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Increasing the effectiveness of African-American male mentorship

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Increasing the effectiveness of African-American male mentorship

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Content Increasing The Effectiveness of African-American Male Mentorship
by
Robert L. Hickman Jr.
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
March 2024

© Copyright by Robert Hickman Jr. 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Robert Hickman Jr. certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Don Trahan Jr.
Eric Canny
Maria G. Ott, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

iv
Abstract
The under-representation of African-American men participating in effective mentorship
programs throughout their professional careers exacerbates systemic inequities. Compared to
their white counterparts, they often lack formal mentorship, impacting their career advancement
and exacerbating issues of ethnic fairness. Informal mentorship, more common among black
men, is less influential in career progression. Racial disparities persist, with black men earning
less and facing workplace exclusion and prejudices. Effective mentorship programs are crucial
for their survival and empowerment. This qualitative study's purpose is to identify essential
components of mentorship programs tailored for African-American men, focusing on relational
effectiveness and professional self-efficacy. Research shows mentorship enhances academic and
employment outcomes for marginalized individuals. Despite this, African-American men face
challenges in finding mentors due to various issues. Understanding these obstacles is vital for
advancing mentorship initiatives in organizational structures. Theoretical frameworks including
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory and Vygotsky's Proximal Development Theory underpin the
study, emphasizing the role of mentors as role models and scaffolds for mentees' growth. Selfefficacy, belief in one's capability, and positive reinforcement are central to mentoring
effectiveness. By addressing these gaps, organizations can foster leadership diversity and support
the career advancement of African-American men, thereby promoting equity and inclusion.
Through an analysis of the findings, the study identifies several key recommendations for
enhancing mentorship programs supporting African-American males. These recommendations
include diversifying mentor representation, addressing stereotypes and societal expectations, and
adopting a personalized mentorship approach.

v
Dedication
To my wife Denise, I would not have started or completed this journey without knowing that I
would always have your unconditional love and support in pursuing the knowledge and wisdom
needed to speak to problems that adversely impact our community.
To my children Brianna, Ethan, and Nathan, I hope my journey will inspire you to pursue your
dreams regardless of the time and effort. Remember, everything is impossible until it happens.
To my parents Robert Lee and Ruby Mae. Even though we are disconnected, we remain
connected. Above all else, I dedicate this achievement to you. Through you, all things are
possible.

vi
Acknowledgments
I want to acknowledge my dissertation committee, Dr. Maria Ott (chair), Dr. Don
Trahan, and Dr. Eric Canny. Thank you for providing feedback, guidance, and
encouragement throughout my doctoral journey. I am grateful for your commitment to
getting me to the finish line. Whether you realize it or not, your compassion, style of
teaching and communication, and your depth of knowledge have inspired me to continue to
push forward. I could not have had a more supportive committee and I thank you all from
the bottom of my heart.
Thank you to my entire family and circle of friends for encouraging me and creating
space so I could focus on my dissertation. A special thanks to my sister, Antoinette Lewis,
who has been on this doctoral journey with me from the beginning.
Finally, I want to thank the distinguished gentlemen who provided invaluable insight
during the interview process. Without your passion and devoted dedication to mentorship, I
would not have been able to supplement and correlate my research with your rich
experiences.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. x
List of Figures................................................................................................................................. x
Chapter One: Overview of the Study.............................................................................................. 1
Context and Background of the Problem............................................................................ 2
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions.................................................................. 2
Importance of the Study...................................................................................................... 3
Overview of Theoretical Frameworks................................................................................ 4
Definitions........................................................................................................................... 6
Organization of the Dissertation ......................................................................................... 6
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature .......................................................................................... 7
Historical Context ............................................................................................................... 7
Mentorship Styles............................................................................................................... 9
Formal vs. Informal Mentorship....................................................................................... 11
Leadership Diversity......................................................................................................... 14
African American Mentor Challenges.............................................................................. 15
Organizational Best Practices........................................................................................... 16
Mentorship Efficacy.......................................................................................................... 18
African American Mentorship Programs.......................................................................... 20
Conceptual Frameworks ................................................................................................... 22
Mentorship Conceptual Frameworks................................................................................ 24

viii
Chapter Two Summary..................................................................................................... 26
Chapter Three: Methodology........................................................................................................ 26
Research Questions........................................................................................................... 27
Overview of Design .......................................................................................................... 27
Research Setting................................................................................................................ 30
The Researcher.................................................................................................................. 30
Data Sources ..................................................................................................................... 31
Interviews.......................................................................................................................... 32
Participants........................................................................................................................ 32
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 33
Data Collection Procedures............................................................................................... 34
Data Analysis.................................................................................................................... 34
Validity and Reliability..................................................................................................... 35
Ethics................................................................................................................................. 35
Limitations and Delimitations........................................................................................... 36
Chapter Four: Findings................................................................................................................. 37
Overview of Interview Participants.................................................................................. 39
Research Question 1: How do African-American mentors perceive and address
the specific challenges faced by mentees in developing a strong sense of purpose
and self-efficacy, and what strategies do they employ to navigate these challenges
within the context of mentorship programs? .................................................................... 41
Findings for Research Question 1..................................................................................... 41
Lack of Positive Male Role Models.................................................................................. 42
Personal and Professional Mentorship Support Systems.................................................. 43
Accessibility and Communication in Mentorship Programs............................................ 44

ix
Tailoring Mentorship to Individual Strengths................................................................... 45
Research Question 2: What are the key elements and strategies within mentorship
programs that African-American mentors identify as most beneficial for
enhancing mentees' sense of purpose and self-efficacy, and how do these mentors
believe these elements contribute to the overall success of the mentoring
relationship?...................................................................................................................... 45
Findings for Research Question 2..................................................................................... 46
Building Inclusive Mentorship Programs......................................................................... 46
Enhancing Mentee Retention through Trust and Personalization..................................... 47
Strategies for Intentional Recruitment and Community Engagement .............................. 49
Optimizing Access to Resources in Mentorship Programs............................................... 50
Research Question 3: In what ways do African-American mentors recommend
structuring and implementing mentorship programs to best support mentees in
assessing and building upon their existing strengths, and how do these
recommendations contribute to the empowerment and development of mentees
within the program? .......................................................................................................... 51
Findings for Research Question 3..................................................................................... 51
Personal and Professional Development........................................................................... 51
Data-Driven Decision-Making for Program Improvement............................................... 52
Summary........................................................................................................................... 53
Chapter Five: Recommendations.................................................................................................. 57
Discussion of Findings...................................................................................................... 58
Emerging Themes............................................................................................................. 59
Personal Factors................................................................................................................ 59
Behavioral Factors............................................................................................................ 60
Environmental Factors...................................................................................................... 61
Recommendations for Practice ......................................................................................... 63
Recommendation 1: Diversify Mentor Representation .................................................... 64
Recommendation 2: Address Stereotypes and Societal Expectations.............................. 66

x
Recommendation 3: Personalized Mentorship Approach................................................. 68
Recommendations for Future Research ............................................................................ 71
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 73
References..................................................................................................................................... 76
Appendix A: Interview Protocol................................................................................................... 89
Appendix B: Recruitment Letter................................................................................................... 91
Appendix C: Interview Questions................................................................................................. 92
List of Tables
Table 1: Data Sources 29
Table 2: Demographics of Interview Participants 40
Table 3: Recurring Themes 56
List of Figures
Figure 1: Bandura's 4 Element Social Cognitive Theory 5
Figure 2: Vygotsky's Theory of Proximal Development 5
Figure 3: Mentorship Conceptual Framework 25

1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
African-American men are underrepresented in having adequate mentorship opportunities
or sponsorship at the onset and throughout their professional careers. My research was a
qualitative study exploring the essential components of effective mentorship programs for
African-American men. Compared to their white counterparts, the lack of mentorship programs
for African-American men contributes to systemic inequities, exacerbating the issues related to
ethnic fairness and justice. A Center for Talent Innovation study found that black men are
likelier to have informal mentors, such as peers or colleagues, than formal mentors, who are
typically more influential in advancing careers (Center for Talent Innovation, 2018). Although
mentorship can help everyone, there is evidence that white men have easier access to powerful
sponsors than African-American men, which may impact their professional opportunities and
growth.
There are some racial disparities, possibly due to the lack of formal mentorship available
to African-American men. According to the study by Miller (2020), on average, black men
earned 87 cents for every dollar a white man earned. Minority group members who work at
prestigious companies describe encountering prevalent prejudices that impede their growth. For
instance, a recent McKinsey and Co. poll revealed that minority employees were more likely to
report being excluded from workplace social events or having to dispel untrue assumptions made
by coworkers about their personal life (McKinsey & Company, 2021). According to LaVant et
al., (1987), mentoring is vital to the survival and empowerment of African-American men and
enhances their ability to make plausible gains.

2
Context and Background of the Problem
The absence of effective mentorship programs for African-American men may
substantially impact their ability to advance personally and professionally. Research has shown
that mentorship can increase academic achievement and improve employment outcomes for
marginalized individuals (DuBois et al., 2002). African-American men may not see many role
models in leadership positions that look like them, making it difficult to envision themselves in
those positions or find mentors who share their experiences and perspectives.
It can be challenging for African-American men to be regarded as genuine mentors due to
harmful preconceptions and biases against them. According to research, prejudices towards
African-American men can restrict their access to employment chances, educational
opportunities, and other resources (Eberhardt et al., 2006).
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
This study aims to understand what elements can be incorporated into existing and
proposed mentorship programs specifically focused on African-American men to improve the
relational effectiveness between the mentor and mentee and the mentee’s professional selfefficacy. Research questions include:
1. How do African-American mentors perceive and address the specific challenges faced by
mentees in developing a strong sense of purpose and self-efficacy, and what strategies do
they employ to navigate these challenges within the context of mentorship programs?
2. What are the key elements and strategies within mentorship programs that AfricanAmerican mentors identify as most beneficial for enhancing mentees' sense of purpose
and self-efficacy, and how do these mentors believe these elements contribute to the
overall success of the mentoring relationship?

3
3. In what ways do African-American mentors recommend structuring and implementing
mentorship programs to best support mentees in assessing and building upon their
existing strengths, and how do these recommendations contribute to the empowerment
and development of mentees within the program?
Importance of the Study
For professional African-American men, failing to participate in mentorship programs
can have several detrimental effects. A few of these include the inability of African-American
men to advance their careers due to fewer opportunities for them to gain the knowledge and the
connections required, a higher risk of turnover as a result of their sense of disengagement and
lack of support, and the absence of leadership diversity which includes them (Hancock et al.,
2021).
Research conducted by the Center for Talent Innovation report that only 31% of black
employees have access to a senior leader in the workplace compared to white employees (41%).
McKinsey & Company report that 67% of black professionals have no access to sponsors or
allies to help their career growth.
There are deficiencies in the organizational rationales and initiatives promoting diversity.
Currently, executives are shifting their focus from diversity and inclusion initiatives to equity and
social transformation, particularly with regard to hiring practices (Comeaux, 2022). Diversity
within the workplace allows organizations to tap into the unmet talent and address the lack of
African-Americans, and diverse practices, within organizations through its understanding of
management issues (Brady, 1996).

4
Overview of Theoretical Frameworks
Mentors serve as role models, and the concept of the Social Cognitive or Learning
Theory (Bandura, 1977) describes how followers pick up new skills by watching and imitating
others around them. A mentor guides new employees into the company’s culture through
consistent interaction. By adopting norms of behavior as witnessed in the organization, the
mentee adapts to the social environment to develop mutually beneficial relationships with others.
In the context of assimilating into a new culture, a mentor can serve as a role model for
acceptable and highly desirable patterns of behavior. The mentor may not realize they are
serving as a role model for their mentee, and the mentee may not realize they are absorbing
crucial information from their mentor. The social cognitive theory also explains the crucial step
of identifying each other as mentor and mentee (Bandura, 1977). The relationship between the
mentor and mentee provides a solid foundation for developing professional associations and
acquiring functional skills. For mentees, those who experience success are more likely to find
that endeavor rewarding and are likely to undertake similar endeavors in the future (Bandura,
1986).
The concept of self-efficacy is a central tenet of social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1977).
Self-efficacy is the belief that an individual is capable of performing a behavior. Behaviors are
determined by the interaction of outcome expectations and efficacy expectations (Bandura,
1977). Outcome expectations are the degree to which people believe their behavior will lead to
certain outcomes, and efficacy expectations are the degree to which they believe they can bring
about the desired outcome.

5
Figure 1: Bandura’s 4 Element Social Cognitive Theory

Mentee
A second theoretical framework for this study is based on Vygotsky's theory of proximal
development. Based on this theory, mentors can help their mentees learn by implementing a
scaffolding process to help their mentees grow in areas such as self-awareness, competence,
confidence, and the ability to take on new challenges (Bearman et al., 2007). When a mentee
receives positive reinforcement from an established authority figure, they are likelier to try out
novel approaches and take calculated risks to pursue their goals (Ramaswami & Dreher, 2007).
Figure 2: Vygotsky's Theory of Proximal Development
Areas
Unknown to
Mentee
Mentee's
Current
Understanding
Zone of
Proximal
Development
Attention &
Motivation
Retention
Reproduction

6
Definitions
The following definitions introduce key terms that are referenced throughout this dissertation.
Mentoring
Mentoring is a “relationship between an older, more experienced adult and an unrelated, younger
protégé in which the adult provides ongoing guidance, instruction, and encouragement aimed at
developing the competence and character of the protégé” (Rhodes,2002, p. 3).
Mentor
A mentor is an individual who is (ordinarily) several years older and has more experience and
seniority in the world into which a young mentee is entering. This person acts as a teacher,
sponsor, counselor, developer of skills and intellect, host, guide, and exemplar and supports a
young mentee in realizing his dream (Levinson, Darrow, Klein, Levinson, & McKee, 1978).
Mentee
This term refers to one who is being mentored by a mentor or protégé (Merriam-Webster,2016).
Organization of the Dissertation
Chapter 1 of this dissertation provides commentary on the under-representation of
mentorship opportunities available for African-American men. Chapter 2 will examine peerreviewed literature specific to mentorship programs, or lack thereof. Chapter 3 will describe the
mixed method research used to examine the problem of practice. This chapter will include the
participants, survey structure, criteria, etc. Chapter 4 will present the research questions and
summarized findings based on the data analysis. Finally, Chapter 5 will discuss the key points
from the literature review, results obtained from the research questions, and the
recommendation(s) to address the problem of practice.

