can be argued that they bring a perspective
that fosters inclusive and anti-oppressive school contexts while ensuring the development and
sustainability of culturally responsive teachers and curricula. As change agents, they enhance
opportunities in education to create a supportive environment where students thrive and reach
their full potential.
In this research, I applied several theoretical frameworks to examine the participants’
CRSL. These frameworks included Latino critical race theory (LatCrit), feminist theory, and
culturally responsive leadership. I used these theories to emphasize the need for Latina
superintendents who adopt a culturally responsive perspective and to shed light on the barriers
they face in their profession. Moreover, the theories allowed me to explore the assets these
leaders bring to school communities.
LatCrit is a legal framework focusing on how race and ethnicity intersect with law,
culture, and power. It aims to expose and challenge how the legal system perpetuates racial
inequality and how it affects marginalized groups. Per Oliva et al. (2013), “a LatCrit analysis in
education examines ways in which race and racism explicitly and implicitly impact education
structures, processes, and policy discourse that affects Latinos” (p. 142). I utilized LatCrit in this

28
research to explore the obstacles and challenges Latina education leaders face in breaking
through the glass ceiling and attaining the superintendent position (Oliva et al., 2013).
Feminist theory is a social and political framework emphasizing gender as a central
category of analysis (hooks, 2014). It seeks to understand how gender intersects with other social
categories, such as race and class, and how it shapes power dynamics and social inequalities. Per
hooks (2014),
Concurrently, the efforts of black women and women of color to challenge and
deconstruct the category “woman”—the insistence on recognition that gender is not the
sole factor determining constructions of femaleness—was a critical intervention, one
which led to a profound revolution in feminist thought and truly interrogated and
disrupted the hegemonic feminist theory produced primarily by academic women, most
of whom were white. (p. 63)
Although there has been an increase in the number of Latina superintendents in the past decade,
significant discrepancies still exist. After examining statistical data regarding leadership in the
education sector, it is evident that gender disparities persist between female and male
administrators.
Culturally responsive leadership recognizes and values the cultural differences among
individuals and communities (Banwo et al., 2021; Khalifa et al., 2016). It aims to create an
inclusive and equitable learning environment that supports all students’success. Banwo et al.
(2021) emphasized that “one of the most significant objectives of culturally responsive school
leaders is the humanization of minoritized youth in and out of school” (p. 325). The lens of
culturally responsive leadership was central in research as it benefits efforts to achieve diversity,

29
equity, and inclusivity, leading to favorable outcomes for all students. Furthermore, I believe that
Latina superintendents serve as catalysts for such practices.
Cultural-Historical Activity Theory Model
The cultural-historical activity theory (CHAT) model is a framework that analyzes how
people interact with each other and their environment within a particular context (Liera, 2020). It
considers the historical, cultural, and social factors that shape human behavior and activities.
According to Liera (2020), “CHAT focuses on multiple levels at which change can occur,
including the intrapersonal (personal), interpersonal (social), and institutional” (p. 1960). I
utilized this model in this research to showcase the value of having Latina superintendents in
promoting CRSL practices. By incorporating these practices into the model, we can predict
positive academic outcomes for students of color and every student (Fiedler & Kaner, 2009;
Sumbera, 2021).
Culturally responsive leadership practices entail the incorporation of the students’
cultural backgrounds, beliefs, and experiences into the curriculum and learning environment.
This approach aims to create a safe and inclusive atmosphere for all students and increase their
engagement, motivation, and academic achievement. It recognizes the importance of cultural
diversity and acknowledges the contributions of students from different backgrounds to the
learning process.
Through the CHAT model, I examined how the participants, with their cultural awareness
and understanding, can implement culturally responsive leadership practices in school
communities. Incorporating these practices into the model can predict positive academic
outcomes for every student. This approach benefits students and fosters a more inclusive and
culturally aware education system.

30
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework is a tentative theory or model that outlines the researcher’s
comprehension of the subject matter being studied and provides an overview of the phenomena
being investigated, including their causes and effects (Maxwell, 2013). This study’s conceptual
framework focuses on Latina superintendents’ leadership and its connection to the CRSL
framework. The participant’s personal and professional experiences, culturally responsive
practices, and the education ecosystems they establish are central components of the conceptual
framework. While the CRSL framework (Khalifa et al., 2016) is acknowledged and identified in
this study’s conceptual framework, further research is required to explore its connections fully.
In Figure 1, the concepts of self-efficacy, cultural responsiveness efficacy, and collective
efficacy are depicted in circles and connected with double-headed arrows. Next is where
transformative leadership takes place, as exemplified by the development of an education
ecosystem originating from the nucleus. The education ecosystem is depicted as a square and
linked by a double-headed arrow as it is influenced by the Latina superintendent just as much as
the ecosystem influences her. The CRSL framework’s four components are linked by dashed
double-headed arrows: (a) critically self-reflects on leadership behaviors, (b) promotes culturally
responsive/inclusive school environments, (c) develops culturally responsive teachers, and (d)
engages students, parents, and indigenous contexts ( Khalifa et al., 2016). The practices and their
correlation to the CRSL framework signify the nexus made in this study, yet further research is
needed to explore the connections and effects on student outcomes.

31
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework
Conclusion
While there has been an increase in Latina superintendents in recent years, as Thomas et
al. (2023) noted, they remain underrepresented compared to their male and non-Latina
counterparts. The cause of this discrepancy requires examination, as increasing the number of
these superintendents can benefit the academic outcomes of students of color. Recent research
has highlighted these leaders’ role in implementing culturally responsive leadership practices in
their school communities. They are positioned to incorporate these practices due to their
intersectional identities and lived experiences as women of color. Moreover, given that many
serve in rural schools, it is important to understand how their experiences and leadership styles
may differ from those in urban or suburban settings. As such, exploring the barriers and

32
opportunities for Latina superintendents in rural areas will aid in creating more inclusive and
equitable education systems for all students.
Implementing CRSL practices that align with the leadership style of Latina
superintendents can significantly improve the academic outcomes of students of color in rural
school communities. Such practices include a culturally relevant curriculum, strong partnerships
with community organizations, and inclusive school cultures that value diversity and equity.
Rural school communities often serve significant numbers of students of color and face a
multitude of challenges that can hinder academic achievement. These challenges include low
academic student test results, high socioeconomic needs, and a lack of community connections to
the school community (CDE, n.d.-b). Incorporating CRSL practices can significantly benefit
these communities by creating an education environment sensitive to the cultural needs and
perspectives of the students and their families. Rural school communities can create an inclusive
and supportive education environment that empowers students of color to succeed and thrive by
intentionally integrating culturally responsive leadership practices.
School districts benefit from education ecosystems established through culturally
responsive leadership practices influenced by Latina superintendents’ gender and commitment to
meeting all students’ needs, evidenced by cultural responsiveness and proficiency. There is a
need for more studies to aid in creating an education ecosystem that is culturally inclusive,
accepts diversity, and insists on equity. There is a need for more research that directly compares
female and male superintendents and explores how gender interacts with other factors to shape
leadership in education settings. Education policymakers and administrators must value CRSL
practices and invest in school leaders’ professional development to implement these practices
effectively.

33
The CRSL framework should be widely distributed and taught in administrative courses
to ensure future leaders comprehend the importance of cultural responsiveness and its
implementation. Further research on the Latina superintendent and their culturally responsive
school leadership practices can lead to a version of the CRSL framework that focuses on this
population and can be replicated for success with students of color.

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Chapter Three Methodology
This chapter opens by revisiting the problem, purpose, and research questions initially
presented in the first chapter, setting the stage for a comprehensive exploration of the study’s
framework. It presents the research methodology, providing an in-depth examination of the
setting and participants involved, techniques for data collection, analysis methodology, and the
ethical standards upheld throughout the study. The chapter culminates with a succinct summary
of the methodology employed and a preview of Chapters Four and Five.
Restatement of Problem, Purpose, and Research Questions
The current demographics of educators, principals, and superintendents do not reflect the
student body in today’s schools. Additionally, the lack of equity, access, inclusivity, and
acceptance of diversity in organizational systems in the education system requires cultural
responsiveness that fosters academic achievement for all students (Kumar et al., 2018).
Considering these two factors, it is noteworthy that although there is a significant presence of
females in the education sector, their representation in leadership roles is notably lower than that
of men. This underrepresentation is further exacerbated when considering women of color. The
purpose of this study was to examine the experiences of Latina superintendents in rural school
communities, including the barriers and challenges they face in pursuing the superintendency,
their contributions to the school community, and the identification and implementation of
culturally responsive leadership practices.
Research on Latina superintendents’ tendency to work in rural settings supports the
selection of these communities as this study’s context (Castillo et al., 2021). As a superintendent
in a rural school district, my objective is twofold: to showcase Latina superintendents’
contributions and illustrate how these roles extend beyond the school setting to benefit the wider

