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Improving student-athlete mental health services: addressing the mental health needs of college student-athletes

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Improving student-athlete mental health services: addressing the mental health needs of college student-athletes

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Content Improving Student-Athlete Mental Health Services: Addressing the Mental Health Needs
of College Student-Athletes
by
Moriah E. Van Norman
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2020
Copyright 2020 Moriah Van Norman
ii
Acknowledgements
I would like to take this time to sincerely thank Dr. Kimberly Hirabayashi, Dr. Denise
Kwok, Dr. Alan Green, my USC professors, and Reginald Ryder for guiding and supporting me
throughout this journey. It was a pleasure to work so closely with all of you. I believe the work
we have done will help many student-athletes in the future.
To my USC classmates, THANK YOU! I cannot begin to express my gratitude for your
help and encouragement throughout this program.
To my family, Mom, Dad, Sarah, Morgan, Ozzie, Marky, Marco, and Mr. and Mrs.
Blanco, thank you all for supporting my dream of becoming a doctor. Without your help, it
would not have been possible. I love you.
To my husband, Jose, you have always been my rock. Thank you for allowing me to
dream big and for always encouraging me to follow my passion. I appreciate all our early
morning talks that helped me stay focused and on track. You are such an inspiration to me and to
our children. I love you more than you know.
Finally, to my three daughters, Ava, Grace, and Noa, this is for you. I wanted to pursue
this degree to show you that you can do anything- even the things that scare you. In fact,
sometimes the things that scare you most are the things that will set you free. Life will not be
easy and it certainly will not always be fair, but the three of you can do hard things. I am so
thankful that throughout this journey I have learned skills that will help me be a better mom to
you and help prepare each of you to manage your own mental health and well-being. Out of all
the things I have done in my life, I am most proud to be your Mom. I love you more than
anything. Now go make the world a better place.
iv
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ii
List of Tables vi
List of Figures vii
Abstract viii
Chapter One: Introduction 1
Introduction to the Problem of Practice 1
Importance of Addressing the Problem 2
Stakeholder Group of Focus and Stakeholder Goal 3
Purpose of the Project and Questions 4
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 5
Introduction 5
The Importance of Mental Health Resources for College Students 5
The Importance of Mental Health Resources for College Student-Athletes 5
Risk Factors Associated with a Lack of Mental Health Resources 6
Depression and Anxiety 6
Injury 7
Substance Abuse 8
The Need for Mental Health Resources on a College Campus 8
Clark and Estes’ Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences Framework 9
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 9
Knowledge and Skills 11
Knowledge Influences 12
Motivation 18
Organization 23
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context 31
Summary 35
Chapter Three: Methods 36
Introduction 36
Participating Stakeholders 36
Interview Criteria and Rationale 36
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 37
Data Collection 38
Interview Protocol 39
Interview Procedures 39
Data Analysis 40
Credibility and Trustworthiness 42
v
Ethics 43
Limitations and Delimitations 44
Chapter Four: Results and Findings 45
Participating Stakeholders 45
Findings 46
Results 47
Knowledge Results 47
Research Question One 48
Procedural Knowledge 49
Metacognitive Knowledge 57
Motivation Results 58
Research Question Two 66
Organizational Results 67
Summary 75
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Solutions 76
Discussion 76
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences 77
Knowledge Recommendations 77
Motivation Recommendations 81
Organization Recommendations 85
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 89
Implementation and Evaluation Framework 89
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations 90
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators 90
Level 3: Behavior 92
Level 2: Learning 94
Level 1: Reaction 96
Evaluation Tools 97
Data Analysis and Reporting 98
Summary 99
Limitations and Delimitations 100
Future Research 100
Conclusion 101
References 104
Appendices 114
Appendix A 114
Appendix B 115
Appendix C 117
vi
List of Tables
Table 1. Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments 18
Table 2. Motivational Influences and Assessments 23
Table 3. Demographic Information of Participants 46
Table 4. Assumed Knowledge Influences, Determination, and Summary of Findings 48
Table 5. Assumed Motivation Influences, Determination, and Summary of Findings 60
Table 6. Assumed Organization Influences, Determination, and Summary of Findings 68
Table 7. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 78
Table 8. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 82
Table 9. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 86
Table 10. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 91
Table 11. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 92
Table 12. Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 93
Table 13. Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program 96
Table 14. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 96
vii
List of Figures
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework 32
Figure 2. Student-Athlete Participant Feedback 99
viii
Abstract
This study examined former student-athletes and their mental health and well-being while in