7
Chapter Two: Literature Review
This literature review will focus on the need for more effective mentorship programs for
African-American men in professional settings. The absence of mentorship programs for
African-American men can contribute to systemic inequities, exacerbating issues related to
ethnic fairness and justice. This study uses a qualitative approach to explore the essential
components of effective mentorship programs for African-American men.
The study aims to understand what elements can be incorporated into existing and
proposed mentorship programs to improve the relational effectiveness between the mentor and
mentee and the mentee's professional self-efficacy. The first theoretical framework that was used
to examine this problem of practice is the social cognitive, or learning theory, which describes
how followers (i.e., mentees) pick up new skills by watching and imitating others around them.
The second theoretical framework is based on Vygotsky's theory of proximal
development. In this framework, mentors can help their mentees learn by implementing a
scaffolding process to help their mentees grow in areas such as self-awareness, competence,
confidence, and the ability to take on new challenges (Bearman et al., 2007).
Historical Context
The importance of male mentors in young men's personal and professional growth has
been significant throughout history. The concept of mentoring between an older, more
experienced man and a younger, less experienced one was first established in ancient Greece. In
Homer's classic Greek poem "The Odyssey," the character of Mentor is established as
Telemachus's trusted advisor and guide during a formative stage in his life (Homer, 1997).
Mentorship took the form of apprenticeships in medieval Europe, with young men learning a
skill or craft from an established expert (Bosshardt & Lopus, 2013). These early depictions of

8
mentorship between males highlight that relationship's lasting significance in young men's
growth.
Formed in the middle of the 18th century, the Young Men's Christian Association
(YMCA) and the Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA) served as mentorship
programs for youth (YMCA, nd). This could arguably be the first structured mentorship program
to spread to the United States. During the Industrial Revolution, male mentorship was crucial in
developing the workforce.
As many men migrated to cities to seek factory employment, they often lacked the
necessary skills to succeed in the newly industrialized economy. Through mentorship, men could
acquire the skills and knowledge necessary to advance within the industry and increase their
earning potential (Giddens, 1990).
The apprentice system was a common form of male mentoring throughout the Industrial
Revolution. Young men would spend several years learning the trade from an experienced
master craftsman or journeyman through an apprenticeship program. The textile, metalworking,
and woodworking industries frequently participated in this apprenticeship system. Mentors,
mostly men, played a crucial part in this system by teaching and guiding their apprentices to
ensure the industry's long-term prosperity (Humphris, 2006).
According to Humphries (2006), the apprenticeship system during the Industrial
Revolution made four contributions. First, it provided training in the necessary skills for the
expanding employment sector and emerging industries. Second, it encouraged practical training
for instructors and men. Thirdly, it decreased the transaction costs of transferring resources from
agriculture to non-agriculture and facilitated the expansion of sectors promoting commerce.
Finally, apprenticeships prevented impoverished children from being excluded from society and

9
enabled them to become more productive adults.
Apprenticeships, like mentee-mentor relationships, were envisioned as cultural and
community institutions for disseminating knowledge, competence, and expertise in the preindustrial era (Snell, 1996). In this sense, the established canon was passed down from masters
and mentors through lessons, stories, and examples (Gray & Gray, 1986). The master served as a
mentor to the apprentice, teaching him a particular trade or profession while also modeling
appropriate behavior.
The Big Brothers organization was established in the United States in the early twentieth
century. The program's original intent was to pair a mature volunteer with a young mentee to
improve the latter's overall health and happiness (Harvey, 2023). Junior Achievement was a
comparable organization established in 1919 with a similar mission (Junior Achievement USA,
nd). Junior Achievement mentors were recruited to help students develop college, career, and
financial management skills.
The contemporary youth mentoring movement began in the United States in the late
1980s with assistance from foundations and corporations, including United Way of America,
Fannie Mae, Chrysler, and the National Urban League (Fernandes-Alcántara, 2018). "At the
time, mentoring was becoming increasingly recognized by the government as a promising
strategy to enrich the lives of youth, address the isolation of youth from adult contact, and
provide one-on-one support for the most vulnerable youth" (Fernandes-Alcantara, 2018, p. 4).
Mentorship Styles
Mentorships are unique relationships that are most often structured in a formal setting.
Mentorship relationships are intended to guide and prepare the mentee. According to Reeves
(2021), there are eight types of mentorship styles:

10
1. The Advisor - Advisor-style mentors frequently advise their mentees on the best way to
proceed. Mentees rely on their mentor’s guidance, given their extensive experienceand
knowledge.
2. The Protector - Mentors who provide a secure environment for their mentees are called
protectors. They tend to be encouraging but can be overprotective.
3. The Coach - Coach-like mentors have excellent listening skills. They can anticipate
problems that mentees may encounter. A mentor-coach would encourage their mentee by
emphasizing their positive traits.
4. The Connection Broker - A connector provides growth opportunities for mentees. When
Connection Brokers learn what skills their mentor requires, they put them intouch with
people who are well-versed in those areas.
5. The Challenger Mentor- Challenger Mentors help their mentees develop strong problemsolving skills.
6. The Clarifier - A clarifier mentor is more of a friend than a mentor to their mentee. The
clarifier’s expertise will be leveraged to teach their mentees what they should know and
anticipate.
7. The Sponsor - A sponsor is a mentor who uses their influence and connections to help
advance their mentee’s career.
8. The Affirmer - Affirmers are great listeners for mentees. Affirmers are adept at talking
through challenging situations and feelings and offering sound advice and
recommendations for the mentee.
Understanding different mentorship styles is crucial for mentors to match with the right
mentee (Reeves, 2021). Each mentor has a unique mentoring style, and by understanding these

11
styles, individuals can better assess how they can bring value and provide support to their
mentee. Additionally, being aware of different mentorship styles can help individuals become
better mentors by understanding the strengths and weaknesses of different styles and tailoring
their approach to meet the needs of their mentees. Understanding different mentorship styles can
lead to more effective mentoring relationships and positive outcomes for mentors and mentees
(Reeves, 2021).
Formal vs. Informal Mentorship
Mentorship is typically considered formal, or informal. Both are prevalent within
organizational structures and each has its own benefits and shortcomings. According to Kram
(1988), formal mentorship is a relationship in which a mentor and mentee are assigned to each
other as part of an organization-sponsored program, whereas informal mentorship develops
spontaneously based on mutual interest and interpersonal comfort. Formal mentoring
relationships are established through official organizational arrangements that provide
guidelines, expectations, and policies regarding the initiation, maintenance, and termination of
the mentor-protégé relationship (Irby et al., 2020).
Developing formal mentoring programs so that mentors and mentees are more motivated
and can interact with greater ease increases the mentoring and mentorship quality. Another
broader definition of mentoring is someone who helps a mentee develop in ways that would not
have been possible if left to his or her own devices (Bell, 2000). In formal mentoring, more
methodical approaches can be used to set and track progress toward defined objectives.
According to Bell (2000), companies that appreciate the importance of knowledge and
skill transfer to the company's future are more likely to implement formal mentorship programs.
This form of mentoring typically has a defined timeframe and is tied to a developmental

12
program. It focuses heavily on the needs of the organization, but both the organization and the
mentee benefit from it (Department of Defense, 2021). It is also important to note that formal
mentorship programs typically last a year or more (Gurchiek, 2020).
Formal mentoring differs from informal mentoring because an organization creates a
formal program with processes and guidelines. The mentor and mentee may or may not choose
each other voluntarily (Cotton, Miller, & Ragins, 2000). In a formal mentoring program, specific
processes and activities should take place to give the relationship the best chance of success.
Informal mentorships are more intrinsically motivated as the relationships are based on a
mutual desire to connect in the workplace (Irby et al., 2020). According to Carruthers (2022),
employees engage in informal mentoring relationships when they find a leader or peer they can
rely on and want to share what they have learned with others. It may be deliberate or
unintentional.
When this occurs unintentionally, employees may realize that a specific leader is a
reliable resource for obtaining helpful feedback and direction on personal and professional
development. When an employee has a question or is facing a difficult situation, they naturally
gravitate toward their leader for assistance. In this approach, a mentoring relationship might form
organically, without either person ever needing to use the term "mentor" or "mentee." According
to Joshi et al., (2015), once an informal mentoring relationship has been established, the mentor
and mentee's personal commitment and intrinsic motivation drive the mentoring process. It is
generally assumed that the mentor is more senior, older, and more experienced than the mentee;
therefore, the mentor may hold more formal and informal authorityin the relationship.
In the dynamics of informal mentorships, both parties must understand their respective
roles. If the status of the relationship is misunderstood, it could be problematic for both mentees

13
and mentors. If a mentee believes that a more senior manager is his or her "mentor," the mentee
may rely on that manager for sponsorship and protection. However, if the manager does not
view the employee as a mentee and, as a result, does not provide sponsorship or protection, the
mentee may lack access to such career-related support without realizing it (Bhave et al., 2012).
Four characteristics of informal mentoring are identified by Joshi et al., (2015). These
qualities include sincerity, dedication, skill and knowledge development, and organizational
ascendancy and influence. A mentor is sincere if he or she is perceived as an honest, genuine,
and trustworthy individual with high ethical standards and integrity. If the mentor provides
support, is willing to share time, is cooperative, demonstrates empathy and support, shares credit,
intervenes, and is accepting of the mentee, then the mentor is committed to the mentoring
process.
Development of skills and knowledge refers to the mentor's ability to instruct and coach.
Organizational ascendancy and influence refer to the mentor's personal presence, providing
exposure and visibility to the mentee, introducing the mentee to the corporate culture,and
facilitating networking in general. A mentor who broadened the mentee's horizons, emphasized
efficiency, instilled teamwork, and comprehended the company's values can be said to have
imparted value-based thinking.
Perspective building is another characteristic of a mentor.It implies that the mentor
provides cross-functional information, expands experiences, challenges, motivates, and imparts
leadership skills. Under this characteristic, the mentor is also a sponsor and a role model and
enhances the mentee's professional competence.

14
Leadership Diversity
To be a leader, an individual needs to possess specific skill sets and use them effectively
to advance the competencies and the successes of their group, team, or organization (Kouzes &
Posner, 2012). According to Mckinsey (2021), there were approximately 7% of AfricanAmericans in corporate middle management. At senior levels, the percentage was between 4% -
5%.
Diversity is crucial in terms of leadership within any organization. Diversity occurs when
an organization has a mix of people with different backgrounds, perspectives, and experiences
related to ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religion, and age (Martin, 2014). Diversity is not
just based on ethnicity. Other attributes could include gender, religion, or sexual orientation
associated with individuals. Employees in a diverse workplace can better work together to
overcome differences and gain from each other's unique perspectives and experiences (Martin,
2014).
Implementing leadership diversity initiatives and laws in the United States has shaped a
more socially diverse workforce. These changes have increased productivity, innovation, and
economic success (Swart et al., 2015). The reality of a more diversified workforce calls for new
approaches. Mentees from underrepresented groups may have needs that go unmet by numerous
organizations (Center for Talent Innovation, 2018). More than 45 years have passed since the
inaction of diversity programs such as Affirmative Action.
Common objectives within the Affirmative Action program included promoting
educational opportunities and fostering workplace parity. However, because these Affirmative
Action programs are not easily accessible to everyone, economic and education gaps persist, and
these efforts are ‘ineffective at creating significant changes in gender balance at senior

15
management and board levels in business and in government’ (Swart et al., 2015, p. 203).
Some corporations have implemented mentoring programs focused on diversity and
supporting a more equitable environment in the workplace. While it is true that mentoring
programs have improved employee retention and job satisfaction in organizations (Hegstad,
1999; Jossi, 1997; Murray, 2001), such initiatives do not appear to help minority groups rise to
management positions (Ragins, 1989; O'Neill, 2002).
Blake-Beard et al., (2007) indicated that one should avoid any assumptions that the
developmental factors that produce social capital for those in the majority may have the same
impact and operate by the same processes for people of color. This statement is crucial as it
recognizes that the ethnicity of the mentee may also inform what is needed in a mentorship
relationship. Based on literature specific to shortcomings concerning mentorship specific to
minorities, there were four common areas:
1. Forming strong ties
2. Garnering psychosocial support
3. Receiving feedback
4. Learning about organizational politics and tacit policies.
It is noted that these shortcomings can cross ethnicities but do impact marginalized communities
to a greater degree (Blake-Beard et al., 2007).
African American Mentor Challenges
As mentors, African-American men confront several unique challenges. The lack of
African American men in leadership positions and mentoring programs presents a challenge.
15% of the 193,723 mentors listed in the Garringer et al., (2017) study on adolescent mentoring
services in the United States were African-American. Moreover, 60% of African-American