35
community. Furthermore, this study focused on a culturally responsive approach that prioritizes
students’ holistic development, leading to favorable student outcomes.
To enhance the validity and build on prior research, I cross-referenced the culturally
responsive leadership practices identified in this study with the CRSL framework (Khalifa et al.,
2016). Doing so ensured alignment and strengthened the foundation of my findings. It is worth
noting that the applicability and generalizability of the study’s findings are not limited to rural
school communities alone. They can be replicated in diverse settings, broadening their scope of
relevance and impact. Therefore, this study aimed to address the following two research
questions:
1. What leadership practices do Latina superintendents in rural California schools
identify in support of cultural responsiveness?
2. What impact, if any, do Latina superintendents in rural California schools believe
their leadership practices have on their school community?
Research Design
As the study’s objective was to gather information based on the participants’ personal
experiences, a qualitative methodology was employed, utilizing one-on-one interviews to gain
insight into the participants’ experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). This study involved
conducting semi-structured face-to-face interviews, which allowed for flexibility in gathering
“specific information” about the experiences of the Latina superintendent. Moreover, this format
allowed me to “respond to the emerging worldview of the respondent and the new ideas on the
topic” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015, pp. 110–111). The gathering of participants’ authentic
responses was expected to provide a more comprehensive understanding of their views regarding
culturally responsive leadership and implementing culturally responsive practices. By collecting

36
data through personal interviews, this study sought to gain insight into the path the interviewees
took to reach the superintendency, the effectiveness of their leadership practices in promoting
cultural responsiveness in their school communities, and the impact on students of color. As the
research instrument, interviews served to better understand their experiences. Narratives attained
of the “social practices” (Lochmiller & Lester, 2016, p. 93) from the participants aligned with
qualitative research and provided much insight.
Sample and Population
District-level and community-based leaders, alongside teacher-leaders, have been
identified as having an impact on affecting positive student achievement outcomes (Khalifa et
al., 2016). California superintendents face a significant responsibility in ensuring that their
schools meet the diverse needs of students, families, educators, and the entire local education
agency, which requires truly transformative leadership. A central aspect of this responsibility is
fostering a culture of diversity, equity, and inclusivity in their school communities through
cultural responsiveness. Therefore, those who can offer unique perspectives and insights on the
topics of superintendency, CRSL practices, and the successful implementation of such practices
in rural California school districts are Latina female superintendents.
The approximate size of the nonprobability sampling was 10 to 12. Arriaga et al. (2020)
stated, “Our best reporting shows that women make up 75% of teachers, 52% of principals, and
fewer than 25% of superintendents.” (p. 3). Therefore, the sample reflects the small number of
Latinas currently serving as superintendents in rural California school districts; nonetheless, the
identified samples will “support the study” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015, p. 101). Merriam and
Tisdell (2015) argued that the number of participants, sites, or activities required to answer the
research question should be adequate rather than numerous, and purposeful sampling must be

37
used in qualitative studies to help select participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Therefore, this
purposeful sampling was built with the specific criteria of California Latina female
superintendents to examine their personal experiences and intentionality in implementing
culturally responsive practices (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).
I identified participants through associations such as the Association of California School
Administrators, the California Association of Latino/a School Administrators, and personal
connections. Because of the small number of female Latina superintendents in rural California
school districts, purposeful nonprobability sampling yielded a more comprehensive
understanding of their perspectives and experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). According to
Patton (2001), the goal of interviewing is to gain insight into the other person’s perspective. In
this study’s interview, the open-ended questions will be tailored to the superintendency, cultural
responsiveness, leadership practices, and the four overarching components of the CRSL
framework to explore and obtain more information from the participants. Encompassed within
the core set of distinct leadership behaviors in the CRSL framework are the following
components: (a) fostering critical self-reflection, (b) cultivating culturally responsive teachers
and curricula, (c) advocating for inclusive and anti-oppressive school environments, and (d)
actively involving students’ community contexts (Khalifa, 2020; Khalifa & Delpit, 2018; Khalifa
et al., 2016).
Limitations in design choices can compromise the authenticity of research findings. In
the current study, focusing solely on Latina superintendents may not have provided a
comprehensive understanding of the experiences of all superintendents and all effective
culturally responsive leadership practices. Moreover, selecting participants because they share
beliefs and experiences with me could have resulted in biased findings that do not accurately

38
represent culturally responsive school leaders. Thus, this study required transparency about the
study’s design and limitations.
As a Latina currently serving as superintendent in a rural California school, I am aware of
my personal biases, beliefs, and perspectives about CRSL. To ensure subjectivity, I consciously
acknowledged and managed my positionality and interpretation of the participants’ responses.
Additionally, I employed strategies to improve the instrument and address potential sources of
error, such as selecting terminology the participants recognized to ensure generalizability in
response to the concept of CRSL.
However, the study’s limitation lies in the sampling of participants, as approximately
only 3.72% of superintendents in the United States are Hispanic/Latina (Thomas et al., 2023),
and the focus was solely on those in rural California school districts. The population of focus
limits the findings’ generalizability.
Instrumentation
This research adopted qualitative methodology, employing an interview protocol that
comprised 14 questions (see Appendix A) crafted to resonate with the participants’ experiences
and viewpoints on CRSL practices. To uphold reliability and validity, the survey instrument
featured open-ended questions designed to elicit detailed insights from the target demographic.
The interviews, lasting between 45 and 60 minutes, were conducted in person to capture the
nuanced experiences and interpretations of the participants, in line with Merriam and Tisdell
(2015). The construction of the survey items ensured clarity and comprehension, utilizing
straightforward language and terminology familiar to the participants while avoiding biased or
leading questions. Furthermore, the survey administration was planned to guarantee

39
confidentiality and anonymity, accompanied by clear instructions and sufficient time for
responses, thereby ensuring that participants felt secure and valued throughout the process.
Maxwell (2013) stated,
The relationships that you create with participants in your study (and also with others,
sometimes called “gatekeepers,” who can facilitate or interfere with your study) are an
essential part of your methods, and how you initiate and negotiate these relationships is a
key design decision. (p. 90)
To build trust and rapport, I provided ample explanation of the study and its use prior to and at
the onset of the interview. I informed the participant that the interview would be recorded, with
all recordings to be secured and only accessible to me on my computer. Acknowledging that the
study participants would disclose personal information concerning their career barriers and
challenges, I ensured that they felt comfortable sharing their experiences and that their privacy
was protected.
The education setting is characterized by power dynamics that involve various entities,
including leadership, teachers, the school board, and the community. An essential aspect of these
power dynamics is the ability to have open discussions about equity, diversity, inclusivity, and
access. The topics of race, gender, and cultural sensitivity could create uncomfortable situations,
as individuals may interpret experiences and interactions differently based on their lived
experiences. As Milner (2007) noted, researchers and participants in a study may have varying
perspectives and understandings. Therefore, race, gender, and cultural sensitivity may prompt
participants to reflect on their personal and professional experiences, potentially causing
discomfort.

40
Milner (2007) asserted that researchers must avoid the dangers of the “seen, unseen, and
unforeseen” (p. 392), and it is with his work in mind that I addressed the issues of power and
positionality. To avoid the issues of power and positionality, I ensured I did not share my
personal epistemologies and approaches to CRSL with the participants so as not to influence,
exploit, or misrepresent their feedback (Milner, 2007). The dual relationship with participants as
colleagues and friends risked a perceived obligation or coercion to take part in this study. To
counteract this concern, I ensured they had multiple opportunities to opt out, emphasizing their
participation as completely voluntary. Moreover, I adhered to the guidelines set forth by Milner
(2007), who advocated for deliberate measures to foster a heightened sense of awareness and
critical reflection in the execution of education research, thereby upholding the integrity and
ethical rigor of the study.
The Researcher
As a Latina superintendent leading a rural California school district, my personal journey
and experiences profoundly influenced my dedication to combatting disparities in education and
crafting a brighter future for students and families alike. This dedication is fueled by a resolve to
confront and dismantle inequities, challenge the structures of inequality, and nurture an
environment of hope. In the face of social injustices, I am committed to adopting and promoting
an educational philosophy anchored in love, hope, equity, and resilience, aiming to enact
meaningful and enduring changes in the lives of our students. My own narrative, marked by my
experiences as a K–12 student in a similar rural setting and my ascent as a woman of color
navigating and overcoming the obstacles on the path to superintendency, propels me to challenge
the status quo vigorously. This blend of personal encounters and professional evolution drives

41
my determination to transcend barriers and guarantee that every student has the opportunity for a
high-quality education.
Despite the distinct characteristics of rural and urban communities, they share challenges,
such as barriers to access, linguistic obstacles, underperforming schools, socioeconomic divides,
insufficient funding, and persistent inequities. The demographic changes spurred by the COVID19 pandemic underscored the need for responsive and inclusive education leaders. Therefore,
there is a correlated need for research on rural school communities. These communities merit
equal consideration and representation in the discourse on education reform, ensuring they are
fully integrated and acknowledged in the pursuit of educational excellence (Massey et al., 2014).
The individuals considered for participation in this study were more than just colleagues;
they were friends. As a superintendent, I am aware and understand that my positionality may be
viewed through a lens of authority. Yet, it was imperative to explore the interplay of leadership
techniques, cultural sensitivity, strategic district priorities, and the leadership expertise required
to guide education systems toward excellence for every student. It was essential to recognize and
critically examine the participants’ culturally responsive leadership practices. Highlighting their
contributions and experiences validates their work and aids in creating a more inclusive and
empowering atmosphere in schools, ultimately benefiting all students.
Latina superintendents’ leadership warrants further examination. Thus, this study’s
importance stems from its aim to offer both representation and inspiration while addressing the
needs of students of color. It is imperative to acknowledge and emulate successful leadership
practices for all students’ enrichment. Moreover, my goal was to highlight the participants’
leadership as their approaches merit recognition.