college. The study specifically focused on former student-athletes knowledge and motivation
regarding their mental health, the resources offered within intercollegiate athletic departments at
the time they competed, and the involvement levels of administrators that directly contributed to
their ability to effectively manage their mental heath and well-being. The purpose of the study
was to identify the knowledge, motivation, and organization influences using Clark and Estes
(2008) framework that impacted student-athletes from being able to effectively manage their
mental health and well-being while in college. The research questions guiding this study were
designed to better understand the student-athletes knowledge and motivation regarding their
mental health and the relationship between college administrators and former student-athletes’
management of their mental health and well-being. The data collected was reviewed and
synthesized, and themes were created to help guide the findings. The study found that most of
the participants did not know where or how to access mental health resources. They also felt they
could self-regulate, but did not feel they could self-assess. All participants valued their mental
health, but not all participants were confident in managing it. Finally, most participants felt their
organizations provided resources, but did not feel supported by their organizations. While the
study used Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) framework for recommendations, the findings
did present additional findings that fell outside the scope of that framework. Further research is
recommended to continue the discussion on student-athlete mental health and well-being.
Keywords: student-athlete, mental health, knowledge, motivation, organization
influences, findings, recommendations
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
College students are under many stressors and transitional events in their lives, and fall
within the age range when many common mental health problems are at their developmental
peak (Huang et al., 2018). While young adulthood is often characterized by rapid intellectual and
social development, college-aged individuals, especially student-athletes, are commonly exposed
to circumstances that place them at risk for psychiatric disorders (Blanco et al., 2008). Mental
health issues begin at earlier ages, and there are now a wider range of issues which contribute to
overall mental health problems (Bauman, 2016). Specifically, student-athletes face challenges
such as being channeled into specific sports at younger ages, having a difficult time adjusting to
sport and life demands, having fewer psychological coping skills, changing rules by the National
Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), and recruiting young athletes into professional leagues
(Bauman, 2016). In addition to these new pressures, student-athletes have to manage their
psychological response to injury and performance which might precipitate or exacerbate existing
mental health vulnerabilities, such as depression, anxiety, disordered eating, or substance abuse
(Kroshus, 2016). This problem is important to address because there is an increasing recognition
of depression and suicide, disordered eating, substance abuse, hazing and bullying, and the
psychological consequences of injury as real concerns in the athletic community (Rao & Hong,
2016).
This dissertation examined the knowledge, motivation, and organizational experiences of
former student-athletes in an exploratory analysis. It was important to explore this from a
participant perspective whereby former student-athletes could reflect on their complex and multi-
layered experiences as former collegiate student-athletes. Additionally, it was important to look
2
at the potential long-term perspectives of mental health issues while in college. Exploring the
student-athlete perspective was imperative to addressing the larger problem of practice.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
The problem of mental health and well-being issues affecting student-athletes in the
United States is important to address because athletes may be at a greater risk for mental health
issues (Putukian, 2016). Although significant research supports the association between physical
activity and mental well-being, current literature acknowledges that athletes are no less
susceptible to mental illness than the general population (Hill et al., 2015). Despite welcomed
initiatives aimed at improving mental health within elite sports, these programs often fail to
target young athletes; an important concern given that the genesis of many mental illnesses are
recognized to occur during this critical period (Hill et al., 2015). Additionally, the pressure to
perform as an elite athlete contributes to the growing number of complex and more intense
mental health challenges than previous generations have seen (Bauman, 2016). According to a
study by Humphrey et al. (2012), slightly more than half of male athletes and 60% of female
athletes reported that their athletic demands were stress-inducing, and that the greatest stressor
for them was the pressure put on them to win. Other stressors cited were exhausting and stressful
practice sessions and distant travel to athletic contests (Humphrey et al., 2012).
Likewise, the media has reported tragic deaths involving some athletes which highlight
the struggles that athletes face in the shadows of perceived emotional and physical strength (Rao
& Hong, 2016). While much effort has been put into developing and maintaining emergency
action plans to manage on-field medical emergencies, only preliminary efforts have been
developed to assist the acutely depressed or suicidal athlete through an organized emergency
mental health crisis plan (Rao & Hong, 2015).