16
mentors were female, 38% were male, and 2% were transgender. These findings indicate that
African-American male mentors were underrepresented in the United States and that this
underrepresentation can impede the formation of effective mentor-mentee relationships.
The impact of systemic bias and discrimination on the lives of African-American men is
another obstacle. African American males are frequently subjected to racial profiling, social
stereotypes, and unequal opportunities, which can result in their subordination (Feagin, 2006).
These experiences may make it challenging for African American male mentors to provide
guidance and support to their mentees, as they themselves may be navigating these obstacles.
The absence of institutional support and resources can hinder the effectiveness of African
American male mentors. White males, members of the dominant group, have held positions of
power for generations, and 85 percent of the top executive positions at the S&P 500 are held by
white men (Comeaux, 2022). These gatekeepers, those in positions of authority, make decisions
regarding funding and the allocation of resources. In order to ensure the success of mentors and
mentees, mentoring programs require funding, training, and organizational support. Without
these resources, it may be difficult for African American male mentors to obtain the necessary
tools and opportunities.
Organizational Best Practices
Organizational dynamics and external/internal challenges have become increasingly
frequent and complex. The younger workforce has had higher retirement, attrition, and turnover
rates (Marquardt, 1995; Pink, 2005), which significantly threatens the loss of vital intellectual
capital, competitive advantages, and organizational effectiveness. COVID-19 has also
exacerbated the situation as the population has become more demanding in their work-life
expectations (Del Boca et al., 2020). In response to these challenges, numerous businesses have

17
established mentorship programs.
According to Merriam-Webster, ‘best practice’ is a procedure shown by research and
experience to produce optimal results and established or proposed as a standard suitable for
widespread adoption. Best practices in mentoring can only be implemented if the program
participants (i.e., mentors) have the knowledge and skills to comprehend and implement the
requisite best practices (Roybal, 2001).
Five consistent elements are referenced as “best practices” for organizations supporting
mentorship programs that are listed below:
1. Create a mentoring culture and practice within organizations, aligning mentoring goals
with the organizational ones and accounting for factors across all stages of the
mentoring program's life (Zachary, 2005).
2. Develop and manage successful mentoring programs in three stages: taking a systemic
view, attending to organizational structures, and providing support systems. Included are
ensuring appropriate program coordination, mentor and mentee orientation, and
incentives and recognition for participation (Kochan, 2002).
3. Follow a six-step process in launching a mentoring program, including scheduling a
sponsor (i.e., mentor) meeting; implementation of team planning sessions; interviews
with mentors and mentees; mentor and mentee orientation and launch; checkpoints at
two, four, and eight months; and program closure and evaluation (Sontag et al., 2007).
4. Include mentoring functions in job descriptions and limit the number of mentees
assigned per mentor. Emulate naturally occurring mentor relationships in terms of
gender and ethnicity. Provide basic mentoring information through various
communication tools, and establish ground rules regarding power and boundaries in the

18
relationship (Campbell, 2007).
5. Select mentors and mentees using a combination of skill-based, motivation-based, and
personality-based characteristics, and set clear program objectives aligned with
organizational strategic plans. It is also essential to find leadership sponsors in the
organization to support the program, promote positive mentoring behaviors, and
overcome problems (Finkelstein & Poteet, 2007).
Mentorship Efficacy
This dissertation focuses on the key traits mentorship programs should encompass to
succeed. However, it is also equally crucial that mentors have the requisite skillsets to serve in
the role. A unique set of life skills and abilities is needed to be a successful mentor. Mentors
need excellent oral and written communication skills to effectively interact with their mentees to
provide feedback, advice, and direction. According to Cooper and Palmer (2000, p. 55), “it is
evident that successful mentors are reported as employing a range of enabling strategies and
skills within mentoring relationships…. it is important to consider the behaviors, qualities, and
characteristics of those who will be deemed suitable to provide this supportive role for others”.
Mentors should also be attentive listeners since offering advice to an individual's specific
situation requires an in-depth knowledge of that person's needs, aspirations, and concerns. A
mentor must establish a person-centered approach based on essential humanistic learning
competencies such as congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy (Rogers, 1983).
There are generic traits and skillsets for mentors, as proposed by Brockbank and McGill
(2006). These six traits are adaptable based on the mentor’s environment and emphasize the
connections between the mentor and mentee to build a solid and productive relationship.
1. A mentor should be able to provide effective and constructive feedback to the mentee.

19
2. A mentor should know their emotions and the mentees’.
3. The mentor should be able to challenge the mentee to increase personal self-efficacy and
improve the mentee’s self-confidence.
4. The mentor should restate, summarize, and question concepts shared with the mentee to
avoid imposing one's own beliefs on the mentee.
5. The mentor should be an active listener.
6. The mentor's physical presence, as is the mentor's awareness of nonverbal cues, is
essential.
Mentors should be assessed to ensure they possess the skills to support individuals in
mentoring programs unique to their career objectives. Cooper and Palmer (2000) noted that
successful mentors use various enabling strategies and skills within mentoring relationships,
highlighting the importance of considering the behaviors, qualities, and characteristics of suitable
individuals to fulfill this supportive role for others. To succeed, mentors should also be equipped
to assist the mentee in helping build their developmental self-efficacy. Shea (2001) identifies
seven types of assistance:
1. Help the mentee to shift context and envision a positive future or outcome.
2. Listen and be a sounding board when the mentee has a problem.
3. Discuss underlying feelings about the mentee's issues/problems.
4. Confront and challenge when appropriate.
5. Offer relevant information or suggest possible solutions.
6. Encourage explorations of options.
7. Bolster the mentee's confidence by delegating authority and providing new
opportunities.

20
A successful mentor must be well-versed in both the practical and interpersonal aspects
of mentoring. As Blake-Beard et al., 2011 noted, effective mentorship occurs when mentors and
mentees develop trust, share strengths and limitations, and identify with and authentically engage
with one another. According to Liang and Grossman (2010), how close African-American male
mentees felt with their mentor was directly correlated to the amount and quality of the feedback
they received.
Effective mentors must be able to assist mentees in the development of their own selfefficacy. They can assist mentees in shifting their perspectives and imagining a successful future.
When mentees face problems, mentors should listen and serve as a sounding board, engage in
discussions about underlying emotions, confront and challenge mentees appropriately, offer
pertinent information and potential solutions, encourage exploration of various options, and
boost mentees' confidence by delegating authority and creating new opportunities.
African-American Mentorship Formal Programs
One of the outcomes of this dissertation is to determine through empirical research what
elements can be incorporated into existing mentorship programs to increase their effectiveness.
There are many mentorship programs where the primary demographic they serve is AfricanAmerican men. Below are 9 programs that may benefit from this study that align with their
mission statements.
1. 100 Black Men of America: Their mission is "to improve the quality of life within our
communities and enhance educational and economic opportunities for all African
Americans." They provide mentoring programs that aim to empower and educate young
black men (100 Black Men of America, Inc., 2023).
2. My Brother's Keeper Alliance: Their mission is to "build safe and supportive

21
communities for boys and young men of color where they feel valued and have clear
pathways to opportunity." They work with local organizations to create mentorship
programs for African American boys and young men. (My Brother’s Keeper Alliance.,
2023).
3. National Black MBA Association’s mission is to "promote educational and economic
empowerment for African Americans." They offer mentorship programs that help black
men develop their professional skills and advance their careers. (The National Black
MBA Association., 2023).
4. The Black Male Initiative’s mission is to "promote the academic and personal success of
African American male students." They offer mentorship programs that provide
academic support and guidance to young black men in college. (Black Male Initiative.,
2023)
5. Omega Psi Phi Fraternity: Their mission is to "provide service and uplift to our
communities." They offer mentorship programs focusing on leadership development,
academic achievement, and community service for young black men. (Omega Psi Phi
Fraternity, Inc., 2023).
6. 100 Black Men of Chicago: Their mission is to "improve the quality of life for African
American males." They provide mentorship programs that focus on education, career
development, and personal growth for young black men in the Chicago area. (100 Black
Men of Chicago, 2023).
7. The Campaign for Black Male Achievement: Their mission is to "ensure the growth,
sustainability, and impact of leaders and organizations committed to improving the life
outcomes of black men and boys." They work with local organizations to create

22
mentorship programs for African American boys and young men. (Campaign for Black
Male Achievement, 2023).
8. National Society of Black Engineers: Their mission is to "increase the number of
culturally responsible black engineers who excel academically, succeed professionally,
and positively impact the community." They offer mentorship programs that provide
academic and career support to young black men pursuing engineering degrees.
(Supporting Black Engineers and Scientists, 2023).
9. Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity: Their mission is to "inspire service in the public interest."
They offer mentorship programs focusing on leadership development, academic
achievement, and community service for young black men. (112 Years of Achievement,
2023).
Conceptual Frameworks
Bandura's (1986) Social Cognitive Theory is a theoretical framework highlighting the
significance of observational learning, prerequisite knowledge and skills, confidence in one’s
ability, and the reciprocal connection between behavior, environment, and personal factors.
According to Social Cognitive Theory, people pick up new abilities and habits by witnessing the
activities of others and learning from their outcomes. In addition, the cognitive processes of
observing, remembering, and replicating what one sees are crucial to acquiring knowledge
through observation, as proposed by Social Cognition Theory (Bandura, 1986).
One of the fundamental principles of Social Cognition Theory is self-efficacy, which
refers to an individual's belief in their ability to perform a specific task or behavior. Bandura
(1977) argues that one's sense of self-efficacy is affected by a wide range of variables, including
past experiences, the persuasiveness of others, and physiological and emotional circumstances.

23
Low self-efficacy beliefs have been linked to anxiety, disengagement, and poor performance,
while high self-efficacy beliefs are connected with more effort, tenacity, and achievement at a
particular task (Bandura, 1997).
According to Bandura (1986), Reciprocal Determinism is another essential principle of
Social Cognitive Theory which holds that an individual's behavior, context, and identity all
impact and shape one another. This implies that actions taken by individuals not only have an
effect on their surroundings but that individuals are also influenced by the context in which they
find themselves. For instance, the type of setting a person seeks can affect their behavior and
personal aspects (Bandura, 1986).
Social Cognitive Theory has relevance when reviewing the effectiveness of AfricanAmerican mentorship programs. Bandura's 1997 theory suggests that mentors can function as
role models in the context of mentorship programs by providing guidance and support and
demonstrating positive behaviors and attitudes for African-American mentees to model upon. By
encouraging African-American mentees to believe in their abilities and giving them chances to
learn and grow, mentors may give them the tools they need to succeed (Hassan, 2022).
Effective mentoring programs can also benefit from Bandura's 1997 theory by providing
safe spaces for African-American mentees to experiment and grow. Mentors can offer
constructive feedback while assisting mentees in developing those attributes that are necessary to
succeed. Leadership development necessitates learning environments that promote access to
education, networking, mentoring, and training in order to foster positive cultures (Day et al.,
2014).
In mentorship programs, pairings must be based on the perceived shortcomings and the
needs of the African-American mentee. The second theoretical framework is based on

24
Vygotsky's Proximal Development theory. This theory examines the gap between the learner's
current and prospective development levels, which an expert's guidance can help to bridge.
According to Vygotsky, learning is most efficient when it occurs in the learner's zone of
proximal development. In this area, the learner is stretched but not overtaxed by the demands of
the work at hand (Vygotsky, 1978). According to Vygotsky, individuals can learn and grow
intellectually through how they interact with one another. A learner's zone of proximal
development is where they can perform activities while receiving just enough support, feedback,
and scaffolding from an expert (teacher or mentor) to reach the next level of comprehension
(Vygotsky, 1978). The mentor's involvement in the mentee's training decreases as the mentee
shows increasing comprehension of the subject matter.
Learning in the zone of proximal growth is greatly enhanced through mentorship.
Mentors can assist African-American mentees as they go beyond their competence and
understanding by providing the necessary encouragement, feedback, and scaffolding. Mentoring
that works well should foster a conducive atmosphere for learning, create a mutually supportive
connection between mentor and mentee, and offer instruction tailored to the African-American
mentee's stage of development. According to this theory, a mentor can help a mentee grow in
ability, knowledge, and self-assurance to realize their full potential as long as they remain within
the zone of proximal growth (Bearman et al., 2007).
Mentorship Conceptual Framework
Several core concepts in this study related to mentoring and the interaction between the
mentor and mentee. The literature review captures the importance of selecting mentors and
mentees based on each party's skill, motivation, and interest in the relationship. The literature
highlights the importance of building emotional relationships with the mentees to provide

25
practical guidance and support. Building on the theoretical principles of Bandura and Vygotsky,
four key concepts identified in this study could increase the effectiveness of mentorship
relationships for African-American men:
1. Importance of observational learning
2. Increasing confidence in one’s ability
3. Proximal Development
4. Knowledge and Skills
Figure 3: Mentorship Conceptual Framework

26
Chapter Two Summary
Throughout history, male mentorship has played a significant role in young men's
personal and professional growth. Different mentorship styles include advisor, protector, coach,
connection broker, challenger, clarifier, sponsor, and affirmer. Understanding these styles helps
mentors match with the right mentee and tailor their approach to meet their needs, leading to
more effective mentoring relationships.
Mentorship can be formal or informal. Formal mentorship involves structured programs
established by organizations, while informal mentorship develops spontaneously based on
mutual interest and interpersonal comfort. Both have their benefits and shortcomings and
understanding their characteristics is crucial for creating successful mentoring relationships.
Leadership diversity is important for organizations as it brings together people with
different backgrounds, perspectives, and experiences. However, minority groups, such as African
American men, face unique challenges in finding mentorship opportunities and advancing in
leadership positions.
Systemic bias, discrimination, and lack of institutional support and resources hinder their
effectiveness as mentors. To address these challenges, organizations need to implement best
practices such as providing funding, training, and support for mentoring programs. Promoting
leadership diversity and creating inclusive environments are essential for fostering effective
mentor-mentee relationships and achieving positive outcomes, especially for marginalized
groups.
Chapter Three: Methodology
Chapter Three presents the methodology of the research study. This study aims to
understand what elements can be incorporated into existing and proposed mentorship programs

27
specifically focused on African-American men to improve the relational effectiveness between
the mentor and mentee and the mentee’s professional self-efficacy. This chapter explains the
process that was followed in developing research questions, design, setting, researcher’s
positionality, data sources, validity and reliability, and ethics.
Research Question
This study's singular goal is to improve existing mentorship programs focused on the
development of African-American men by understanding which critical elements should be
encouraged in a mentor and mentee relationship. Research questions are:
1. How do African-American mentors perceive and address the specific challenges faced by
mentees in developing a strong sense of purpose and self-efficacy, and what strategies do
they employ to navigate these challenges within the context of mentorship programs?
2. What are the key elements and strategies within mentorship programs that AfricanAmerican mentors identify as most beneficial for enhancing mentees' sense of purpose
and self-efficacy, and how do these mentors believe these elements contribute to the
overall success of the mentoring relationship?
3. In what ways do African-American mentors recommend structuring and implementing
mentorship programs to best support mentees in assessing and building upon their
existing strengths, and how do these recommendations contribute to the empowerment
and development of mentees within the program?
Overview of Design
This study’s design is to determine what critical aspects of mentorship need to be
included in mentorship programs to increase their effectiveness. The research approach for this
study was based on the qualitative method. Qualitative research helps us understand how people

28
experience the world. Qualitative research entails gathering and evaluating non-numerical data to
comprehend ideas, opinions, or experiences better (Bhandari, 2022).
To understand the impact of African American mentorship effectiveness, individual
interviews was utilized to collect data relevant to the study. Long-form written or typed
responses are produced by using open-ended questions. Questions are designed to elicit
viewpoints, experiences, stories, or accounts. The goal of interviews is to elicit the participants'
experiences, perceptions, opinions, or motivations (Qualitative study design: Surveys &
questionnaires, 2022).
This study was based on a qualitative approach of semi-structured interviews. Qualitative
interviews was the chosen data collection method to learn about the participants’ experiences as
mentors. Ten accomplished African-American men were interviewed with extensive professional
or altruistic mentoring experience. The male participants were selected by leveraging
connections to the historically Black fraternities that are members of the National Pan-Hellenic
Council (Divine 9).
The National Pan-Hellenic Council is composed of historically African American
fraternities and sororities. By statute, members minimally have attended 4- year universities,
with a large percentage obtaining secondary or advanced degrees. The selected participants
should be well-versed in providing insight into programs supporting mentorship.