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Data Collection
Data collection for this study involved note-taking and video recording, with questions
being asked via Zoom to elicit in-depth responses. A semi-structured interview protocol was
employed to allow for flexibility in questioning strategies, as recommended by Lochmiller and
Lester (2016). Additional questions were posed throughout the interview to gain a more
comprehensive understanding of the participant’s experience, and open-ended and clarifying
questions were incorporated, as suggested by Lochmiller and Lester. I generated verbatim
transcripts from the interview recordings to ensure accuracy in data analysis.
Data Analysis
I recorded each interview through Zoom. I then transcribed the recording into a secured
Microsoft Word document. I saved the interview responses under an isolated file alias and gave it
a code to protect the interviewee’s identity. The data analysis began with reading each transcript
to familiarize myself with the content. I read the interview transcripts repeatedly to discern
participants’ perceptions. I then used the case study coding procedure to synthesize the data by
separating the text of the transcripts into themes and then refining these general themes into more
specific terms. I coded the data and analyzed them in the context of the literature review, the
conceptual framework, and the CRSL framework.
I described and developed the themes from the data to answer the research questions. I
created a coding mechanism in which I identified and subcategorized the themes. I read the data
closely and identified the recurring perceptions and terminologies, which I also coded and placed
in the categories. The data analysis took place over 6 weeks. During this time, I labeled and
organized all interview data. I utilized the ATLAS.ti system to assist me in identifying themes
and trends in the data and cross-reference them from the data coding.

43
Summary
This research utilized a qualitative methodology, leveraging the online platform Zoom to
conduct in-depth interviews and gathering demographic data through surveys. Centering on
conversations with seven Latina superintendents from rural Californian schools, this study
delved into their culturally responsive leadership practices and the effects these have on their
education communities. Two research questions anchored the investigation:
1. What leadership practices do Latina superintendents in rural California schools
identify in support of cultural responsiveness?
2. What impact, if any, do Latina superintendents in rural California schools believe
their leadership practices have on their school community?
The insights derived from this inquiry and the subsequent discussions are detailed in Chapters
Four and Five. The results showcase the contributions and implications of their leadership in
fostering inclusive and equitable education ecosystems.

44
Chapter Four: Results and Findings
This chapter synthesizes the findings from this qualitative study of Latina superintendents
leading rural California schools. The research is anchored in the conceptual framework focused
on CRSL, which is essential for understanding the dynamics of this population’s education
leadership. The emphasis on this group arises from their underrepresentation and the distinctive
leadership practices they implement to lead rural school districts. The primary objective of this
research was to explore the participants’ culturally responsive leadership practices. This study
stems from the growing need for CRSL structures that effectively address the diverse needs of
students of color and marginalized students in impoverished communities. Also, the research
sought to correlate these practices with the CRSL framework, as Khalifa et al. (2016) outlined.
This framework provides a structured lens through which to examine and understand culturally
responsive leadership practices.
Furthermore, the study sought to shed light on the challenges and the factors motivating
the participants to pursue and sustain careers in rural school districts. Understanding these
challenges and motivations will aid in developing strategies to recruit and retain more diverse
leaders in all education contexts.
The ensuing narrative details the responses and insights gathered through interviews,
providing an understanding of the leadership dynamics in this context. The research questions
serve as a framework, driving the exploration into the participants’ motivations, challenges, and
impactful leadership practices. The following research questions guided the study:
1. What leadership practices do Latina superintendents in rural California schools
identify in support of cultural responsiveness?

45
2. What impact, if any, do Latina superintendents in rural California schools believe
their leadership practices have on their school community?
The data collection encompassed qualitative interviews conducted through Zoom video
conferencing in a one-on-one format. Additionally, a screening survey (Appendix B) protocol
tool was employed to gather fundamental information. This tool included details such as gender,
years of experience as a superintendent, overall years of experience in education, educational
attainment, self-identification as Latina or not, age range, and information about the district,
including its rural classification. The interviews, lasting approximately 60 minutes, followed a
semi-structured interview protocol. In analyzing the interview transcripts, I identified themes in
accordance with the influences identified in the literature review, research questions, and the
interview protocol. This chapter will examine the participants’ collective contribution of
experiences, strategies, supports, and impacts as they lead with cultural proficiency and how
their leadership reflects their cultural identity.
Participants
Identifying and securing the commitment of participants for this study presented
significant challenges. As I navigated this process, I was acutely aware of my positionality and
its potential impact on the participants. It was imperative to ensure they did not feel any undue
expectation or pressure to participate due to our pre-existing relationships, as maintaining the
integrity and voluntary nature of their involvement was essential. Despite my extensive network
and efforts to recruit participants, I frequently encountered difficulties finalizing their
commitment. Several of those who initially expressed interest ultimately could not participate,
highlighting the demanding nature of their roles. Their work responsibilities often left little
capacity for additional engagements. This lack of participation was not a case of outright refusal

46
but rather a reflection of the relentless workload and the pervasive “always-on” culture among
superintendents in rural settings, a reality I deeply understand.
The scarcity of Latina superintendents in rural California further complicated the
recruitment. While there are approximately 1,000 school districts in the state, only a fraction are
rural, and an even smaller subset is led by Latinas. Additionally, while I used various methods to
identify participants, pinpointing rural school districts proved challenging. The classification of a
district as rural is not straightforward and often involves individually examining each district
based on enrollment numbers. For this study, I used the SSDA definition of a small school
district, which considers school districts with an enrollment of 5,000 or fewer students as rural.
This approach was necessary due to the absence of clear guidelines from the CDE, which
currently does not offer resources to definitively identify rural schools or provide information
about the superintendents leading these districts. Despite these hurdles, the insights gleaned shed
light on Latina leaders’ underexplored experiences in rural education settings.
The study examined the professional roles of seven Latina education leaders who were
superintendents at public rural school districts in California during the 2023–2024 school year.
Superintendents are the executive leaders of school districts. In this capacity, they have
overarching responsibilities such as developing and enforcing district policies, overseeing the
implementation of education programs, managing the district’s finances, and ensuring that all
operations align with state and federal education laws. They serve as the key reporting officials
to the school board, shaping the strategy and vision for the schools under their jurisdiction.
Three of these leaders also performed a dual role as superintendent/principal. This
combined role is most encountered in smaller, rural school districts with limited resources and a
smaller student population. A superintendent/principal manages the district-level responsibilities

47
and takes on the day-to-day administrative tasks of running an individual school. This includes
direct school staff management, overseeing student discipline, fostering a safe education
environment, liaising with parents, and ensuring curriculum delivery. The dual role is particularly
challenging due to the breadth of responsibility. It requires a leader who is adept at high-level
management and strategic planning and who has the hands-on ability to address a school’s
immediate needs. This position is emblematic of the adaptability and commitment necessary to
lead within the constraints of rural education settings, where one must often balance the broad
view with the direct touch.
Three interviewees oversaw districts spanning from TK to 12th grade, while four were
responsible for districts covering TK through 8th grade. Furthermore, the three who served as
superintendent/principal managed single-school districts. In these districts, only one school
enrolls all the students in the area, and as such, these leaders are responsible for both the districtlevel and school-level administration. Typically, their offices are located on the school premises
and function dually as the school’s administrative office and the district’s central office. This
arrangement facilitates a close integration of district and school operations, allowing the
superintendent/principal to efficiently oversee and direct all aspects of education leadership in
the community.
All participants identify as female and Latina. Most of their ages were within the range of
51 to 60, suggesting a concentration of experienced leaders in this study. A consistent trend
emerged in the highest level of education attained, with the majority holding master’s degrees
while one had earned a doctorate. They had a range of experience in the field of education, with
a concentration in the category of 21 to 30 years. The range of years as a superintendent varied,
with a noticeable presence of experienced leaders, particularly in the category of 9 to 10 years.

48
All led school districts classified as rural at the time of this study. The student populations in
these districts varied, with the majority falling within the ranges of 101 to 500 and 2,001 to
3,000, reflecting diversity in the sizes still within the identified range of under 5,000 to be
recognized as a rural district.
The participants volunteered to be interviewed after receiving an email invitation from
me. Confidentiality was maintained to not divulge participants or their districts of origin.
Interviews yielded a range of responses related to attaining the superintendency, their desire to
work in a rural school district, and their leadership approach in a rural school district. In
summation, the participants in this study represent a cohort of experienced Latina female leaders
navigating the complexities of leadership in rural California school districts. Their shared
demographic attributes and diverse professional backgrounds underscore the role of leadership in
addressing the needs of rural education settings and their students. Table 1 outlines the
pseudonyms used for interviewees and their associated personal and professional demographic
information.