3
The National College Athletic Association (NCAA) noted that one of the primary
concerns regarding the prevalence of mental illness among student-athletes is that it may affect
not only their success in academics and athletics, but also their general well-being (Davoren &
Hwang, 2014). Humphrey and colleagues (2012) found that almost half of male athletes and
slightly more than half of female athletes reported that stress affected their mental/emotional
health, and they cited such factors as outbursts of anger, pressure to win, excessive anxiety,
frustration, conflict, irritation, and fear.
While mental health issues are the main concern, Kroshus (2016) asserts that mental
health is also inextricably linked to physical health, which some evidence suggests elevates risk
of injury and diminished athletic performance. Humphrey et al. (2012) found that approximately
one in ten male athletes and one in five female athletes mentioned such factors as not enough
sleep, continuous tension, fatigue, headaches, and digestive problems. Additionally, 11% of male
athletes and 5% of female athletes said that stress negatively influenced athletic performance,
mainly in terms of tension and being overanxious before and during participation (Humphrey et
al., 2012).
Hearing directly from former student-athletes is important when addressing the larger
problem of practice. With years to reflect on collegiate experiences, former student-athletes are
perhaps better able to understand and describe what needs were or were not being met while in
college and discuss more long-term effects.
Stakeholder Group of Focus and Stakeholder Goal
The stakeholder group for the study was former student-athletes who have competed at
the Division I level and Division II levels within the last 15 years. Student-athletes directly affect
completion rates, retention, and fiscal status of their colleges through enrollment. The
4
aspirational stakeholder goal is that 100% of student-athletes will be able to effectively manage
their mental health and well-being. This is a broad, field-based goal developed to align with the
modified gap analysis framework in this dissertation.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to explore how intercollegiate athletic departments
helped their student-athletes manage their mental health and well-being. The analysis focused on
knowledge and motivation influences that exist and identified areas where intercollegiate athletic
departments can improve. While there are multiple stakeholders within intercollegiate athletic
departments, this study focused on former student-athletes. Qualitative interviews were used to
explore how much support is currently being offered and what type of support student-athletes
would like based on their personal experiences.
The research questions that were used are:
1. What were the student-athletes’ knowledge and motivation in relation to being
able to effectively manage their mental health and well-being while in college?
2. How did former student-athletes’ knowledge and motivation interact with school
administrators to help their confidence in managing their mental health and well-
being?
For the study, the definition of “administrators” was left for the participants to define.
5
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
This literature review examines the need for mental health and well-being resources in
intercollegiate athletic programs across the country. This chapter reviews the literature on
student mental health issues and why this is a problem. The chapter provides an explanation of
the Clark and Estes (2008) knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences framework
used in this study. Next, the chapter defines the types of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences examined and assumed student-athletes’ knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences on performance. The chapter ends with a presentation of the conceptual
framework guiding this study.
The Importance of Mental Health Resources for College Students
It is important to provide mental health and well-being resources to student-athletes.
Among college and university students in the United States, there is a substantial gap between
the need for mental health treatment and the receipt of mental health services (Sontag-Padilla et
al., 2018a). Historically, college students have had a difficult time adjusting to college for many
reasons (Huang et al., 2018). College students are under many stressors and transitional events,
and students fall within the age range when common mental health problems are at their
developmental peak (Huang et al., 2018). In general, students have a difficult time adjusting to
college because leaving home can cause depression, anxiety, and stress (Beiter et al., 2015).
The Importance of Mental Health Resources for College Student-Athletes
Student-athletes experience high levels of stress, anxiety, and depression due to the
demands of college life, their academics, and athletics. Brown et al. (2014) states that student-
athletes’ time demands are enormous – daily practices, competitions, a full academic course
load, strength and conditioning programs, and sports medicine/rehab appointments present a
6
demanding schedule which impacts social relationships. These pressures affect student-athletes’
mental health (Brown et al., 2014). Rao and Hong (2016) examined media reports of tragic
deaths involving athletes, who are perceived to be among the healthiest members of their
communities, highlighting the struggles that athletes face in the shadows of perceived emotional
and physical strength. This is further noted through a study conducted by Sudano and Miles
(2017). In the study, they found a wide variability on how mental health services are provided to
NCAA Division I student-athletes and that there is no standard collaborative or integrated care
delivery model for student-athletes (Sudano & Miles, 2017).