29
Table 1
Data Sources
Research Questions Method Rationale
How do African-American mentors
perceive and address the specific
challenges faced by mentees in
developing a strong sense of purpose
and self-efficacy, and what strategies
do they employ to navigate these
challenges within the context of
mentorship programs?
Qualitative
(interview)
Survey questions are designed to elicit
the participants' experiences, perceptions,
opinions, or motivations.
What are the key elements and
strategies within mentorship
programs that African-American
mentors identify as most beneficial
for enhancing mentees' sense of
purpose and self-efficacy, and how
do these mentors believe these
elements contribute to the overall
success of the mentoring
relationship?
Qualitative
(interview)
Survey questions are designed to elicit
the participants' experiences, perceptions,
opinions, or motivations.

30
In what ways do African-American
mentors recommend structuring and
implementing mentorship programs
to best support mentees in assessing
and building upon their existing
strengths, and how do these
recommendations contribute to the
empowerment and development of
mentees within the program?
Qualitative
(interview)
Survey questions are designed to elicit
the participants' experiences, perceptions,
opinions, or motivations.
Research Setting
Ten professional African-American men currently working in the corporate or non-profit
sector were selected to participate in this study. All participants are men who have mentored
African American youth or men for at least two years in a formal or informal setting. This
study's participant population size is comparable to earlier phenomenological research with
mentees (Smith et al., 2009).
The ten participants will have been employed full-time and have donated their time and
resources to mentor other young men in their community at least twice a month, either in person
or virtually. The ages of the participants was between 25 years to 65 years old. It is presumed
that these participants were well-positioned to provide insight into what is required to provide
effective mentorship.
The Researcher
Positionality is “how one is situated through the intersection of power and the politics of
gender, race, class, sexuality, ethnicity, culture, language, and other social factors” (Villaverde,
2008, p. 10). As an African American male, I am invested in this research related to the success
or failure of mentorship relationships as I have directly experienced, and through observation,

31
the lack of mentorship access and support for African-American men in professional settings.
There were no anticipated impediments related to data collection as I have access to
African-American professional men through professional and fraternal organizations that can
contribute to this research topic. As expected, the participation rate was high.
According to Creswell (2014), reflexivity involves an ongoing process of reflecting on
how the researcher's background, experiences, and assumptions may shape the research process
and outcomes. I intend to capture reflexivity in my research by maintaining a journal of my
thoughts and reflections as I conduct and review the results of this research. This action will
allow me to detect and correct any potential biases in my data analysis. My ethnic and gender
identity and my professional accomplishments present a level of bias to this study. Mitigating the
potential for biases and assumptions was addressed by ensuring neutrality in conducting,
collecting, and analyzing data (Holmes, 2020).
Data Sources
Ten semi-structured interviews with a total of 13 open-ended questions and
accompanying probes were used in this qualitative study. Appendix A includes the proposed
questions and a chart outlining how they relate to the research topics and conceptual framework.
African-American men now employed as professionals in business or nonprofit organizations
make up the target demographic. Interviews are expected to last between 45 and 60 minutes.
Zoom's recorded video conference format was used for the interviews, which were then
transcribed. For privacy, all interviews were kept in password-protected digital files. Notes and
other documentation prepared or received during the interviews were also kept in a designated
secure area. Details regarding the data sources and how they were used in the study are provided
in this section.

32
Interviews
Semi-structured interviews were used to collect research data. To study the viewpoints
and experiences of the respondents’ semi-structured interviews were chosen (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). A total of 13 open-ended questions were used during the interview. The
interviews includee the use of appropriate probes (Burkholder et al., 2019). To capture valuable
insight for this study that is expected to come up during the conversations, an interview guide of
related subjects was also used as prompts and follow-up questions (Weiss,1994).
An interview methodology included the date, time, and length of each interview. The
questions focused on the participant's experiences with mentoring programs and which elements
they believed increased the effectiveness of their relationship with their mentee. The questions
were meant to pique participants' interest and elicit responses on their ideas, past experiences,
and sentiments regarding boosting mentees' professional self-efficacy.
Participants
Identifying African-American men with rich mentorship experience was a critical factor
in determining the participants of this study. The criteria to determine eligibility included
confirmation of the participant’s age, professional title, years of experience with mentorship
programs, current engagement with mentorship programs, and professional background.
Potential participants were also asked if they agreed to a recorded video interview.
When gauging interest from potential participants, the recruitment strategy used Eide and
Allen's (2005) three-pronged approach of context, trust, and knowledge. This study identified
and relyed on the opinion of professional African-American men with prior experience managing
or being an integral part of mentoring programs in the corporate profit, nonprofit, and volunteer
sectors.

33
I am a member of an international fraternity, Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity Inc., and serve
as a leader in the fraternal mentorship program known as Guide Right. In my position, I have
access to other members of the fraternity throughout the country who also serve as mentors. In
addition, I have direct access to several African-American Fraternities with mentorship programs
with professional men leading these initiatives. I identified ten mentors who met the interview
criteria through a combination of these organizations and other professional affiliations. The
intended process ensured that it was collegial, mindful of each participant’s position as a
contributor to the research, and represented their stories deliberately and intentionally (Merriam
et al., 2001).
Instrumentation
Appendix A outlines the methodology that was selected for the interview process.
Burkholder et al. (2019) state that semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions are best
for novice researchers. Open-ended interviewing was used to provide the researcher and
participants with a dynamic conversational experience. Different beliefs and interpretations
might be examined by the researcher due to the constructed narrative and historical context
derived from the participant's experiences and perspectives (Morgan, 2014).
The three components of Bandura's triadic reciprocal model (Bandura, 1989) were
included in the interview questions. The interview questions strategically incorporated personal,
behavioral, and environmental considerations. In general, the initial interview questions should
begin broad and narrow to the specific study issues the researcher is attempting to address
(Kruger & Casey, 2009). In this study, a series of questions on how African-American
professional males view success in mentorship access was followed by a specific question to
focus on the elements the participants believe are necessary to improve mentorship programs.

34
Data Collection Procedures
Semi-structured interviews utilizing Zoom’s video platform were conducted with 10
participants to collect data to answer the research questions. Platforms for video conferencing
make research more accessible and could free participants from scheduling and geographical
restrictions (Howlett, 2021). Video conferencing was the most effective way to conduct these
interactive interviews, given that the participants were dispersed across the United States in
various time zones.
Approximately 45 to 60 minutes were allocated to each interview. After the researcher
gained IRB approval, interviews commenced as scheduled. Throughout the interview, notes were
taken to document any new insights, ideas, or recurring themes. Digital files were organized and
maintained using password protection, while notes, paper documents, and other pertinent
documentation were stored securely.
Data Analysis
Following Creswell & Creswell's (2018) data analysis procedure, analysis of the gathered
data was conducted in a sequential systemic manner. There were five steps in this procedure:
1. All information gathered from audio-recorded interviews was compiled and kept in
logical, password-protected digital files.
2. A thorough analysis of all the data included checking for relationships between the
remarks of participants.
3. The coding of transcripts was done in two stages, with the first stage using open coding
to find valuable concepts and the second stage using axial coding to group themes
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Transcripts were coded and labeled using a codebook.
4. Themes were produced from the transcripts after coding was finished to reveal common

35
viewpoints and experiences and contrasting viewpoints from direct quotes.
5. The results of the coding analysis were presented in narrative form. Narratives, direct
quotes, and images were included in the findings.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
To ensure credibility and trustworthiness, the researcher conducted member checking.
Member checking is used to improve the data's accuracy, credibility, and validity (Harper &
Cole, 2012). Each participant received a copy of their interview transcript and was asked to
review it, provide feedback, and confirm that it accurately represented their interview responses.
The secondary method of validating results was based on triangulation. Natow (2020) explains
that triangulation uses many methods of collecting qualitative data, including observations and
reviewing past research to verify hypotheses. The researcher correlated the themes that emerged
from the interviews with empirical literature regarding mentorship.
Implementing Merriam and Tisdell's (2016) Strategies for Promoting Validity and
Reliability assured credibility and trustworthiness. According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016),
these techniques impact the rigor of research investigations that support the notions of validity,
reliability, and generalizability.
Ethics
The University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) was asked for
permission to conduct this study by the researcher. The researcher adhered to IRB guidelines for
the duration of this study after receiving approval. To obtain participant mentors' consent, the
researcher prepared an informed consent statement and provided the participants with a general
overview of the study's objectives (Creswell, 2018). Once the potential mentors had been
chosen, they verbally consented via the Zoom recording before the interview continued.

36
The researcher abided by the ethical and legal guidelines found in the Publication Manual
of the American Psychological Association (2010), including the following: "to ensure the
accuracy of scientific knowledge, to protect the rights and welfare of research participants, and to
protect intellectual property rights" (p. 11). This ensures that participants are treated fairly and
with dignity (Hatch, 2002). Participants received informed consent forms and information about
the study's research processes and data confidentiality before participating (Creswell, 2018).
Participants received all the information they required to make an informed decision about
participating in the study.
Participants identifying information collected during this study was kept confidential. The
summarized findings did not contain any identifying information or direct quotations and
pseudonyms were used to protect the identity of participants when presenting the findings.
Participation in the research posed minimal risks. There were no direct benefits to the
participants of this study. However, this research is anticipated to generate essential data about
African American mentoring in which they are vested. The mentors were informed that their
participation was entirely voluntary and that they may disengage from the study without
repercussions.
The confidentiality and anonymity of the research participants were protected by securing
the informed consent, interview recordings, and transcripts. All physical data was stored in a
restricted area to which only the researcher has access to retrieve.
Limitations and Delimitations
Understanding the limitations and delimitations is essential, given the boundaries and
constraints that may impact this study's findings. The conceptual frameworks that I selected for
this study, Bandura’s Social Cognitive or Learning Theory and Vygotsky's theory of proximal

37
development, lend themselves to examining mentorship through the lens of one’s observation
and experience. The participants were expected to have a vested interest in the outcome of this
research. Hence, the researcher expected that responses would be truthful and relative to the
research objective.
The selection of the research questions and additional probes were purposeful and
intended to elicit responses that could be used to understand specific attributes deemed necessary
to create an effective mentorship relationship that could be applied to mentorship programs more
broadly.
A potential limitation of this research may have included the absence of probing the
inverse of this study, which is identifying factors that may be detrimental to mentorship
programs so that they can be better understood and programmatically avoided.
Chapter Four: Findings
This study aims to understand what elements can be incorporated into existing and
proposed mentorship programs specifically focused on African-American men to improve the
relational effectiveness between the mentor and mentee and the mentee’s professional selfefficacy. This study specifically focused on the development of African-American men by
understanding which critical elements should be encouraged in a mentor and mentee
relationship. According to LaVant et al., (1987), mentoring is vital to the survival and
empowerment of African-American men and enhances their ability to make plausible gains.
Research questions were specifically selected to probe the interviewees to solicit
responses to understand the challenges, and opportunities related to mentorship programs. The
research questions included:
1. How do African-American mentors perceive and address the specific challenges faced by

38
mentees in developing a strong sense of purpose and self-efficacy, and what strategies do
they employ to navigate these challenges within the context of mentorship programs?
2. What are the key elements and strategies within mentorship programs that AfricanAmerican mentors identify as most beneficial for enhancing mentees' sense of purpose
and self-efficacy, and how do these mentors believe these elements contribute to the
overall success of the mentoring relationship?
3. In what ways do African-American mentors recommend structuring and implementing
mentorship programs to best support mentees in assessing and building upon their
existing strengths, and how do these recommendations contribute to the empowerment
and development of mentees within the program?
There were two theoretical frameworks used to examine this problem of practice. The
first was the social cognitive, or learning theory, which describes how followers (i.e., mentees)
pick up new skills by watching and imitating others around them. The second theoretical
framework is based on Vygotsky's theory of proximal development. In this framework, mentors
can help their mentees learn by implementing a scaffolding process to help their mentees grow in
areas such as self-awareness, competence, confidence, and the ability to take on new challenges
(Bearman et al., 2007).
A qualitative research approach was used to address the research questions. Semistructured interviews and data were collected from accomplished African-American men in
leadership roles. The chapter is organized into three sections. The chapter begins with an
overview of interview participants, followed by a presentation of findings related to each
research question and other findings, and concludes with a collective summary of the findings.