Table 1
Participant Personal and Professional Demographic Information
Pseudonym Age Highest
education
Experience as a
superintendent
Title Years in
education
Approximate
student
population
District
type
Andrea 51-60 Master’s degree 3–5 Superintendent 31–35 2,001–3,000 TK–12
Gabriella 61+ Master’s degree 6–8 Superintendent/
principal
21–30 101–500 TK–8
Margarita 51–60 Master’s degree 6–8 Superintendent 31–30 501–1,000 TK–12
Sabrina 41–50 Doctorate 1–2 Superintendent/
principal
21–30 1,001–2,000 TK–8
Patricia 51–60 Master’s degree 3–5 Superintendent 36+ 2,001–3,000 TK–8
Daniella 51–60 Master’s degree 9–10 Superintendent 31–35 4,001–5,000 TK–12
Amelia 41–50 Master’s degree 9–10 Superintendent/
principal
21–30 101–500 TK–8
49

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Setting the Scene: Latina Leadership in Rural California Schools
Effectively introducing the participants’ leadership experiences requires acknowledging
their distinctive aspects and rural school settings. I designed the interview protocol to uncover
insights, emotional nuances, characteristics, challenges, and motivations shaping their
experiences, aiming to understand the complexities and driving forces behind their leadership in
these settings. This exploration is significant as it sheds light on the multifaceted nature of their
roles, navigating the complexities of gender and ethnicity in leadership, and the distinctive
challenges of managing rural schools. These elements collectively lay the groundwork for their
leadership approaches, offering an understanding of their impact and the resilience they embody
in their education communities.
Latina Superintendents
The participants embody resilience and pioneering spirit as they navigate the complex
intersection of their identities as women and Latinas. Their leadership is marked by overcoming
biases, discrimination, and stereotypes, challenging the prejudiced perceptions of their
competence. Many are the first in their districts to break through cultural and gender barriers,
exemplified by Lupe’s words: “I am the first woman Latina to be superintendent in this district
… If I can do it, anybody can do it.” Their experiences underscore the gender-specific challenges
they face and those uniquely tied to their Latina heritage, blending professional authority with
societal expectations of femininity.
Amelia and Isabela’s experiences shed light on the scrutiny Latina superintendents
endure. Amelia offers insight into these challenges, remarking,
I think that is even something more challenging for Latinas because of all of the
expectations culturally that we’re supposed to be, not just as women but also as a Latina

51
woman because we all know that there’s different expectations that our parents have of
us.
This comment illuminates the scrutiny Latina superintendents navigate, arising from entrenched
stereotypes and the intensified examination linked to their minority status in leadership roles.
This multifaceted scrutiny affects their professional judgment and leadership style, and they
often question their authority in ways their male or non-minority counterparts do not commonly
experience. Moreover, these leaders contend with balancing their professional responsibilities
with personal roles as mothers and caregivers, stemming from societal pressures that demand
excellence in both spheres. Andrea’s admission reflected the intricacies of managing these dual
responsibilities: “As the Latina and as a mother, that was really, really hard.” Her words
encapsulate the participants’ broader experience of striving to fulfill their roles effectively while
navigating cultural expectations, professional obligations, and personal commitments. This
experience underscores the resilience and versatility required to thrive, further emphasizing the
need for supportive structures that acknowledge and address the challenges women and ethnic
minorities face in education leadership.
Facing sexism, biases, and discrimination in the workplace, these superintendents
confront challenges like ‘machismo’ and the need to prove their competence and authority
continually. Sabrina’s recount of being labeled a “flawed woman” illustrates the gender bias they
endure. Moreover, the isolation felt in professional settings, as highlighted by Daniella’s
experience, underscores the need for greater diversity and inclusion in leadership roles:
You go to the county superintendents’ meetings where you are the only female Latina.
There’s no one else but you. There are a few Latino males, but you’re the only one and in

52
fact, I was the only one up until 2 and a half years ago. Now I’m the only one again. So
that’s a problem.
Her statement illustrates solitude and challenges and denotes a need to foster a more inclusive
environment that actively embraces and promotes diversity in education leadership.
The participants face and challenge the cultural stereotypes and biases inherent in their
roles and serve as beacons of representation and role models in their communities, embodying
leadership that goes beyond mere role fulfillment. They bridge language and cultural gaps,
authentically representing and supporting their communities, as evidenced by Gabriela’s efforts:
“My community is hearing the voice of our people, of our families.” Their careers are
characterized by steadfast navigation through a landscape filled with cultural insights and
challenges, from confronting ethnic biases to breaking stereotypes, all while leading and
instigating change in their education communities. Their stories, a testament to the strengths they
bring to their positions, underscored by their cultural background and empathetic understanding,
illuminate lessons in diversity, representation, and resilience in leadership amid adversity.
Rural Schools
Superintendents in rural California school districts face distinct challenges primarily
centered around staff recruitment and retention and navigating political and community
pressures. These leaders exhibit resilience and a commitment to improving education outcomes
despite the hurdles unique to rural settings. The primary challenge lies in attracting and retaining
qualified staff, a task made difficult by these districts’ remote, resource-scarce nature. Andrea
and Gabriela articulated the struggle of filling positions in geographically spread areas that lack
local amenities, which deters potential staff from committing long-term. This difficulty is

53
exacerbated by the need for creative budgeting to offer competitive compensation and limited
housing options, further complicating recruitment.
Moreover, the political landscape presents its own set of obstacles. Superintendents in
small, often unincorporated communities face a detachment from broader political activities,
with external entities making decisions that sometimes overlook the needs of the local schools
and students. Amelia voiced concerns over the lack of consideration from city politicians for the
education community’s needs. Despite these challenges, superintendents remain involved in their
communities, attending local and county government meetings to advocate for their students and
schools. Their involvement ensures they can navigate rural districts’ political and external
pressures. The superintendent often assumes multiple roles due to the district’s central place in
the community and the absence of a broader municipal infrastructure.
The participants’ narratives about the intersection of gender and cultural identity revealed
complex challenges and triumphs. These leaders confront the universal barriers inherent to
women in leadership and navigate the difficulties unique to their heritage. Their experiences with
diversity, representation, and resilience enabled an in-depth exploration of the strategies they use
to address the challenges of rural school leadership. Additionally, they highlight the need for
more support and recognition of the challenges in rural education. The participants’ stories
allowed for an examination of their supports, impacts, and leadership. This study’s theoretical
framework grounded the data analysis, as discussed in the following sections.
Results for Research Question 1
The first research question concerned the specific approaches and methods the
participants identified as effective in fostering a culturally responsive environment. This line of
inquiry emerged from the fact that cultural responsiveness is central to valuing diversity,

54
fostering learning environments, and enabling respectful interactions with individuals from
various cultural backgrounds. In education leadership, this cultural responsiveness involves
awareness, respect, and a proactive approach to the cultural backgrounds and norms of diverse
student populations. The specific practices the participants identified enhance culturally
responsive leadership in similar contexts.
I specifically crafted Interview Protocol Questions 6 through 8 and 10 to elicit insights
into the leadership practices the participants implement to foster cultural responsiveness.
Although some interviewees indicated they were unfamiliar with the specific definition of
“culturally responsive,” they had an innate understanding of its principles. They connected with
the core of cultural responsiveness, demonstrating its natural integration into their leadership.
Significantly, three cohesive yet distinctive themes surfaced in their dialogue. Relevant to the
rural education contexts and the leadership teams they oversee, these themes reflect a natural
connection with culturally responsive school leadership practices as defined in the CRSL
framework. Based on the interview responses, three key themes emerged among all seven
participants. These themes highlight the most common and significant areas of impact and focus
in their leadership roles.
Theme 1: Empowering Voices and Bridging Gaps
The theme of empowering voices and bridging gaps connects with the CRSL framework,
which promotes an educational approach of directly engaging with students’ cultural, emotional,
and academic needs and advocating for culturally responsive policies and practices to foster
equity and educational excellence. The emphasis on empowering voices aligns with the
framework’s focus on amplifying the voices of students, families, and communities, ensuring
their participation in decision-making, and acknowledging their diverse experiences as vital to

55
addressing systemic inequities. Simultaneously, the bridging gaps aspect underscores the CRSL
framework’s commitment to eradicating disparities in education through culturally responsive
teaching and leadership. The framework encourages the use of data to look beyond mere
academic performance to consider the whole spectrum of a student’s development, including
social, emotional, and cultural facets. Such a holistic approach is aimed at breaking down
barriers and fostering an inclusive education environment where every student, regardless of
background, can succeed.
Every participant recognized the significance of this theme, underscoring its universal
relevance. Their collective insights reflect a dedicated effort to confront disparities and cater to
students’ individual needs. Simultaneously, their consistent narratives and shared experiences
powerfully illustrate their dedication and leadership rooted in data-driven practices that address
the whole child, academically and social-emotionally. Margarita emphasized understanding each
student, saying, “We get to know our students very uniquely and on a personal level, and we’re
able to meet those needs.” She added, “Be strategic about finding the gaps both for academics
and social-emotional support.” Meanwhile, Daniella asserted the importance of fairness in
education: “Our goal as leaders is to ensure that every student has an equitable education.”
Finally, regarding data usage, all participants highlighted regular data analysis to meet
students’ needs. For instance, Sabrina mentioned “having conferences with the teachers and
looking at every single student individually and what their needs are and having those data
discussions.” Similarly, Amelia stated,
We typically will look at data. We’ll look at our subgroups. Look to see if there’s any
specific demographic that is doing better than others. And we’re looking to see what

56
we’re doing for one group that we’re not doing for others or what’s working for one
group that isn’t working for others.
The participants reflected a commitment to equity and advocacy by actively working to
dismantle systemic barriers that impede student achievement, guided by data and their learners’
specific needs. They recognized the importance of valuing each student’s voice, ensuring their
well-being, and enhancing cultural understanding. They work toward systems and structures that
ensure fairness and open doors for all, strengthening the theme’s dedication to empowering every
student’s future in an inclusive, equitable education ecosystem.
Theme 2: Honoring Diversity and Access
The theme of honoring diversity and access aligns with the CRSL framework. Khalifa’s
framework calls for education leaders to be culturally responsive, which involves recognizing,
respecting, and utilizing the cultural backgrounds of the school community as assets in the
learning environment. This theme resonated with all participants, with five providing specific
instances that recognize and integrate cultural experiences for their students, such as dual
immersion programs. This theme underscores the importance of fostering an inclusive
environment that honors diversity and ensures everyone feels valued, promoting a sense of
belonging and support. It respects individuals’ cultural backgrounds and experiences, embraces
multilingualism, and reinforces the connections that define cultural responsiveness, aligning with
culturally responsive pedagogy.
By cultivating inclusion and access, leaders who embody Khalifa’s CRSL framework
foster a school climate where diversity is not merely acknowledged but is actively engaged to
inform curriculum development, teaching practices, and administrative policies. Participants
provided various accounts that reinforced the significance of the theme as they addressed