There is a real need to offer mental health resources to intercollegiate student-athletes.
Kroshus (2016) asked NCAA trainers if their schools had a written plan related to identifying
mental health concerns of student-athletes. Only 39% of respondents indicated that their
institution had a written plan related to identifying student-athletes with mental health concerns.
This presents a problem because as Bauman (2016) asserts:
Today's athletes face a different set of stressors than athletes in previous generations. The
differences are seen in a growing number of complex and more intense mental health
challenges. This often puts a decreased emphasis on young athletes independently and
effectively resolving their own life issues or expectations to be an active participant in
resolving their mental health issues. (p. 135)
Risk Factors Associated with a Lack of Mental Health Resources
Depression and Anxiety
Depression and suicide remain major public health concerns affecting broad segments of
the population and the prevalence rates for depression are notably high in young adults (Rao &
Hong, 2015). In fact, according to Cahill (2017), many university educators have taught students
7

who have had adverse childhood experiences (ACE). ACEs are life events that are perceived to
be psychologically distressing, such as experiencing or witnessing violence, neglect, or abuse
and other experiences like divorce, homelessness, or poverty (Cahill, 2017). This problem
intensifies for the student-athlete population because college is perceived as a stressful time by
many students, and stress has the potential to exacerbate the effects of ACEs and impede
students’ educational outcomes (Cahill, 2017).
Currently, there are many risk factors associated with the lack of mental health resources
available to student-athletes. One specific mental health risk that is affecting student-athletes is
depression. Some college campuses have started to implement mental health initiatives based on
identifying collegiate student-athletes as a high-risk subculture for a variety of health behaviors
that correlate directly to depression (Armstrong et al., 2015). According to Cox et al. (2017), the
daily demands placed on college athletes, both physical and psychological, may represent
additional risk factors that increase vulnerability and depression. This is particularly evident for
first year students who are attending college for the first time and have to adjust to the
unfamiliarity of their new life (Dyson & Renk, 2006). Yang et al. (2007) found that more than
20% of collegiate student-athletes reported experiencing symptoms of depression, and suggest
that coaches and athletic trainers need to consider the psychological status of their athletes.
Injury
Another factor that impacts the mental health and well-being of student-athletes is injury.
An injury, particularly one that is time limiting or season or career ending, may be a significant
source of stress to the student-athlete (Neal et al., 2013). Many injured athletes experience
negative psychological responses that should be addressed throughout the rehabilitation process
(Covassin et al., 2015). Rao and Hong (2016) state that there is an increasing recognition of
8
depression and suicide, disordered eating, substance abuse, hazing and bullying, and the
psychological consequences of injury as real concerns in the athletic community. Another
concern occurs to a student-athletes’ psyche after their careers end because of an injury. Kleiber
et al. (1987) explored factors that made a “satisfying” exit from organized sports and found that
the only predictor of life satisfaction in the years following departure from formal participation
was whether one had sustained a career-ending injury. Athletes who had suffered a career-ending
sports injury expressed lower subsequent life satisfaction than athletes who had not suffered this
kind of injury (Kleiber et al., 1987). An injury, particularly one that is time limiting or season or
career ending, may be a significant source of stress to the student-athlete.
Substance Abuse
Despite the risk of negative results, including diminished performance and loss of
scholarships, collegiate athletes reported using most substances and abusing alcohol at higher
rates than age-matched nonathletes in the college population (Neal et al., 2013). Putukian (2016)
states that many athletes have not developed their identities outside that of “an athlete” and an
injury or illness may cause a significant loss, which can result in a problematic response such as
alcohol abuse. This is a problem, because as Morse (2013) asserts, our elite athletes are role
models for our youth. Thus, creating prevention and intervention programs to reduce substance
abuse in athletics may have a significant impact on substance use in general.