39
Overview of Interview Participants
Data were collected from 10 interviews via Zoom online conferencing. All 10
participants were African-American male professionals with mentorship and coaching experience
who have held leadership roles which had allowed them the opportunity to support and guide
mentees. The types of participants with experience in mentorship specific to the AfricanAmerican male population were essential to understanding what tactics were most effective in
optimizing mentorship activities. Of the participants interviewed, five identified as executives or
managers, two identified as educators, and the remaining three included a lawyer/clergy,
employee advocate, and leader in the service industry. The participants averaged over 31 years
of professional experience in their respective industries and had committed to supporting
African-American mentorship initiatives through both professional, and personal connections.
Collectively the participants have over 181 years of mentorship experience.
Information collected during the recruitment process included age, race, current role, and
professional title. Additionally, the recruitment criteria required confirmation that participants
had at least three years of experience with mentorship programs, including recent engagement
with a mentorship program, either formally, or informally. Table 1 provides an overview of the
interview participants’ demographics, including pseudonyms, age, and position.

40
Table 2
Demographics of Interview Participants
Pseudonym Position / Role Years of
Mentorship
Experience
Age
Race and/or Ethnic Identity
Kameron Employee Advocate 14 42 African American
Kwincey President/CEO 16 48 African American
Kyle Lawyer/Minister 20 59 African American
Jaryd Manager 18 53 African American
Jayce Entrepreneur 17 50 African American
Ethan Executive 18 54 African American
Tony Educator 17 52 African American
Nathan Insurance 20 59 African American
Ryan Educator 21 64 African American
Kevan Director/Manager 21 62 African American

41
Identifying themes and patterns from the data was achieved by using thematic analysis.
Open coding was followed by axial coding to identify and group themes from the interview
transcripts. Summarized findings are presented for each research question. The findings suggest
that the 10 participants had strong opinions and insights based on their experiences related to
mentoring and mentorship programs. Areas where mentorship exposure was impactful were not
limited to the educational space but also extended into churches, community centers, and other
areas where African-American youth congregate.
African-American mentees encounter unique challenges in developing a strong sense of
purpose and self-efficacy. This research identifies strategies employed by mentors to address
these challenges within mentorship programs and relationships. This exploration is structured
around three research questions specifically designed to probe subject matter experts in this field.
Themes highlighted through responses to the first research question include the lack of positive
male role models, navigating stereotypes and societal expectations, identification of effective
elements of mentorship programs, and tailoring mentorship to support individual growth.
Research Question 1
How do African-American mentors perceive and address the specific challenges faced by
mentees in developing a strong sense of purpose and self-efficacy, and what strategies do
they employ to navigate these challenges within the context of mentorship programs?
Findings for Research Question 1
The findings from the interviews suggest that African-American mentors recognize and
address specific challenges faced by mentees in developing a strong sense of purpose and selfefficacy within mentorship programs. The lack of positive male role models emerged as a
significant obstacle, leading nine mentors to advocate for programs that actively connect mentees

42
with relatable figures. Additionally, personal and professional mentorship support systems were
highlighted as critical for success, emphasizing the importance of early guidance and continuous
learning. Accessibility and communication were deemed essential elements of effective
mentorship, alongside tailoring programs to individual strengths to foster positive self-identity
and purpose. Nine of the participants stressed the need for authenticity, consistency, and a
personalized approach to empower mentees in navigating societal expectations and stereotypes,
ultimately contributing to their holistic development and success.
Lack of Positive Male Role Models
A recurring theme among eight of the participants regarding challenges faced by mentees
in developing a strong sense of purpose and self-efficacy was the lack of positive male role
models. Seven participants expressed concern over the limited availability of relatable figures for
young African-American men to look up to, highlighting the impact of this absence on their
mentees' self-perception. Kameron described the impact of absent fathers, “so if they don't grow
up with father figures, they don't know the example that they are looking for, or to have an idea
of what a strong sense of purpose and values are.” Similarly, Kyle shared “I've dealt with quite a
few young men in the church whose fathers didn't want anything to do with them. Many of them
were angry and really on a self-destructive path because of the lack of male role models in their
life, and particularly their father.”
To address this challenge, nine participants emphasized the importance of establishing
mentorship programs that actively connect mentees with positive male role models who can
serve as sources of inspiration, guidance, and support. According to Kwincy, “Sometimes
mentor-mentee relationships, they're forced. And there's no trust or respect. But having a
relationship that goes beyond that superficial or surface relationship goes a little bit deeper where

43
there's actually a bond of mutual care and consideration.”
By fostering such connections, six participants believe mentees can navigate societal
expectations and stereotypes more effectively, ultimately contributing to the development of a
stronger sense of purpose and self-efficacy. Ethan stated, “We talk about a 360-degree radius,
being professional, setting a good attitude, being positive, which allows them to grow.”
Personal and Professional Mentorship Support Systems
In response to the question about critical support systems for professional or personal
success, a prominent theme amongst eight participants highlighted established and effective
mentorship support systems. According to Tony, “Having mentors myself, or other people who
could direct me to different avenues allowed me to explore areas where I want to better myself
and advance in my career.”
All respondents highlighted the pivotal role of mentorship and support received during
the formative years. Jaryd shared that “the challenge is usually the willingness of the
institutional, or the leadership in an institution to provide those mentorship opportunities.” Eight
participants stressed the need for mentorship programs to focus on providing early personal
guidance, recognizing that these foundational elements significantly contribute to the long-term
success of mentees. Kyle noted that he would “try to connect mentees with somebody in the
profession they were interested in as early as possible.”
All participants suggested that creating opportunities for advancement and continuous
learning, particularly through mentorship, can further enhance the development and maturation
of African-American men, emphasizing the importance of holistic support systems that extend
beyond the workplace. According to Kevan, “Businesses must recognize the connection
between investing in mentee development and achieving positive business outcomes,

44
emphasizing that developing the mentee is a key factor in addressing organizational gaps and
achieving success.”
Accessibility and Communication in Mentorship Programs
Regarding the elements deemed beneficial for mentees in a mentorship program, the
theme of accessibility and communication emerged as crucial. Five respondents emphasized the
need for mentorship programs to prioritize easy access to mentees and open lines of
communication. Of the two most important elements in a mentorship program, Kwincey stated
that “authentic experiences and regular communication are key.” Nine participants believe that a
mentorship program's effectiveness lies in its ability to establish clear channels for mentees to
connect with their mentors regularly and consistently.
According to Jayce, “From a communication standpoint, you got to be transparent with
them. They will read right through you if you're trying to be fake, or you're trying to be
somebody that you are not.” Additionally, nine participants stressed the importance of positive
role models and professionalism within these programs, emphasizing that mentors should
exemplify the values and behaviors they aim to instill in their mentees. Kameron shared that
accountability and a clear sense of self are important “that if the mentor leaves an impression on
you, you would want to follow in their footsteps, not to necessarily emulate them, but find your
own path and then be able to move forward.”
Making oneself available, and accessible to mentor requires a level of personal dedication
and time commitment. Kyle stated that “the lessons that I learned from my father were not taught
one time, but it was over the course of his life. It's just really the duration a long relationship that
is important, so consistency in the mentoring program is critical.”

45
Tailoring Mentorship to Individual Strengths
When addressing how mentorship programs can help mentees assess and build upon their
existing strengths, six participants highlighted the objective of tailoring mentorship to individual
strengths of the mentees’ interested in the program. According to Kyle, “I think that once you
know the mentee, you start giving them exposure around their gifts. Because in those gifts and
strengths, there's a career there.” The consensus among seven participants was that effective
mentorship goes beyond a one-size-fits-all approach, requiring a personalized strategy that
considers the unique strengths and attributes of each mentee.
Ryan stated that “we're going to take the time to really know each of these kids…find out
what interest these kids have and how that can be developed.” Six participants suggested
utilizing personality and behavioral profiles to identify mentees' strengths and areas for growth,
enabling a more targeted and impactful mentorship experience. Ethan believes that mentorship
programs extend beyond the one-on-one relationship, “you need to know strengths, weaknesses.
We got to look at circumstances, you know, we look at how we can help them financially.”
Fostering positive self-identity and purpose was identified as a key strategy within
mentorship programs. Encouraging mentees to explore and understand their strengths,
ultimately contributes to a stronger sense of purpose and self-efficacy. The individual approach
to mentorship for this population was summarized by Jaryd, “I think it goes back to
communications. So first, helping the mentee identify their talents, and then helping them
realize that they are strengths to better them define and work on them.”
Research Question 2
What are the key elements and strategies within mentorship programs that AfricanAmerican mentors identify as most beneficial for enhancing mentees' sense of purpose and

46
self-efficacy, and how do these mentors believe these elements contribute to the overall
success of the mentoring relationship?
Findings for Research Question 2
The findings from the research question identify that building inclusive mentorship
programs involves prioritizing relationship-building, regular engagement, intentional recruitment
based on needs, and tailoring programs to demographics. Secondly, enhancing mentee retention
involves establishing trust, fostering intrinsic motivation, and maintaining program adaptability.
Lastly, strategies for intentional recruitment and community engagement emphasize tailoring
programs to specific needs, actively engaging with the community, and employing professional
and strategic recruitment approaches. Optimizing access to resources includes embedding
mentoring in organizational values, leveraging partnerships and networking, and utilizing digital
platforms for increased visibility and opportunities. Overall, these findings underscore the
importance of tailored, inclusive, and adaptable mentorship programs supported by trust,
intrinsic motivation, and strategic engagement.
Building Inclusive Mentorship Programs
Mentorship programs play a crucial role in ensuring mentees feel welcomed and
included. The themes derived from the interview questions emphasize the significance of
building relationships and regularly engaging with mentees. Moreover, intentional recruitment
based on needs, and tailoring programs to demographics emerged as common themes in
responses to this question.
Building strong relationships and fostering regular engagement emerged as a
foundational element in programs supporting African-American mentorship programs. Kameron
stated, “One of the biggest things in the programs that I lead is trying to figure out how can I

47
build a relationship with each kid, whether that's understanding their flaws and strengths or just
understanding their background. Then, figuring out how can I be available.” Nine participants
emphasized the importance of creating a supportive environment where mentees feel valued,
welcomed, and heard. Regular check-ins, open communication channels, and mentor-initiated
interactions contributed to a sense of belonging.
Tailoring mentorship programs to the specific needs of mentees was crucial for creating
an inclusive environment. Understanding the unique challenges faced by African-American
mentees and addressing them through program design ensures that the mentorship experience is
relevant, impactful, and lasting. Jaryd shared “Understand your audience whether it be a group
from the inner city or a group from the suburbs. You have different cities or organizations and
chapters that have different ways in which they do things. They understand the demographics
that they're dealing with.” Seven participants highlighted the need for sensitivity to cultural
nuances and the incorporation of diversity in program structures.
Demographic considerations of the mentee, such as age, gender, and cultural background,
played a significant role in building an inclusive mentorship program and increasing
effectiveness. Kwincey stated, “When it comes to mentorship, especially knowing that diversity
makes a difference. The race, religion, creed of the mentor-mentee relationship should be based
on the mentees’ interest.” Interview responses indicated that five participants believe tailoring
programs to the demographics of the community being served ensures that mentorship
experiences are relatable and resonate with the mentees' lived experiences.
Enhancing Mentee Retention through Trust and Personalization
Mentee retention is a critical factor in the success of mentorship programs. According to
Ethan, “Being consistent in what we're doing by over-communicating builds trust.” Interview

48
responses from all of the participants identified effective ways to retain mentees, highlighting
themes of building trust and connection, fostering intrinsic motivation, and program adaptability
based on mentees' needs. Kameron noted that “one effective way is just making sure that there's
follow-up and consistency. With building trust, if there's consistency within the program that
means communication, that means programming. That means maybe there's some type of reward
for every step in the program that you complete.”
Trust forms the foundation of any successful mentor-mentee relationship. Seven
participants emphasized the need to establish trust by creating a safe space for mentees to share
their thoughts, concerns, and aspirations. According to Kwincy, “create an environment of trust
that would be considered a nurturing environment that will allow true ideas and true beliefs and
biases to be put on a table and examined.” Genuine connections and a mentor’s commitment to
understanding the mentee's perspective contribute to the establishment of trust and strengthen the
bond between the mentor and mentee.
Eight participants recognized the importance of fostering intrinsic motivation in mentees.
Encouraging mentees to identify and pursue their own goals, rather than imposing external
expectations, was highlighted as an effective strategy. Jaryd stated that “understanding each
mentee and understanding that you know what makes them tick; if they don't show enjoyment,
being able to tell that they're intrinsically and emotionally getting something out of it.” Eight
participants believe that intrinsic motivation leads to a more fulfilling and sustainable mentorship
journey.
The adaptability of mentorship programs emerged as a key theme in retaining mentees.
Flexibility in program structures and responsiveness to the evolving needs of mentees contribute
to sustained engagement. Six participants acknowledged the dynamic nature of mentorship