57
inclusive and accessible student learning opportunities that expand upon their education
pathways and extra and co-curricular activities. Participants prioritized the development of
programs that celebrate and expand upon various cultural backgrounds. This included initiatives
like dual immersion, various cultural celebrations, and fostering personal relationships with
students and their families. Sabrina highlighted recognizing each student’s contributions: “We
see them in an asset-based model. You know what’s their voice? Who are they? And making
sure that we are utilizing that information within what we’re teaching.” Isabela also shared her
approach, noting, “We do celebrate different events at different times of the year. We do have a
dual language program to honor those families that want to keep that language going.”
Throughout the interviews, this theme is a clear focus. The superintendents consistently
stressed empathy, recognizing students’ and families’ challenges, and the desire to honor and
expand on their cultural backgrounds. The recounted experiences and practices offer an
understanding of this theme, which facilitates an education ecosystem that addresses students’
cultural and personal needs and ensures that all students can succeed regardless of their cultural,
linguistic, or socioeconomic background.
Theme 3: United for Progress
The theme of being united for progress is integral to the CRSL framework and strongly
emphasizes the role of school leaders in engaging with the community and building relationships
that transcend the confines of the school environment. Khalifa asserted that culturally responsive
leaders must collaborate with families and community members to create a shared vision for
educational success and equity (Khalifa et al., 2016). All participants emphasized their
intentional efforts to collaborate with families to address students’ academic, social-emotional,
and health needs. They also sought parental input on education matters, including the local

58
control and accountability plan and various other task forces. The participants’ actions highlight
how collective listening and effective leadership foster a supportive and engaged education
ecosystem.
In fostering connections with families, leaders adopt a key tenet of the CRSL framework:
engagement with and understanding of the community. Leaders can harness their communities’
cultural wealth and knowledge by uniting families in the educational process. This collaborative
approach promotes a partnership that is vital for student progress and school improvement.
Andrea illustrates this commitment by sharing, “I’m at sites. I’m in classrooms. Talking with
staff and with parents who are pushing the strollers across the street.” Similarly, Isabela noted, “I
think it is our responsibility to make sure our families are heard.” Gabriella added, “I think our
role is educating our children. It’s educating our families. It’s bringing resources to them.”
Finally, Margarita emphasized collaboration: “It takes a team of people [students, staff, and
families] working together in order to identify where those gaps are that we need to be strategic
about it.”
Some participants discussed forming intentional partnerships with the broader
community through civic organizations. Others, limited by the rural, unincorporated nature of
communities that lack such partnership opportunities, still engaged actively in their communities.
They participated in local events and interacted with key figures like city or county councils and
board members, who are recognized as community leaders. While representing a smaller,
nonetheless important fraction of two out of seven, participants also emphasized fostering
relationships with the school board as leadership practices that enhance cultural responsiveness
and account for student progress. Andrea stated,

59
The board sets policy. But you recommend policy to the board. And so, when you
recommend policy to the board, that has a direct impact to address. I don’t want to say
social injustice, but to address the needs specific to students who are the neediest.”
Isabela stated, “We are culturally responsive when we get involved in the community.” This
theme aligns with Khalifa’s framework by promoting a holistic approach to student development
and ensuring that the community and school are co-contributors to every student’s progress and
well-being. At the heart of this theme is communication and relationship building to establish
strong, trust-based connections with families.
The results from Research Question 1 revealed that, for the participants, embodying
CRSL practices involves multiple facets, including ensuring accessibility and inclusivity,
engaging with families and the community, and employing ongoing data analysis. Their
commitment to these areas is reshaping their schools into culturally conscious, responsive, and
empowering environments for all students. The significance of forging strong relationships with
families and communities highlights the role of direct engagement and shared responsibility in
creating a welcoming education setting. Each participant, as an agent of change in her district,
found that meeting students’ needs is a key element in developing a culturally responsive school
district with a focus on positive student outcomes. The themes that address this research question
are central to establishing and maintaining an education ecosystem that champions cultural
responsiveness and supports every student.
Results for Research Question 2
The second research question pertained to the impact the participants believe their
leadership has on their school communities. This question probes the extent of their leadership’s
influence. Leadership is multifaceted, encompassing a process, a level of influence, the

60
establishment of a group dynamic, and a common set of goals. Leadership is not a static quality
but a dynamic interaction between leaders and followers, indicating that leadership is both
influential and reciprocal. Northouse (2022) underscored that “Influence is the sine qua none of
leadership. Without influence, leadership does not exist” (p. 7). The study sought to interpret
how the participants viewed their effectiveness in leading and influencing the direction of their
school communities.
To understand the participants’ influence, it is essential to identify the specific leadership
practices they perceive as effective. The importance of these practices lies in their potential to
enhance culturally responsive leadership in comparable education settings. The primary focus
was to address student needs, and the participants’ insights underscore this commitment.
Through their narratives, three prominent themes emerged, shedding light on the impact of their
leadership. These themes, responsiveness, inclusiveness, and a focus on community, collectively
characterize these superintendents’ transformative effect on their school ecosystems and
organically connect to the CRSL framework. Notably, these leaders have navigated challenges to
shape the education landscape. The responses that informed this analysis were drawn from
Questions 5 and 11 through 13 of the interview protocol, specifically selected to explore the
depth and breadth of their impact.
Theme 1: Informed and Responsive Leadership
The theme of informed and responsive leadership closely aligns with the CRSL
framework and embodies effective leadership practices. The framework centers on the need for
leaders to be informed about the cultural contexts of their schools and to respond to this
knowledge by implementing strategies that support all students’ cultural, academic, and socialemotional needs. Moreover, this theme reflects the framework’s emphasis on using empirical

61
evidence to guide education practices and support diverse student populations. It encourages
leaders to analyze data in terms of academic performance and in the context of the students’
cultural and community assets.
Daniella acknowledged the centrality of data: “We do a lot of data decision-making. Our
data drives everything we do.” This reliance on evidence underscores a commitment to
personalized support that addresses each student’s needs. Furthermore, the theme encapsulates
the role of leaders as advocates, ensuring equitable opportunities and amplifying
underrepresented voices in the education landscape. Amelia captured this sentiment: “I think that
my district needed a strong leader. Someone they felt would be able to handle a situation and
make decisions based on what was right for kids.” The advocacy extends into the realm of
resources and understanding, as Gabriella emphasized:
I will go out of my way to make sure that other staff members understand who our
children are and what their needs are. And so, I’m the voice. I want to be the advocate. I
do my darndest to make sure that they have the resources they need.
Every participant highlighted the theme of informed and responsive leadership, which
interlaces the student-centered approach of data-based decisions with advocacy and robust
support. This unanimous acknowledgment refers to the core and commitment inherent in the
participants’ responsive leadership practices, ensuring that students’ needs are met. The theme is
grounded in the meticulous use of data to shape informed choices, particularly for those in
marginalized or diverse groups. The CRSL framework highlights advocacy and support as a
means of promoting social justice and equity, which involves leaders taking an active role in
advocating for policies and practices that ensure all students have equal opportunities to succeed,
all of which were evident among the participants’ responses, such as holding consistent and

62
regularly monitored data chats and professional learning communities. These perspectives
present a leadership style informed by data and responsive to the education community’s calls for
advocacy and support.
Theme 2: Inclusive and Relational Leadership
The theme of inclusive and relational leadership connects to the CRSL framework,
aligning with the foundational principles of inclusivity, fairness, and personal connections. This
theme underscores the importance of creating inclusive environments that respect and value all
cultures and reflects a deep commitment to ensuring equitable and just practices for all students.
Addressing the equitable allocation of resources and the creation of opportunities for all students
to succeed further aligns with the CRSL framework, specifically promoting a vision for an
inclusive practice that urges leaders to continually assess and adjust their policies to overcome
any systemic biases, ensuring a fair education setting for every student. Moreover, leaders
aiming to be culturally responsive must establish meaningful relationships with students, staff,
and the broader community. Such relationships lead to an understanding of each student’s needs
and foster a supportive and inclusive school atmosphere.
Inclusive and relational leadership is characterized by a strategic blend of fairness and
inclusivity, along with a strong emphasis on personal connections. Superintendents like Amelia,
who remarked, “Our stakeholders would say that we’re inclusive here. We’re fair,” and Sabrina,
who noted the importance of amplifying “quiet voices in our school,” illustrate the practical
application of these principles. This leadership style transcends the traditional education setting,
focusing on making support accessible and apparent, as Margarita’s commitment to making
herself “very accessible” to her community demonstrates. The significant acknowledgment of
this theme by 86% of superintendents showcases its widespread adoption and effectiveness in

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fostering an inclusive and equitable school culture that is deeply connected and responsive to its
members’ needs.
Theme 3: Community-Centric Leadership
The theme of community-centric leadership encapsulates key elements of the CRSL
framework, which emphasizes the role of community engagement in education leadership,
advocating for leaders to actively involve families and the community in a shared education
ecosystem. The focus on families and community engagement aligns with this aspect of the
CRSL framework, underscoring the belief that schools are integral parts of the wider community
and that sustainable educational success depends on strong school-community partnerships.
Furthermore, the framework acknowledges the significance of personal relationships by
including the quadrant on engaging students, parents, and indigenous contexts. This component
fosters communication among school leaders, students, families, and the broader community,
promoting a collaborative and inclusive education environment.
Community-centric leadership, affirmed by all participants, emphasizes active
engagement and the forging of personal connections with the broader community. This
leadership style envisions superintendents as key community pillars, broadening their influence
from mere administration to active participation in their communities, with 71% of the
participants actively engaged with civic community leaders, intentionally participating in
discussions to enhance and expand community services for the benefit of their students. The
responses highlighted the need for consistent interaction with parents and community members
to promote a collaborative education environment strengthened by solid school-community
relationships. Superintendents stressed the significance of being approachable and establishing
genuine connections, considering these relationships essential to impactful leadership.