49
relationships and the necessity of adjusting program elements to meet mentees where they are in
their personal and educational spaces. Tony stated, “Allow mentees to have input. Constantly
change and rotate the leadership opportunities, and change the programming to reflect the current
membership base.”
Strategies for Intentional Recruitment and Community Engagement
Responses coalesced on how mentorship programs can be more intentional in their
recruitment of mentees. The top themes included tailoring mentorship programs to specific
needs, community engagement, and professional and strategic recruitment approaches.
Tailoring mentorship programs to the specific needs of mentees is not only crucial for
inclusivity but also for effective recruitment. Ethan suggested, “treat recruitment just like any
other job profession… how you go to career fairs. We set it up as if we're doing a trade show.”
Respondents reiterated the importance of understanding the unique challenges and aspirations of
potential mentees to attract those who find the program offerings directly relevant to their goals.
Community engagement emerged as a strategic approach to intentional recruitment.
Seven participants emphasized the importance of actively reaching out to community resources
and establishing partnerships with local organizations. Ryan suggested “You have to be
intentional by going out in the community and letting people know what you're doing. They got
to believe in what you are trying to do.” By embedding mentorship programs within the
community fabric, seven participants believe they can identify, and recruit mentees who may
benefit significantly from the mentorship relationship.
The professionalism and strategic nature of recruitment approaches were highlighted by
the respondents. Tony stated, “It comes down to how mentorship programs market themselves
and really focusing in on who their target audience is going to be.” Developing targeted

50
recruitment strategies, utilizing professional networks, and aligning mentorship programs with
broader organizational goals contributed to the success of recruitment efforts.
Optimizing Access to Resources in Mentorship Programs
A recurring theme through the responses of all participants identified that access to
resources is a critical factor in the success of mentorship programs. Respondents discussed
strategies to increase mentees' access to resources,with themes such as embedding mentoring in
an organization's core values, leveraging strategic partnerships and networking, and utilizing
digital platforms. According to Kameron, “The power of networking could take you so many
different places, and it can provide many opportunities.” Jayce also added, “I've created
strategic partnerships with other community organizations like the Rotaries, the Kiwana, and
other like-minded organizations that are willing to help out smaller organizations.”
The importance of embedding mentoring in the core values and mission of an
organization was commonly referenced. When mentorship is a fundamental aspect of an
organizational culture, it attracts financial support and resources. Kwincey noted, “If
organizations have mentorship in their culture then, of course, everyone benefits.” This
alignment ensures sustained commitment to the mentorship program.
Collaboration with external partners and leveraging professional networks emerged as
effective strategies to increase access to resources. Nine participants recognized the value of
connecting mentees with individuals and organizations that can provide additional support,
opportunities, and guidance. Kameron noted, "The mentorship committee becomes a valuable
platform for connecting with people in specific industries, potentially opening doors to
opportunities or facilitating connections with individuals who possess relevant knowledge and
expertise."

51
Digital platforms were identified as valuable tools to increase exposure and access to
resources. Six participants discussed the benefits of online networks, mentorship platforms, and
digital resources that can enhance mentees' visibility and broaden their access to opportunities.
Ethan reinforced this view by stating “This is what it's about, you know, not just us showing up
talking and doing video, but talking to them through social media and digital platforms.”
Research Question 3
In what ways do African-American mentors recommend structuring and implementing
mentorship programs to best support mentees in assessing and building upon their existing
strengths, and how do these recommendations contribute to the empowerment and
development of mentees within the program?
Findings for Research Question 3
The findings reveal that nine participants recommend structuring mentorship programs to
prioritize personal and professional development, highlighting the significance of holistic growth
for mentees. All participants emphasized the role of mentorship in fostering essential skills,
guiding career paths, and enhancing confidence, ultimately empowering mentees to navigate
their professional journeys effectively. Moreover, nine mentors stress the importance of
leveraging data for informed decision-making, advocating for access to survey data to
understand program strengths and weaknesses. This emphasis on data-driven insights facilitated
ongoing improvements, ensuring mentorship initiatives evolved to meet the changing needs of
mentees, thus reflecting a commitment to creating dynamic and tailored mentorship programs.
Personal and Professional Development
One prominent theme that emerged from the participant's responses was the emphasis on
personal and professional development as key benefits associated with providing mentorship.

52
Five respondents highlighted how mentorship programs are instrumental in fostering the holistic
growth of mentees. Jayce stated, “Mentoring plays a crucial role in developing the next
generation of leaders. There is satisfaction in witnessing young men progress through a program,
attend college, obtain a degree, and return to contribute positively to the community.”
Nine participants emphasized the role of mentorship in honing essential skills, offering
guidance on career trajectories, and facilitating a deeper understanding of personal strengths.
Ryan stated, “Mentorship instills confidence in the mentee, encouraging them to surpass their
perceived limits and strive for greater achievements.” This theme underscores the significant
impact mentorship can have on empowering mentees to navigate their professional journeys
while simultaneously enhancing their personal growth.
In practical terms, all mentors shared anecdotes and insights into specific instances where
their guidance had directly contributed to the advancement of their mentees' careers and personal
lives as well as the impact on them as a mentee. Kevan shared “The personal connection between
mentors and mentees can lead to lasting friendships.” This theme not only reflects the
effectiveness of mentorship in addressing the unique challenges faced by African-American
mentees but also highlights the outcomes of building bonds and connections with others that can
help strengthen personal and professional development.
Data-Driven Decision-Making for Program Improvement
Leveraging data to make informed decisions highlighted a recurring theme among the
respondents regarding access to survey data and results specific to the mentorship programs they
were associated with. The consensus was that having such data is invaluable as it enables datadriven decision-making processes. According to Kevan, “having access to survey data allows for
insights and actions to be taken.” Six participants expressed how access to survey data allows

53
for a comprehensive understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the mentorship program,
ultimately facilitating informed decisions to enhance program effectiveness. Tony added that
“having access to survey data provides analysis that is focused on identifying the elements of
activities that students enjoyed the most.”
Six participants emphasized the role of feedback loops in mentorship programs and how
data-driven insights contribute to ongoing improvements. According to Kameron, “The need for
mentorship should go beyond surface-level information, it requires an understanding of each
student's unique preferences and interests.” Six participants stressed that being able to analyze
survey results provides a solid foundation for program enhancement, ensuring that mentorship
initiatives evolve to meet the changing needs of mentees. Jayce asserted that “if you don't have
the feedback with data, you can't make your program better, you can't make your program more
effective.”
This focus on continuous improvement through data-driven decision-making underscored
the commitment of African-American mentors to creating mentorship programs that are
dynamic, responsive, and tailored to the specific needs of their mentees.
Summary
This study involved understanding and addressing the unique challenges faced by
mentees in obtaining a strong sense of purpose and self-efficacy. This research investigates three
pivotal research questions, each shedding light on the strategies employed within mentorship
programs.
The lack of positive male role models emerges as a recurring concern. Many mentees
lacked relatable figures, impacting their self-perception. To address this, mentorship programs
have actively connected mentees to positive male role models fostering inspiration and support.

54
Navigating stereotypes and societal expectations was another challenge, emphasizing the need
for tailored mentorship programs.
Early educational and personal mentorship support systems were critical. According to
the respondents, mentorship during formative years significantly contributed to the exposure to
opportunity and increased the chance of long-term success. Opportunities for advancement and
continuous learning, particularly through mentorship, enhanced the development of AfricanAmerican men, emphasizing holistic support systems beyond the workplace.
Mentorship programs benefit from prioritizing accessibility and communication. Clear
channels for regular mentee-mentor connections, positive role models, and professionalism
enhanced program effectiveness. Diversity and inclusivity were essential for addressing the
unique needs of African-American mentees.
Effective mentorship required tailoring to individual strengths. A personalized strategy
considered each mentee's unique attributes. Personality and behavioral profiles helped identify
strengths and areas for growth, fostering self-identity and purpose. Building inclusive mentorship
programs was crucial. Strong relationships, regular engagement, intentional recruitment, and
demographic considerations contributed to inclusivity. Trust, intrinsic motivation, and
adaptability enhanced mentee retention.
Tailoring mentorship programs to specific needs, community engagement, and
professional recruitment approaches were vital for bringing mentees into the program. Actively
reaching out to community resources and partnerships with local organizations enhanced the
program's relevance.
Access to resources was critical. Embedding mentoring in an organization's core values,
collaboration with external partners, and leveraging digital platforms had shown that they

55
enhanced resource accessibility. Personal and professional development was a key benefit of
mentorship.
Leveraging data for program improvement was essential. Access to survey data allowed
all mentors to make informed decisions, emphasizing feedback loops for continuous
improvement. Data also provided the ability to identify and track performance metrics allowing
leaders of mentorship programs the opportunity to improve upon processes.
Chapter Five will further continue the discussion by addressing recommendations. The
recommendations was based on the study findings and literature. They will identify three tactics
that can be used to both formally and informally to increase the effectiveness of African
American male mentorship programs and initiatives both in the formal, and informal
environment.
Table 3 lists the recurring themes that emerged from the research based on the responses
from the 10 participants. The recommendations in Chapter Five provide solutions that can
utilized to address the obstacles the recurring themes have identified. These themes are centered
on the individual mentee’s needs and the challenges that are evident in administering an effective
and sustainable program. It is critically important that mentorship program design is not tailored
to the collective, but is focused on the individual.

56
Table 3
Research Recurring Themes
Themes
The lack of positive male role models among African-American mentees, impacting their selfperception and sense of self-worth.
Challenges navigating stereotypes and societal expectations.
Ensuring early educational and personal mentorship support systems during formative years.
Tailoring programs to individual strengths, employing personalized strategies that consider
each mentee's unique attributes.
Access to program data designed to understand the effectiveness, at all levels, to continuously
improve mentorship programs and engagement.

57
Chapter Five: Recommendations
This study aims to understand what elements can be incorporated into existing and
proposed mentorship programs specifically focused on African-American men to improve the
relational effectiveness between the mentor and mentee and the mentee’s professional selfefficacy. This study specifically focused on the knowledge of African American men that had
provided mentorship opportunities individually or in a group setting.
The study’s conceptual framework applied social cognitive, or learning theory, which
describes how followers (i.e., mentees) pick up new skills by watching and imitating others
around them. The second theoretical framework is based on Vygotsky's theory of proximal
development. In this framework, mentors can help their mentees learn by implementing a
scaffolding process to help them grow in areas such as self-awareness, competence, confidence,
and the ability to take on new challenges (Bearman et al., 2007). The research questions that
guided this study were the following:
1. How do African-American mentors perceive and address the specific challenges faced by
mentees in developing a strong sense of purpose and self-efficacy, and what strategies do
they employ to navigate these challenges within the context of mentorship programs?
2. What are the key elements and strategies within mentorship programs that AfricanAmerican mentors identify as most beneficial for enhancing mentees' sense of purpose
and self-efficacy, and how do these mentors believe these elements contribute to the
overall success of the mentoring relationship?
3. In what ways do African-American mentors recommend structuring and implementing
mentorship programs to best support mentees in assessing and building upon their
existing strengths, and how do these recommendations contribute to the empowerment

58
and development of mentees within the program?
This chapter begins with a discussion of the findings, followed by a section where I will
connect the findings with existing mentorship programs. This will be followed by
recommendations for enhancing mentorship programs supporting African American males. The
chapter concludes with limitations and delimitations of the study and recommendations for future
research.
Discussion of Findings
Reciprocal determinism has been used to examine and discuss the findings. This study
used Bandura’s social cognitive theory of reciprocal determinism to focus on the interrelated
relationship between personal, behavioral, and environmental factors (Bandura, 1986).
Additionally, the study used Vygotsky's theory of proximal development, where mentees can
learn by implementing a scaffolding process to help them grow in areas such as self-awareness,
competence, confidence, and the ability to take on new challenges (Bearman et al., 2007).
The literature showed that the historical context of the contemporary youth mentoring
movement began in the United States in the late 1980s. "At the time, mentoring was becoming
increasingly recognized by the government as a promising strategy to enrich the lives of youth,
address the isolation of youth from adult contact, and provide one-on-one support for the most
vulnerable youth" (Fernandes-Alcantara, 2018, p. 4).
The study findings examined emerging themes based on existing mentorship initiatives
and those relationships between mentor and mentee while identifying elements that contributed
to the program's success. Mentor-mentee challenges were also highlighted in nine participants’
responses, which provided details of aspects of the personal relationships that should be
anticipated. The results of the findings will give suggestions on what is needed to increase the

59
effectiveness of mentorship programs supporting African American males.
Emerging Themes
The themes that emerged from the study included the lack of positive male role models
among African-American mentees, impacting their self-perception and sense of self-worth.
Navigating stereotypes and societal expectations posed another challenge, while early
educational and personal mentorship support systems highlighted mentorship's significant role
during formative years.
All participants shared that effective mentorship necessitated tailoring programs to
individual strengths, employing personalized strategies that consider each mentee's unique
attributes which fostered self-identity and purpose. Access to program data designed to
understand the effectiveness at all executional levels was deemed essential in the continuous
improvement of mentorship programs and engagement.
Personal Factors
As delineated by (Schunk & Usher, 2019), personal factors encompass a wide array of
individual characteristics and attributes that influence one's engagement in mentorship. In the
context of African American mentorship, interview results indicated that these personal factors
are particularly significant due to the unique socio-cultural experiences and challenges faced by
African American mentees. One such factor is self-efficacy, which refers to an individual's belief
in their ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish tasks. In African American
mentorship, self-efficacy plays a crucial role. Mentors can help cultivate a sense of confidence
and resilience in mentees, especially in environments where systemic barriers may undermine
one’s sense of belief in being able to accomplish their goals.
Moreover, the data revealed that all participants believed that motivation, another key