64
Reflecting on her interactions with the city council, Isabela noted, “I go to their meetings
monthly to talk about some of the things that are going on between the community because we
all want to be on the same page. And we all want to work together.” Daniella echoed this
commitment to unity, underscoring the importance of the leadership team’s involvement in the
community: “My expectation is that [the leadership team] participate in the community because,
without them, the quality of life here in the community would not be great.” These insights are
the core of community-centric leadership, illustrating superintendents’ roles as guardians of
education, administrators, and essential, proactive leaders who cultivate unity and mirror the
community’s values and aspirations. Additionally, the ability to communicate with families in
Spanish is an asset that enhances the community-centric leadership approach, benefiting
everyone involved. Sabrina contributed a personal perspective, sharing her experience with
parent conferences: “They are so excited about having a superintendent that they can
communicate with.”
Findings for Research Question 2 suggest that the participants’ commitment to ensuring
an equitable and enriching education experience for their students drives their leadership
practices and the impacts they perceive. They collectively emphasize inclusivity, informed
decision-making based on data, and active community involvement as central strategies to foster
a supportive school atmosphere. Their perspectives reveal a commitment to addressing student
needs and inclusivity, emphasizing the need for a holistic view of leadership that requires
different strategies to support an effective education environment. Exploring their impacts via
their retelling of experiences and insights into their leadership provides a lens into their
contributions, underscoring the difference their leadership brings to their schools and
communities.

65
Summary
The themes that emerged in the data analysis link closely to this study’s primary goal of
investigating and connecting the leadership practices of Latina superintendents serving in rural
school districts with the elements of the CRSL framework. The framework identifies its key
components as engaging in critical self-reflection on leadership behaviors, fostering the
development of culturally responsive teachers, advocating for inclusive school settings, and
actively involving students, parents, and indigenous communities. Distinct and recognizable
traits characterize each of these components. The implementation of the CRSL model is
perceived to catalyze positive outcomes. The spontaneous alignment with the framework
underscores these leaders’ robust, intuitive grasp of culturally responsive practices. The
responses from the participants reveal leadership practices, including data-driven practices that
focus on student needs, promoting and celebrating students’ diverse cultural backgrounds as
evidenced by their inclusivity focus, and their intentional connection with families and the
community to ensure students are central to all.
The leaders’ pursuit of enhanced student outcomes marks their leadership as impactful
and transformative. This evidence of their cultural responsiveness and leadership efficacy
signifies a stride toward inclusive and effective education environments along with a strong
focus on personal connections with families and their communities, ultimately as practitioners of
CRSL. It is important to note the participants’ unique circumstances due to their positions as the
first Latina superintendents in their districts, their cultural connections with the students they
serve, and the rural contexts of their schools, all of which also influenced the implementation and
motivation of their leadership practices.

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This chapter presents the synthesis of findings derived from raw interview transcripts
with seven participants. The data were categorized and analyzed in alignment with the guiding
research questions. In this research methodology, I prioritized manual coding for the interviews
to ensure precise data categorization and narrative alignment with each theme while Atlas.ti
software served as a supplementary tool to reinforce the coding process. Regardless of the
research question’s focus—whether supportive or impactful leadership practices—three themes
emerged for each area of inquiry. Within these, three predominant themes stood out consistently
for both questions: a focus on students, a commitment to inclusivity, and the importance of
personal connections. These themes underline the participants’ perspectives. The chapter
connects these themes and the CRSL framework to build on the findings related to the
predominant themes of student-centeredness, inclusivity, and community engagement.
Chapter Five will explore the study’s findings and offer specific recommendations to
ensure that the leadership practices the participants identified can be replicated more broadly.
Additionally, this chapter aims to increase awareness and application of the CRSL framework in
rural schools to enhance cultural responsiveness.

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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
The final chapter of this dissertation highlights the role of Latina superintendents in the
K–12 education sector, showcasing how their position intersects with racial and gender
disparities. Despite the notable scarcity of women of color in leadership roles, these leaders are
poised to drive significant education reform, especially in meeting underserved students’ needs.
This qualitative research focused on depicting the participants’ culturally responsive leadership
approaches and their impacts on their districts.
Given school leaders’ influence on education reform, this study also outlined the
participants’ culturally responsive leadership practices. By aligning these practices with the
CRSL framework, the research entailed analyzing how their approaches reflect the CRSL model,
as Khalifa et al. (2016) defined. Two research questions guided the study:
1. What leadership practices do Latina superintendents in rural California schools
identify in support of cultural responsiveness?
2. What impact, if any, do Latina superintendents in rural California schools believe
their leadership practices have on their school community?
This chapter summarizes the study’s findings and their connection to the literature review
and the theoretical framework. It will also present recommendations derived from these findings,
outline the study’s limitations and scope, discuss the implications for practice, and suggest
directions for future research.
Discussion of Findings
The following section will explore the findings from the data presented in Chapter Four,
organized according to each research question. It will also examine the relationship between
these findings and the literature reviewed in Chapter Two.

68
Research Question 1
The study explores the leadership practices of Latina superintendents in rural California
schools, emphasizing their role in promoting cultural responsiveness. Through in-depth analysis,
three key themes emerged: (a) empowering voices and bridging gaps, (b) honoring diversity and
access, and (c) united for progress. These themes highlight the participants’ strategic approaches
to fostering environments that champion marginalized students’ needs and enhance positive
education outcomes.
The theme of empowering voices and bridging gaps underscores the superintendents’
dedication to creating platforms where diverse voices are heard and valued, thereby narrowing
achievement gaps in their education ecosystem. This commitment aligns with the literature,
where scholars like Brunner and Grogan (2007), Robinson et al. (2017), and Rodríguez (2019)
documented Latina superintendents’ understanding of instructional practices tailored to
communities with significant populations of disadvantaged students. Their reliance on datainformed methods to guide leadership decisions reflects a comprehensive approach to student
well-being and educational accountability.
The honoring diversity and access theme additionally captures the superintendents’
efforts to integrate multicultural education into their districts. This involves implementing dual
language programs and cultural celebrations that recognize and valorize students’ heritage. Such
initiatives cultivate an inclusive education setting that respects and celebrates diverse cultural
backgrounds, a principle supported by the research of Khalifa et al. (2016), Ladson-Billings
(2006), and Santamaría (2014). The participants’ actions embody a broader strategy to enhance
students’ confidence and academic success through cultural affirmation.

69
The theme of being united for progress emphasizes the participants’ collective vision to
advance education practices that respond to their student populations’ cultural dynamics. This
vision includes establishing student-centered policies and a cycle of inquiry that holds districts
accountable for meeting diverse student needs. The significance of such culturally responsive
practices at the district level, as underscored by Aguayo et al. (2023), is to improve education
outcomes for all student populations by embracing and valuing cultural diversity.
Moreover, resilience in leading rural schools in California, despite facing socioeconomic
challenges, is a testament to the participants’ effective leadership. Their engagement with
community and family members through local council meetings, community events, and church
attendance fosters strong bonds between schools and communities. Castillo et al. (2021) stated
that this intentional community engagement reflects a preference for rural settings that offer
opportunities to build personal connections and advocate for community needs.
In conclusion, the study corroborates the literature’s portrayal of Latina superintendents
as change agents who are both professionally and personally committed to their communities.
Their leadership practices, rooted in the themes of empowering voices, honoring diversity, and
united for progress, respond to and actively contribute to the scholarly discourse on CRSL in
education settings. Through their work, these superintendents exemplify the impact of CRSL on
enhancing academic achievement, promoting inclusivity, and nurturing a supportive school
climate.
Research Question 2
In addressing Research Question 2, participants identified three themes that encapsulate
how they perceive their impact: (a) informed and responsive leadership, (b) inclusive and
relational leadership, and (c) community-centric leadership. These themes provide a

70
comprehensive view of how the participants perceived their influence in education settings,
emphasizing a leadership style that reflects and responds to the communities they serve.
Informed and responsive leadership captures the superintendents’ commitment to using
data and informed strategies to address student needs directly. As noted in Khalifa’s CRSL
framework, analysis of student data ensures the development of responsive educators and student
access to educational competencies. This approach, characterized by analyzing academic data
and strategic policy implementation, underscores the superintendents’ dedication to improving
education outcomes. Their leadership is not about policy enforcement but about ensuring these
policies translate into meaningful systems and procedures that enhance student learning and
achievement.
The theme of inclusive and relational leadership stemmed from the participants’ focus on
creating environments where every student feels valued and included. This involves prioritizing
equity, diversity, and inclusivity, principles that are deeply rooted in the superintendents’
personal experiences and professional ethos. By fostering strong family connections and playing
an active role in the community, these leaders work toward dismantling barriers to equity and
enhancing the education experience for students from diverse backgrounds. Scholars such as
Castillo et al. (2021) and Rodríguez (2019) documented the perspectives Latina superintendents
bring to their roles, shaped by personal and cultural experiences, emphasizing the importance of
maintaining cultural and linguistic traditions.
The theme of community-centric leadership underscores the participants’ approach to
weaving a school’s educational mission with the community’s fabric. This theme reflects a
broader vision of education that extends beyond the classroom, incorporating social, cultural,
community, economic, and political factors that influence education outcomes. By engaging