60
personal factor, was central to the success of African American mentorship initiatives.
Motivation stems from various sources, such as intrinsic desires, personal goals, or external
incentives. All participants felt the importance of tapping into mentees' intrinsic motivation
while addressing external factors that hindered their progress. Historically, mentorship programs
focused on African American males provided a supportive environment given the unique
aspirations and challenges faced by African American mentees.
Additionally, nine participants shared that identity development was a critical personal
factor in African American mentorship. This encompassed aspects such as racial identity,
cultural heritage, and a sense of belonging. The findings indicated that mentors who were attuned
to the complexities of identity development within the African American community provided
valuable support and guidance to mentees to help navigate issues related to racial discrimination,
stereotype threat, and cultural affirmation. In essence, personal factors outlined by Schunk &
Usher (2019) intersect with the dynamics of African American mentorship, shaping the quality
and outcomes of mentoring relationships within this context.
Behavioral Factors
Behavioral Factors, as defined by Schunk and Usher (2019), include a range of
psychological elements that influence individuals' actions, decisions, and outcomes. These
factors include motivation, self-regulation, persistence, and goal-setting strategies. In supporting
African American mentorship initiatives, understanding these behavioral factors is crucial for
effective mentorship programs tailored to the needs and experiences of African American male
mentees.
For African American mentorship, acknowledging the unique societal and cultural
challenges African American males face is essential. Factors such as systemic racism and

61
cultural stereotypes can significantly impact the behavioral dynamics within mentorship
relationships. Mentors must be attuned to these realities and employ strategies that empower
mentees to navigate and overcome these obstacles. Addressing motivational factors, fostering
resilience, and promoting self-efficacy are critical components of mentorship that can help
African American mentees thrive despite systemic barriers. According to Lofton and Davis
(2015), negative perceptions of African American neighborhoods were implicated in an unequal
distribution of knowledge, resources, and opportunities. African Americans were
unacknowledged, thereby contributing to systemic inequalities.
Considering the African American community's cultural nuances and communal values is
essential for effective mentorship. Culturally relevant mentorship approaches that honor the
strengths and experiences of African American mentees can enhance engagement and outcomes.
Mentors who are culturally competent and sensitive to their mentees' unique backgrounds and
perspectives can establish trust and rapport more effectively, fostering a supportive environment
for growth and development. According to Murrell et al (2021), enabling perspectives, empathic
acknowledgment and containment are critical for the development, support, and validation of
diverse leaders. By integrating an understanding of behavioral factors with cultural
responsiveness, African American male mentorship programs can better equip mentees with the
skills and resources needed to achieve their personal and professional goals.
Environmental Factors
Environmental factors play a crucial role in shaping the dynamics and effectiveness of
African American mentoring relationships. Schunk and Usher's framework of environmental
factors describes various external elements that can significantly impact the mentorship process.
One key aspect is the socio-economic environment, which includes factors such as access to

62
resources, economic opportunities, community, and institutional support. According to Poon et
al., (2022), environmental stress can shape mentoring relationship outcomes. For African
American males, historical and systemic inequalities have created unique socioeconomic
challenges, which can influence both mentors and mentees in terms of their availability, stability,
and ability to engage in mentorship.
Environmental factors influence the cultural context within which mentorship occurs. For
African American male mentorship, this involves cultural identity, societal norms, and
community dynamics. Cultural congruence between mentors and mentees can facilitate trust,
understanding, and effective communication, while mismatches in cultural backgrounds may
present challenges in relating to one another's experiences and perspectives. According to
Sanchez et al., (2019), mentor support for ethnic/racial identity significantly predicted relative
increases in youth reports of relational but not instrumental satisfaction. Societal attitudes and
stereotypes about race can impact the mentorship process and self-efficacy, influencing
perceptions of capability, potential, and worthiness of support. If the participant's mentoring
experience is positive and the relationship is one involving a close interpersonal bond, and both
mentor and mentee identified personal and/or professional gains or growth the connection is
considered a success (Rainer, 2013).
Physical environments play a role in shaping the African American male mentorship
experience. This includes geographical location, neighborhood dynamics, and access to safe and
supportive spaces for mentorship activities. In communities where resources are scarce, mentors
and mentees may face additional barriers to engagement, such as transportation challenges or
safety concerns. Conversely, environments conducive to positive social interactions and personal
development can enhance the effectiveness of mentorship relationships and contribute to

63
participants' overall well-being. According to Stewart (2022), providing a protective setting
within a safe environment and supportive adults helps mentees practice skills they have been
learning in natural settings.
Institutional environments also impact African American male mentorship initiatives.
This includes the policies, practices, and structures within educational institutions, workplaces,
and community organizations that either support or hinder mentorship opportunities. Given
institutional barriers, the inability of African-American men to advance their careers due to fewer
opportunities for them to gain the knowledge and the connections required results in a higher risk
of turnover as a result of their sense of disengagement and lack of support, and the absence of
leadership diversity which includes them (Hancock et al., 2021).
Addressing systemic barriers and promoting inclusive practices within these institutions
is essential for fostering equitable access to mentorship and creating environments where African
American males can thrive and reach their full potential. By acknowledging and addressing these
environmental factors, those wishing to support mentorship can work towards creating more
supportive and empowering experiences for African American males.
Recommendations for Practice
This study aims to understand what elements can be incorporated into existing and
proposed mentorship programs specifically focused on African American males to improve the
relational effectiveness between the mentor and mentee and the mentee’s professional selfefficacy. This study specifically focused on the knowledge of African American men that had
provided mentorship opportunities individually or in group settings.
The Social Cognitive framework, or learning theory (Bandura, 1977), which describes
how followers (i.e., mentees) pick up new skills by watching and imitating others around them.

64
The second theoretical framework was based on Vygotsky's theory of proximal development. In
this framework, mentors can help their mentees learn by implementing a scaffolding process to
help their mentees grow in areas such as self-awareness, competence, confidence, and the ability
to take on new challenges (Bearman et al., 2007). Three recommendations are identified below
to address key findings related to increasing the effectiveness of mentorship programs for
African American men.
Recommendation 1: Diversify Mentor Representation
A Center for Talent Innovation study found that black men are likelier to have informal
mentors, such as peers or colleagues, than formal mentors, who are typically more influential in
advancing careers (Center for Talent Innovation, 2018). Recommendations from this study
include:
1. Introduce initiatives to recruit and train more positive male role models from diverse
backgrounds who can relate to and inspire African-American mentees. When gauging
interest from potential participants, the recruitment strategy should use Eide and Allen's
(2005) three-pronged approach of context, trust, and knowledge.
2. Establish mentorship programs that intentionally expose mentees to successful African
American professionals, leaders, and community figures who can serve as role models
and sources of inspiration.
3. Collaborate with community organizations and businesses to create mentorship
opportunities that showcase a variety of career paths and success stories, promoting a
diverse range of role models for mentees to identify with. Six participants shared the
importance of community engagement and professional and strategic recruitment
approaches.

65
Organizations can effectively address the mentorship gap by implementing initiatives
aimed at recruiting and training positive male role models from diverse backgrounds. Eide and
Allen's (2005) three-pronged approach of context, trust, and knowledge can serve as a strategic
framework for engaging potential mentors, ensuring alignment with mentees' experiences and
aspirations.
Furthermore, by design, mentorship programs deliberately expose mentees to successful
African American professionals, leaders, and community figures, providing them with relatable
role models and sources of inspiration. Collaborative efforts with community organizations and
businesses expand mentorship opportunities across various career paths, enriching mentees'
experiences with various success stories. There are three tactics that can be used to begin these
efforts:
1. Partnership Proposals: Draft a concise proposal outlining the benefits of African
American male mentorship programs to organizations and businesses. Highlight how
such programs can contribute to diversity and inclusion initiatives, foster talent
development, and enhance corporate social responsibility. Reach out directly to
decision-makers within these entities to present the proposal and discuss potential
collaboration opportunities.
2. Networking Events: Organize networking events aimed at connecting African
American male mentors with representatives from organizations and businesses.
These events can serve as platforms for discussing the importance of mentorship,
showcasing success stories, and exploring partnership opportunities. Encourage open
dialogue and collaboration between mentors and potential corporate partners to
facilitate meaningful engagement.

66
3. Sponsorship Opportunities: Seek sponsorship from businesses and organizations to
support African American male mentorship programs financially. Develop
sponsorship packages outlining the benefits for sponsors, such as brand exposure,
alignment with diversity and inclusion efforts, and the opportunity to make a positive
social impact. Approach potential sponsors with tailored proposals emphasizing how
their support can contribute to the success and sustainability of mentorship initiatives.
These approaches yields multifaceted benefits for African American mentorship. Firstly,
it addresses the disparity in formal mentorship access, empowering mentees with guidance from
influential figures capable of facilitating career progression. Secondly, exposure to diverse role
models cultivates a sense of belonging and aspiration among mentees, fostering confidence and
ambition in pursuing their goals. Finally, community collaboration enhances the sustainability
and reach of mentorship initiatives, leveraging collective resources to support the advancement
of African American mentees.
Diversifying mentor representation emerges as a strategic imperative in strengthening
African American mentorship. Organizations can catalyze transformative mentorship
experiences that empower mentees to thrive in their professional endeavors by prioritizing
inclusive recruitment, intentional exposure, and collaborative partnerships.
Recommendation 2: Address Stereotypes and Societal Expectations
Steele (2010) defines Stereotype Threat as is a theory explaining a phenomenon
characterized by the suppression of performance due to a fear of fulfilling negative
stereotypes related to one’s identity group or a fear of being judged based on these
stereotypes when one’s identity is made salient. African American males are frequently
subjected to racial social stereotypes, profiling, and unequal opportunities, which can result

67
in their subordination (Feagin, 2006). Recommendations include:
1. Implement mentorship programs incorporating discussions and workshops focused
on navigating stereotypes and societal expectations, providing mentees with
strategies to challenge and overcome negative perceptions.
2. Offer mentorship training for mentors to help them understand and address the
unique challenges African-American mentees face in their personal and
professional lives, including strategies for building resilience and self-confidence.
3. Foster a supportive and inclusive mentorship environment where mentees feel
empowered to embrace their cultural identity and challenge societal norms, creating
a space where they can thrive authentically.
Based on literature, students become stereotype aware between the ages of five and ten
(Nasir et al., 2016). Addressing stereotypes and societal expectations early within mentorship
programs for African American males is crucial to fostering their personal and professional
growth. This recommendation aligns with recognizing that systemic barriers and prejudices often
hinder their advancement (Feagin, 2006). By implementing targeted strategies, mentorship
programs can effectively combat these challenges and empower mentees to overcome societal
limitations.
Contextualization methods include more extensive conversations regarding racial
identity, educational settings, and historical details, blending participant and researcher
communication as outlined in the findings by Lopez and Willis (2004). Incorporating discussions
and workshops within mentorship programs to navigate stereotypes and societal expectations
provides mentees with essential tools to challenge negative perceptions. These sessions can
facilitate open dialogue, allowing mentees to articulate their experiences while equipping them

68
with strategies to counteract stereotypes effectively. Research suggests that such interventions
can enhance self-awareness and resilience among marginalized groups (Graham et al., 2013).
Mentorship training for mentors plays a pivotal role in addressing the unique challenges
faced by African American mentees. Jayrd noted that “the core components of mentorship and
leadership training should remain the focus, with an emphasis on selflessness, understanding the
mentees' perspectives, and providing quantifiable results to demonstrate growth and progress
over time”. Equipping mentors with cultural competence and an understanding of systemic
injustices enables them to provide tailored support and guidance. Mentorship training should
emphasize the importance of fostering resilience and self-confidence in mentees, empowering
them to navigate adversities confidently (Bell, 2000).
Creating a supportive and inclusive mentorship environment is essential for the success
of African American mentees. Mentorship programs can nurture authenticity and promote
holistic development by cultivating spaces where mentees feel safe to embrace their cultural
identity and challenge societal norms. Research highlights the significance of supportive
environments in facilitating positive identity formation and academic success among minority
youth (Tynes et al., 2008).
Targeted strategies can provide mentorship training, and foster inclusive environments.
These programs empower mentees to thrive authentically despite systemic barriers that they
encounter. Tony noted that there should be an “emphasis on establishing a dynamic,
participatory atmosphere that allows mentees to contribute to the program's design and express
their preferences for a more tailored and inclusive experience”.
Recommendation 3: Personalized Mentorship Approach
The consensus among seven participants was that effective mentorship goes beyond a

69
one-size-fits-all approach, requiring a personalized strategy that considers each mentee's unique
strengths and attributes A successful mentor must be well-versed in both the practical and
interpersonal aspects of mentoring. As Blake-Beard et al., (2011) noted, effective mentorship
occurs when mentors and mentees develop trust, share strengths and limitations, and identify
with and authentically engage with one another. Recommendations include:
1. Develop mentorship programs that prioritize individualized support and guidance,
tailoring mentoring relationships to each mentee's specific strengths, interests, and needs.
2. Provide mentors with training and resources to implement personalized strategies that
recognize and nurture each mentee's unique attributes and potential, fostering a sense of
self-identity and purpose.
3. Establish regular feedback mechanisms and evaluation processes within mentorship
programs to assess the effectiveness of personalized approaches and identify areas for
improvement, ensuring that mentees receive the support they need to succeed.
Personalized mentorship is crucial for the advancement and success of individuals,
particularly within marginalized communities like African American males, who often face
systemic barriers to opportunities. As outlined by Blake-Beard et al., (2011) and echoed by nine
participants, the recommendation for a personalized mentorship approach presents a promising
strategy to enhance mentorship outcomes within this community.
Personalized mentorship acknowledges each mentee's unique strengths, interests, and
needs, fostering a deeper connection and trust between mentor and mentee. By tailoring
mentorship relationships to individual attributes, this approach addresses the limitations of a onesize-fits-all model, which may overlook African American male mentees' diverse experiences
and challenges.

70
One significant benefit of personalized mentorship is the cultivation of self-identity and
purpose among mentees. Research has shown that mentorship relationships characterized by
authenticity and mutual understanding contribute to greater self-awareness and confidence
among mentees (Blake-Beard et al., 2011). For African American male mentees who may
grapple with identity-related issues stemming from societal stereotypes and biases, personalized
mentorship can serve as a supportive space for exploring and affirming their unique identities
and place in society.
Furthermore, by equipping mentors with training and resources to implement
personalized strategies, mentorship programs can ensure that mentors are well-prepared to
address the diverse needs of their mentees. This enhances the quality of mentorship and
promotes cultural competence and sensitivity among mentors, leading to more effective support
and meaningful engagement with African American mentees. There are two strategies this can
be accomplished:
1. Tailored Mentorship Training Programs: Develop specialized training programs that
specifically address the unique needs, challenges, and cultural backgrounds of
African American mentees. These programs should equip mentors with the necessary
skills, knowledge, and resources to effectively support and engage with African
American mentees. This can include workshops, seminars, and online courses
focused on topics such as cultural competency, diversity awareness, implicit bias, and
effective communication strategies.
2. Culturally Relevant Resources and Materials: Provide mentors with access to a wide
range of culturally relevant resources, materials, and tools that they can utilize to
better understand and connect with their African American mentees. This can include

71
books, articles, videos, and online resources that explore African American history,
culture, experiences, and perspectives. Additionally, mentors should be encouraged to
seek out and incorporate diverse perspectives and voices into their mentorship
practices, ensuring that they are able to effectively support and empower their
mentees from diverse backgrounds.
There should be formal feedback mechanisms and evaluation processes which are
essential components of personalized mentorship programs. These mechanisms would enable
program organizers to assess the effectiveness of personalized approaches, identify areas for
improvement, and make necessary adjustments to serve mentees better. Accommodations should
be made to ensure mentees are comfortable and feel safe with providing feedback to their
mentors. By continuously refining mentorship practices based on feedback, programs can
maximize their impact and ensure that African American mentees receive the tailored support
they need to thrive.
A personalized mentorship approach holds great promise for strengthening mentorship
within the African American community. By prioritizing individualized support, training
mentors, and implementing feedback mechanisms, mentorship programs can create more
meaningful and impactful relationships that empower African American mentees to achieve their
goals and aspirations.
Recommendations for Future Research
The findings suggest several opportunities for further research into African American
mentorship to increase the relational self-efficacy of the mentee. Future research should delve
deeper into the cultural dynamics that influence mentorship relationships within the African
American community. This includes exploring cultural values, communication styles, and socio-

72
economic factors that may impact the efficacy of mentorship interactions. By gaining a more
nuanced understanding of these dynamics, mentorship programs can be tailored to better align
with the needs and preferences of participants.
Another crucial area for exploration is the intersectionality of identities within African
American mentorship programs. Research should examine how factors such as gender, sexual
orientation, socio-economic status, and geographic location intersect with race to shape the
mentorship experience. Embracing diversity within mentorship programs and recognizing the
unique challenges faced by individuals with intersecting identities can help create more inclusive
and effective mentoring environments.
Research focusing on the dynamics of mentor-mentee relationships can provide valuable
insights into cultivating strong and supportive connections. This includes investigating factors
such as trust, communication, and mutual respect and exploring strategies for overcoming
barriers to relationship development. Additionally, exploring the role of mentorship in fostering
resilience and coping mechanisms in the face of systemic challenges such as equitable access to
opportunities, and organizational and institutional biases can further enhance the impact of
mentorship programs.
Efforts should also be directed toward developing robust methods for measuring the
impact and success of African American mentorship programs. This involves identifying
meaningful metrics beyond traditional academic or career outcomes, such as self-efficacy, sense
of belonging, and community engagement. Stakeholders can make informed decisions and
allocate resources more efficiently by accurately assessing program effectiveness.
In an increasingly digital world, leveraging technology and innovation can revolutionize
African American mentorship programs. Future research should explore the potential of virtual

73
mentorship platforms, AI-driven matchmaking algorithms, and gamified learning experiences to
enhance accessibility and scalability. As an example, Chronus is a predictive AI platform that
helps companies scale their mentorship programs by matching mentors and mentees within their
organizations. Although currently designed to address organizational needs, there could be a use
case created to adapt this algorithm to other mentorship initiatives.
Additionally, examining social media's and online communities' role in facilitating
mentorship connections can expand reach and engagement among diverse populations.
Conclusion
Implementing tailored strategies within mentorship programs is significant in addressing
the unique needs and challenges faced by African American male mentees. Drawing upon
Bandura's social cognitive theory and Vygotsky's theory of proximal development, the research
underscores the importance of reciprocal determinism and scaffolding processes in facilitating
mentees' growth and development.
Through an analysis of the findings, the study identifies several key recommendations for
enhancing mentorship programs supporting African American males. These recommendations
include diversifying mentor representation, addressing stereotypes and societal expectations, and
adopting a personalized mentorship approach. Each recommendation is grounded in empirical
evidence and theoretical frameworks, highlighting its potential to promote relational
effectiveness and professional self-efficacy among mentees. In addition, recommendations also
considered the interview participants' responses and addressed the highlighted reoccurring
concerns.
The first recommendation emphasizes the importance of recruiting and training positive
male role models from diverse backgrounds to serve as mentors. By exposing mentees to

74
successful African American professionals and community figures, mentorship programs can
provide relatable role models and sources of inspiration, bridging the mentorship gap and
fostering a sense of belonging among mentees.
The second recommendation focuses on addressing stereotypes and societal expectations
within mentorship programs. By incorporating discussions and workshops on navigating these
challenges, mentorship programs can empower mentees to challenge negative perceptions and
overcome systemic barriers, fostering resilience and self-confidence.
The third recommendation advocates for a personalized mentorship approach that tailors
mentoring relationships to each mentee's specific strengths, interests, and needs. By prioritizing
individualized support and guidance, mentorship programs can cultivate a deeper connection and
trust between mentors and mentees, leading to greater self-identity and purpose among mentees.
This dissertation underscores the importance of implementing strategies for developing
and supporting mentorship programs that enhance African American male mentees' relational
effectiveness and professional self-efficacy. By diversifying mentor representation, addressing
stereotypes and societal expectations, and adopting a personalized mentorship approach,
mentorship programs can empower mentees to thrive in their personal and professional lives
despite systemic barriers.
Mentorship holds paramount importance for African American men and society at large
due to the pervasive underrepresentation of this demographic across various career fields.
According to the Center for Talent Innovation, black men are likelier to have informal mentors,
such as peers or colleagues, than formal mentors, who are typically more influential in advancing
careers (Center for Talent Innovation, 2018). This study is important because despite efforts to
promote diversity and inclusion, resistance to change persists, perpetuating systemic barriers to

75
success. Mentorship serves as a critical tool in dismantling these barriers by providing guidance,
support, and opportunities for personal and professional growth.
Research in the field consistently highlights the positive impact of mentorship on African
American men, aiding in skill development, confidence building, and navigating complex socioeconomic landscapes. Research has shown that mentorship can increase academic achievement
and improve employment outcomes for marginalized individuals (DuBois et al., 2002). By
fostering mentorship initiatives for African American men, we not only address the disparities in
representation but also cultivate a more equitable and inclusive society where every individual
has the opportunity to thrive regardless of their background or circumstances.
Developing strategies to strengthen African-American male mentorship matters
profoundly to me and is critically important because it provides a structure to empower men of
color to recognize and overcome systemic barriers and achieve their full potential. By
diversifying mentor representation, these programs will provide mentees with role models who
reflect their cultural background, experiences, and aspirations, fostering a sense of belonging and
possibility. Addressing stereotypes and societal expectations within mentorship relationships is
crucial in dismantling harmful narratives that perpetuate inequality and limit opportunities for
African-American males. Moreover, adopting a personalized mentorship approach recognizes
the unique needs and challenges faced by mentees, allowing for tailored guidance and support
that aligns with their individual strengths and aspirations. Through these recommendations,
mentorship programs have the potential to not only enhance relational effectiveness but also
cultivate a sense of professional self-efficacy among African-American males, ultimately
contributing to their success and fulfillment in both personal and professional spaces.

76
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Introduction to the interview: Thank you for meeting with me today for this interview.
Your experiences and perspective as a leader in your professional field and your identification as
a mentor will help me identify what enhancements can be implemented to increase the
effectiveness of mentorship programs. The purpose of this study is to understand what elements
can be incorporated into existing and proposed mentorship programs specifically focused on
African-American men to improve the relational effectiveness between the mentor and mentee
and the mentee’s professional self-efficacy. I am seeking to answer three questions:
1. How do African-American mentors perceive and address the specific challenges faced by
mentees in developing a strong sense of purpose and self-efficacy, and what strategies do
they employ to navigate these challenges within the context of mentorship programs?
2. What are the key elements and strategies within mentorship programs that AfricanAmerican mentors identify as most beneficial for enhancing mentees' sense of purpose
and self-efficacy, and how do these mentors believe these elements contribute to the
overall success of the mentoring relationship?
3. In what ways do African-American mentors recommend structuring and implementing
mentorship programs to best support mentees in assessing and building upon their
existing strengths, and how do these recommendations contribute to the empowerment
and development of mentees within the program?
I will ask 13 interview queries with potential follow-up inquiries. The duration of the interview
should be between 45 and 60 minutes. This interview and your information will be kept secure as
they are considered private and confidential. If I quote you in the study, I will usea pseudonym.
Be aware that participation in this study is entirely voluntary and you may disengage from the

90
interview without repercussions. Please reread the informed consent before we begin. Have I
your permission to record this conversation?
Conclusion to the interview: Thank you for participating. I appreciate your time and all
you shared about your experiences mentoring other African-American men. This information
will be kept confidential and stored in a secure place. If I quote you, a pseudonym will be used.
After today, if anything comes to mind that you would like to share, please feel free to contact
me via phone. My number is located in the email I sent earlier.

91
Appendix B: Recruitment Letter
Subject: Mentorship Research Study
Gentlemen, thank you for agreeing to allow me to interview you to support my research on the
elements that can be incorporated into existing and proposed mentorship programs specifically
focused on African-American males.
Please review the attached worksheet and place an ‘X’ in three-time slots that work best for
you…although we’ll only need one. Once received I will reserve your slot and send a
confirmation back to you.
I am seeking to answer three questions:
1. What is the perception that exposure to mentorship impacts the level of professional selfefficacy amongst African-American men?
2. What do successful African-American men report are the support systems or opportunities
they received most critical to their professional success?
3. What do African-American mentors believe mentorship programs should include to increase
the level of professional self-efficacy for mentees?
I have a total of 13 interview questions with potential follow-up inquiries. The duration of the
interview should be between 30 and 45 minutes. This interview and your information will be
kept secure as they are considered private and confidential. If you participate, I will use a
pseudonym if I quote you in the study. Be aware that participation in this study is entirely
voluntary and you may disengage from the interview without repercussions.
If any of the time slots do not fit your schedule please let me know and I’ll work to
accommodate you as best as possible.
Thank you and I look forward to connecting.
Regards

92
Appendix C: Interview Questions
Interview Questions
Questions Potential Probes RQ Key Concepts Addressed
What do you see as the biggest
challenge facing African American
men when it comes to having a strong
sense of purpose and self-efficacy?
What have been your
personal experiences in
dealing with these
challenges?
1 Increasing the sense of
purpose and self-efficacy
What support systems or opportunities
have you personally received that was
most critical to your professional
success?
Could you provide
examples of opportunities
you have received that
proved beneficial in your
educational and
professional pursuits?
1 Increasing the sense of
purpose and self-efficacy
What would you say are the two most
important elements of a mentorship
program that would be beneficial for
mentees?
Could you provide an
example of a mentorship
program that you feel
would be particularly
beneficial for African
American mentees?
1 Increasing the sense of
purpose and self-efficacy
What advice would you give to
someone looking to start a mentorship
program for mentees to help mentees
increase their sense of purpose and
self-efficacy?
What do you think are the
most important aspects of
a mentorship program for
African American mentees
to help them increase their
senseof purpose and selfefficacy?
1 Increasing the sense of
purpose and self-efficacy
How can mentorship programs help
mentees assess and build upon their
existing strengths?
What do you feel are the
benefits of mentorship
programs for African
American mentees?
1 Increasing the sense of
purpose and self-efficacy

93
How can mentorship programs ensure
mentees feel welcomed and included in
their program?
Could you provide an
example of how
mentorship programs can
create a sense of belonging
for African American
mentees?
2 Increase access to
resources and networks.
How can mentorship programs be
more intentional in their recruitment of
mentees?
What do you think African
American mentees need to
see to be motivated to join
mentorship programs?
2
Increase access to
resources and networks.
What are two effective ways
mentorship programs can be used to
retain mentees in the program?
Could you provide an
example of a mentorship
program that has been
successful in retaining
African American
mentees?
2
Increase access to
resources and networks.
What is a strategy that can be used to
increase mentees' access to resourcesin
mentorship programs?
Could you provide an
example of a resource or
network that African
American mentees can use
to increase their access to
mentorship programs?
2
Increase access to
resources and networks.
Can you name two specific benefits
associated with providing mentorship
to the mentee?
Can you give me an
example of a benefit and a
challenge associated with
providing mentorship to
African American males?
3
Ensure programs are
effective and sustainable.

94
Do you have access to survey data and
results specific to the mentorship
program in which you are associated?
What is the benefit?
What strategies have been
used in the past to increase
the number of African
American males
participating in mentorship
programs?
3
Ensure programs are
effective and sustainable.
What type of educational or
professional support are you aware of
that is offered to the mentee through
mentorship?
Can you provide an
example of the support that
is offered through
mentorship programs?
3
Ensure programs are
effective and sustainable.
What challenges, if any, have you as a
mentor faced in sustaining a mentor-tomentee relationship?
Can you provide an
example of how you have
encountered a challenge in
maintaining a mentor-tomentee relationship?
3
Ensure programs are
effective and sustainable.

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Creator Hickman, Robert Lee, Jr. (author)

Core Title Increasing the effectiveness of African-American male mentorship

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

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Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 04/19/2024

Defense Date 03/26/2024

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Tag African-American Mentorship,marginalized community,mentorship,OAI-PMH Harvest,racial disparities

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