71
families and community members, the participants cultivate an education ecosystem that values
continuous improvement and cultural responsiveness and respects community perspectives. This
comprehensive approach ensures that education is accessible, equitable, and reflective of the
community’s cultural wealth.
The impact of the participants’ leadership practices on their school communities is
profound. Through their informed, inclusive, and community-centric approaches, they create
nurturing, safe, and culturally attuned environments that acknowledge and celebrate all students’
educational needs and cultural values. This leadership style, which integrates aspects of
visionary, servant, and transformative leadership, aligns with the scholarship of Castillo et al.
(2021), Khalifa et al. (2016), Méndez-Morse (2000), and Rodríguez (2019), highlighting the
importance of engaging education partners, addressing inequities, and fostering a sense of
collective efficacy. Their leadership responds to immediate challenges and sets a vision that
reflects the community’s aspirations, tackling issues of race, diversity, and social justice.
Through deliberate engagement and robust relationships with families and the broader
community, these superintendents enhance communication, visibility, inclusivity, equity, and
cultural responsiveness in the education settings they lead.
Table 2 depicts the alignment between this study’s findings and Khalifa’s CRSL
framework. The framework serves as a model for Latina superintendents, given their personal
and professional experiences, culturally responsive practices, and the education ecosystems they
establish. The framework has four components that closely align with the dispositions and
decision-making of Latina rural district superintendents. They demonstrate leadership styles that
navigate the challenges of their roles and those of their districts to foster an inclusive education
ecosystem that promotes inclusivity, access, and positive student outcomes.

72
Table 2
Connections of Themes to CRSL Framework
CRSL framework
components
Research Question 1 themes Research Question 2 themes
Critically self-reflects on
leadership behaviors.
Theme 1: Empowering voices
and bridging gaps
Theme 2: Honoring diversity
and access
Theme 3: United for progress
Theme 1: Informed and
responsive leadership
Theme 2: Inclusive and
relational leadership
Theme 3: Community-centric
leadership
Developing culturally
responsive teachers
Theme 1: Empowering voices
and bridging gaps
Theme 2: Honoring diversity
and access
Theme 1: Informed and
responsive leadership
Theme 2: Inclusive and
relational leadership
Theme 3: Community-centric
leadership
Promotes culturally
responsive/inclusive school
environments
Theme 1: Empowering voices
and bridging gaps
Theme 2: Honoring diversity
and access
Theme 3: United for progress
Theme 1: Informed and
responsive leadership
Theme 2: Inclusive and
relational leadership
Theme 3: Community-centric
leadership
Engages students, parents,
and indigenous contexts
Theme 1: Empowering voices
and bridging gaps
Theme 2: Honoring diversity
and access
Theme 3: United for progress
Theme 2: Inclusive and
relational leadership
Theme 3: Community-centric
leadership
Limitations and Delimitations
The study’s focus on Latina superintendents in rural California school districts was
marked by a relatively small sample, which inherently limited its scope and the breadth of
experiences it could capture. Delimiting the study to this population narrowed sampling to the
specific demographic of interest (Thomas et al., 2023). It may have also limited the
comprehensiveness of the findings, potentially excluding a more comprehensive range of
perspectives that could provide a richer understanding of Latina leadership. The deliberate

73
choice to center on this demographic aligns with the study’s qualitative nature and
nonprobability sampling strategy (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). While the small number of Latina
superintendents in rural settings limits generalizability, it nonetheless supports the study’s
objectives and contributes insights into this specific context.
This study examined the participants’ experiences around race and cultural sensitivity,
which can create uncomfortable situations, as individuals may interpret experiences and
interactions differently based on their backgrounds. As Milner (2007) noted, researchers and
participants in a study may have varying perspectives and understandings. Therefore, the topics
of race and cultural responsiveness may prompt participants to reflect on their personal and
professional experiences, potentially causing discomfort; however, participants did not appear to
be challenged by the topics or in sharing their personal or professional experiences.
One limitation was the participants’ lack of familiarity with the CRSL framework and
particular cultural vocabulary and nuances. Although participants may have requested an
explanation or definition of specific vocabulary, they ultimately deciphered the meaning and
responded with extensive examples. I ensured participants had time to think of their responses
and feel that these were all acceptable, creating an opportunity to freely engage and share their
insights. The participants identified specific practices that directly correlated with the CRSL
framework, which they believed contributed to their success as leaders and to creating positive
student outcomes.
Recommendations for Practice
The insights gathered from the participants point toward several implications for practice
that prioritizes specific CRSL practices, including cultural competency and responsiveness,

74
professional development, honoring cultural diversity, and encouraging family and community
engagement.
Recommendation 1: Comprehensive Cultural Competency and Responsive Leadership
Training Initiative
The evidence gathered during this study underscores the role of cultural competency and
responsive leadership in fostering an inclusive and effective education environment. This
initiative directly responds to the identified need for leaders at all levels to be adept in navigating
and appreciating the diverse cultural landscapes in education settings. The dynamic nature of
cultural competencies and leadership challenges highlighted in this research further necessitates
an ongoing, rather than a one-time, training initiative. This recommendation advocates for
developing a program that includes regular updates and continuous learning opportunities to
keep pace with societal and demographic changes, ensuring that leadership skills remain relevant
and practical. The proposed training would be tailored to address the specific gaps and
opportunities identified through rigorous academic inquiry, making it a data-informed solution to
enhancing leadership effectiveness in education settings.
While superintendents are central influencers in the education hierarchy, the scope of
leadership extends beyond this rank. The findings suggest that embedding cultural competency
and responsive leadership principles at various leadership positions cultivates a more uniformly
inclusive culture across the institution. This approach ensures that the values of diversity and
inclusivity are championed at the top and woven into the learning community’s fabric. This
includes practical strategies for leaders to adapt their approaches in real-time to meet the
evolving needs of their diverse constituencies, thus ensuring that the leadership is culturally
aware and effectively responsive to those cultural nuances.

75
Implementing this recommendation would align leadership development with the
contemporary needs of education institutions and ensure that leaders are well-equipped to
navigate and leverage the richness of cultural diversity, ultimately enhancing the education
experience for all education partners.
Recommendation 2: Implement Compulsory Cultural Diversity Appreciation Training
A significant insight from the study is the participants’ natural propensity toward cultural
responsiveness and effective leadership, signifying their contribution to creating an inclusive and
efficient learning environment. The recommendation for compulsory professional development
arises from concrete evidence that such training can significantly impact education leadership
and the broader education ecosystem. Given the dissertation’s emphasis on the importance of
inclusivity and efficiency, it becomes imperative for education institutions to elevate the
development of culturally responsive leaders as a strategic priority. This approach aligns with the
findings and ensures that school leadership practices are conducive to fostering environments
where every student feels valued and included. By mandating professional development in
cultural diversity appreciation, education institutions can harness and replicate these practical
leadership qualities across leadership teams, thereby broadening the impact of creating education
settings that are genuinely inclusive.
The findings call for policies that support multicultural programs and initiatives. This
goes beyond merely acknowledging cultural diversity to actively promoting and incorporating
students’ cultural backgrounds into the school’s activities, curriculum, and ethos. This policy
development institutionalizes practices that honor and celebrate the diverse cultural identities
present within the student body. By focusing on mandatory professional development that honors
cultural diversity, education institutions can ensure a more holistic approach to inclusion. This

76
entails recognizing and actively celebrating all students’ cultural values and needs, thus fostering
an environment where diverse cultural identities are represented and respected in all aspects of
school life, from curriculum content to extracurricular activities.
Implementing this recommendation would create a ripple effect, enhancing the capacity
of education leaders to advocate for and cultivate school settings that are both academically
inclusive and culturally responsive. This would contribute to developing an education ecosystem
where every student’s cultural background is seen as an asset, thereby enriching the education
experience for the entire community.
Recommendation 3: Enhance Family and Community Integration
The research findings underline the significant impact of active family and community
engagement on the education process. These insights make a compelling case for developing and
implementing targeted strategies that foster meaningful interactions between schools and their
communities. Such strategies are essential for creating a supportive education ecosystem that
values and incorporates the contributions of all education partners. As highlighted in the study,
the participants’ practices provide a model for building strong personal connections with families
and community members. Emulating these practices involves a sustained effort to be present in
the community, participate in local events, and make school leadership accessible and responsive
to community needs.
The findings underscore the transformative potential of family and community
engagement. This collaborative approach enriches the learning experience and empowers
communities by giving them an opportunity to shape educational offerings and outcomes. By
actively soliciting and incorporating community feedback into decision-making processes,
schools can ensure that their practices are relevant and beneficial to the entire learning

77
community. A key strategy for deepening community ties involves organizing events and
activities hosted in community spaces that reflect the community’s cultural and social values.
This approach enhances the visibility of school leadership in the community and demonstrates a
commitment to embracing and celebrating its diversity.
The findings also emphasize inclusive and equitable school policies. Policies must be
designed with community input to eliminate barriers to participation for all families. This ensures
that the school’s governance reflects the needs and aspirations of the community it serves,
thereby fostering a more inclusive education environment, community involvement, and
collective efficacy.
Implementing this recommendation would mark a significant step toward realizing a
more integrated and collaborative education ecosystem. By prioritizing family and community
engagement, education institutions can leverage their communities’ collective strengths and
insights, leading to enriched learning environments that reflect and are responsive to the needs
and values of all education partners.
Recommendations for Future Research
The research on Latina superintendents’ influence on education outcomes in rural settings
is not exhaustive. There is a notable gap in understanding why they remain underrepresented in
leadership roles compared to their male counterparts, which, therefore, warrants continued
research. After identifying specific barriers to their ascent to the superintendency, school districts
could redesign hiring practices to increase their representation. Furthermore, future research
could help to create policies to increase the number of female superintendents of color
nationwide.

78
While this study primarily explored Latina superintendents’ influence on leadership, there
is a need for further research on the direct impact of culturally responsive leadership on student
outcomes. The small sample in this research allows for future studies to widen their scope to
include the experiences and achievements of Latinx students. Expanding research in this
direction could include student voice, providing a deeper investigation into how leadership
practices rooted in cultural responsiveness positively affect student learning and development.
This approach could lead to a clearer understanding of which education practices are most
effective in fostering academic success and inclusivity for diverse student groups. Essentially, by
examining how culturally responsive leadership shapes students’ experiences, future research can
identify teaching practices that best support equitable and high-quality education for all students.
There is a need for in-depth research tailored to the needs and challenges of rural schools
to inform policy and enhance funding, resources, and supports. Often overshadowed by their
urban counterparts despite having arguably the same, if not greater, challenges, rural districts
deserve more focused attention. Future studies should perform comparative analyses between
rural and non-rural districts and among the diverse types of rural districts in California. A key
issue for rural schools is the lack of a clear, universally accepted definition of “rural,” which can
vary widely due to population density, geographic location, community traits, and enrollment
numbers. This variation can result in comparisons between districts with student populations as
small as 10 to those with as many as 5,000 and distinctions between schools in incorporated
communities versus those in unincorporated communities. Establishing a precise definition of
what constitutes a rural school district in California enables the development of policy that
accurately addresses and supports these districts’ needs.

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Conclusion
In concluding this research, I affirm a fundamental yet underrecognized principle in the
education leadership landscape: the significance of representation. This study brings to light the
pressing need for Latina superintendents in California’s schools, where Latinx students form the
majority yet rarely witness their heritage reflected in the upper administration ranks. The
participants represent the diversity of their student populations and bring a culturally attuned
leadership to rural districts, a quality as essential as it is scarce. Their experiences illuminate the
impact of leaders deeply rooted in and drawn to rural communities. Their choice to embrace the
challenges of rural education and their culturally responsive leadership exemplify a model to
which others may aspire. Their stories are evidence of the transformative influence that resonates
with and is dedicated to the spirit of rural education. This study highlights Latina superintendents
in California’s rural school districts as exemplars of CRSL, serving as both a milestone and a call
to action for transformative change in education leadership. It advocates for a future where
leaders reflect students’ diversity and aspirations, charting a path toward an inclusive,
empowering, and compassionate education ecosystem.

80
References
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& Reinke, W. M. (2023). Promoting district-level culturally responsive practices.
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
I’d like to start by asking some personal and professional background questions about
you.
• What motivated you to become a superintendent in a rural school district?
• What are the main challenges you face as a superintendent in a rural school district?
• How do your personal and professional experiences help you as a rural school district
superintendent?
• How do you stay updated with current trends and best practices in education leadership?
I’d like to start by asking about cultural responsiveness practices.
• How would your educational partners describe how you demonstrate social justice and
inclusivity? Educational partners can also be defined as stakeholders such as students,
families, staff, and community members.
• How would you define being culturally responsive?
• What do you think is the role of cultural responsiveness in your district?
• How do you provide professional learning opportunities for staff focused on culturally
responsive pedagogy?
I’d like to ask about your leadership practices.
• Tell me about your leadership style. How would you describe yourself as a leader?
• What leadership practices do you implement that promote a culturally
responsive/inclusive district and address disparities in academic outcomes?
• How do the needs of your district influence your leadership practices?

89
I’d like to ask about community engagement.
• How do you engage with local community leaders and educational partners that reside
within your school district?
• Have you encountered any unique challenges or opportunities related to community
engagement as a Latina superintendent in a rural school district?
I’d like to add one last closing question: What other insights would you like to share about your
superintendency, leadership practices, and your background in leading your rural school district
that I might not have asked if any?

90
Appendix B: Screening Survey
1. What gender do you identify with?
• Male
• Female
• Non-binary
• Prefer not to say
2. What is your age?
• 20–30
• 31–40
• 41–50
• 51–60
• 61+
3. Do you identify as Latina?
• Yes
• No
4. What is the highest degree or level of education you have completed?"
• Bachelor's degree
• Master's degree
• Ed.D. or Ph.D.
• Prefer not to say
5. Years of experience as a superintendent
• 1–2
• 3–5

91
• 6–8
• 9–10
• 11+
6. How many years have you worked in the field of education?
• 1–10
• 11–20
• 21–30
• 31–35
• 35+
7. Is your current school district classified as rural?
• Yes
• No
8. What is the approximate student population in your district?
• 1–100
• 101–500
• 501–1000
• 1001–2000
• 2001–3000
• 3001–4000
• 4001–5000
• 5000+
Thank you for your participation in this screening survey. Your responses will be
confidential and will only be used for research purposes.

92
Appendix C: Informed Consent Form
Title: Latina Superintendents Take Center Stage in California’s Rural School Districts: A Model
for Culturally Responsive School Leadership
Researcher: Maria L. “Lori” Gonzalez
Committee Chair: Dr. Maria Ott
Introduction
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Maria L. Gonzalez “Lori,” a
doctoral candidate at the University of Southern California (USC). The purpose of this study is to
investigate and describe the culturally responsive leadership practices employed by Latina
superintendents in rural California school districts.
Procedure
If you agree to participate in this study, you will be asked to take part in an online (via Zoom)
interview. The estimated time commitment for your participation will be 45–60 minutes. The
interview will be at a mutually agreed upon time of day and location, depending upon the
participants preference. All information collected during the study will be treated with strict
confidentiality and used solely for the purpose of this research.
Risks and Benefits
There are minimal risks associated with this study. However, you may benefit from participating
by sharing your insights to obtaining your leadership position and by providing future leaders
with culturally responsive school leadership practices that create positive student outcomes.
Confidentiality
Confidentiality will be maintained throughout the study. Your personal information, including
your identity, will be kept strictly confidential. Data collected will be securely stored and
accessible only to the research team which is myself and my research committee. The findings of
this study will be reported in aggregate form, ensuring the anonymity of participants.
Voluntary Participation
Participation in this study is entirely voluntary. There is no cost to you for taking part in this
study. You have the right to withdraw from the study at any time, without any consequences or
penalty. Your decision to participate or withdraw will not affect any current or future
relationships with USC.
Contact Information
If you have any questions or concerns about this study, you may contact me at (559) 960-3677 or
mlgonzal@usc.edu. If you have any concerns regarding your rights as a participant, you may
contact the [Institutional Review Board (IRB) name] at [IRB contact information].

93
Consent
By signing below, you indicate that you have read and understood the information provided
above. You voluntarily agree to participate in this research study. You are aware that you have
the right to withdraw from the study at any time without any consequences.
Participant's Signature: _______________________
Date: _______________________
Printed Name: _______________________
Researcher's Signature: _______________________
Date: _______________________
Please retain a copy of this consent form for your records.
Thank you for your participation in this research study.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study investigated Latina superintendents’ roles and contributions in rural California school districts, focusing on their implementation of culturally responsive leadership practices as outlined by the culturally responsive school leadership framework. It aimed to understand how these practices align with the framework and assess their impact on fostering more inclusive and responsive school communities. Additionally, the research explores the experiences of Latina superintendents in attaining their positions, the challenges and barriers they encounter, and the motivations behind their choice to work in rural settings. This study provides insights into the characteristics and challenges of rural education leadership and the strategies employed to create culturally responsive environments. The findings highlight such leadership in promoting equity and inclusivity, offering significant contributions to the discourse on education policy and practice. This work stems from the need for a more equitable and inclusive education system, advocating for the recognition and support of diverse leadership. The study enriches the understanding of culturally responsive leadership in rural contexts and its role in improving education outcomes. The insights gained serve policymakers, educators, and researchers in fostering culturally responsive districts.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Gonzalez, Maria Lorenza "Lori" (author)

Core Title Latina superintendents take center stage in California's rural school districts: a model for culturally responsive school leadership

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 04/22/2024

Defense Date 03/26/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag California,CRSL Framework,cultural proficiency,cultural relevance,culturally responsive school leadership,Culturally Responsive School Leadership Framework,Latina,Latinx,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,professional development,rural,rural school district,school districts,Schools,superintendent,women,women of color

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Ott, Maria (committee chair), Cash, David (committee member), Ermeling, Bradley (committee member)

Creator Email mlgonzal@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113893041

Unique identifier UC113893041

Identifier etd-GonzalezMa-12845.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-GonzalezMa-12845

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Gonzalez, Maria Lorenza "Lori"

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Source 20240422-usctheses-batch-1143 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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