The Need for Mental Health Resources on a College Campus
In addition to being in a high-risk age bracket, former college athletes face the loss of
social support that they once had from their teammates, coaches, and advisors (Weigand et al.,
2013), which makes having mental health resources vital. When a student experiences a mental
health crisis in college, it affects not only the student, but other students, staff, and faculty at the
9

institution, and this circle of distress grows with the amount of time a student does not get
assistance (Trela, 2008). Sudano and Miles (2017) found that mental health services are provided
on a large spectrum for NCAA Division I student-athletes. Some mental health care providers
are located offsite, while some provide care in the training room setting. Also, there are
inconsistencies in the use of standardized screening tools for mental health evaluation and there
is no standard collaborative or integrated care delivery model for student-athletes.
Clark and Estes’ Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences Framework
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Clark and Estes (2008) created a clear model for organizational performance inquiry: the
knowledge, motivation, and organization (KMO) framework. The “Big Three” causes of
performance gaps within organizations that must be examined during the analysis process are
people’s knowledge and skills, their motivation to achieve the goal (particularly when compared
with other work goals they must also achieve), and organizational barriers such as lack of
necessary equipment and missing or inadequate work processes (Clark & Estes, 2008). To
implement the framework, organizations must first identify clear business goals that are
translated so everyone understands the performance standards they must achieve to help realize
those business goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Effective performance goals follow organizational
goals, and the gap between the desired and actual performance must be assessed and closed if
organizational goals are to be achieved (Clark & Estes, 2008). To achieve the organizational
goal, performance gaps must be analyzed within the organization. Clark and Estes (2008) define
gap analysis as a systematic problem-solving approach to improve performance and achieve
organizational goals.
10

According to Rueda (2011), the gap analysis system provides a way to clarify both short-
and long-term organizational and individual goals, assess them, and describe gaps from the
actual levels of performance or achievement to the desired levels. Additionally, it provides a way
to investigate and validate assumed causes of those gaps rather than relying on guesswork, which
makes the resources and solutions clearly targeted to the most important causes of performance
gaps (Rueda, 2011). Once the organization had identified the performance gaps, it can then
examine the stakeholder’s knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences (Clark & Estes,
2008). By analyzing the organizational goal and the performance gaps, the organization can
clearly outline what influences are impeding progress within their organization.
There are four different knowledge types that impact changes in knowledge according to
Krathwohl and Anderson (2010): (a) factual, (b) conceptual, (c) procedural, and (d)
metacognitive. Regarding motivational influences, Rueda (2011) suggests exploring self-
efficacy, attribution, and general value, which are motivation constructs. Additionally, Mayer
(2011) states that there are five conceptions (interest, beliefs, attributions, goals, and partnership)
that explain how motivation works. These five conceptions shed light on the how and why of
motivation, which will affect any organizational goal. Rueda (2011) states that if abstract
concepts like cultural models and cultural settings are to be useful in considering educational
performance problems, they should be observable and help understand why certain types of
behaviors, policies, and practices make sense in a specific context. Finally, organizational
influences like goal setting, communication, and feedback can impact performance gaps (Clark
& Estes, 2008).

11
Knowledge and Skills
According to Clark and Estes (2008), during the gap analysis, it is necessary to determine
whether people know how (and when, what, why, where, and who) to achieve their performance
goals. Essentially, individuals within an organization need to have the knowledge required to
attain specific goals. Rueda (2011) suggests first asking the question, “What does one need to
know in order to achieve his or her goals?”, so that it forces one to consider the issue of
knowledge directly (p. 27).
Krathwohl and Anderson (2010) state that there are four knowledge types that impact
changes in knowledge. Exploring these knowledge types is essential to understanding how
college campuses can accomplish their organizational goal. The first knowledge type is factual
knowledge, and it refers to the basic facts, terminology, and details that pertain to specific
disciplines, contexts, or domains (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). For intercollegiate athletic
departments, this includes understanding state laws, regulations, and local governance involving
intercollegiate athletics. The second type of knowledge is conceptual knowledge. Conceptual
knowledge is knowledge of categories, classifications, principles, theories, and models
(Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). For intercollegiate athletic departments, this includes
understanding specific learning theories relevant to their student-athlete population. The third
type of knowledge is procedural knowledge. This refers to knowing how to do something to
accomplish specific activities (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). For intercollegiate athletic
departments, this means knowing how to self-regulate mental health, self-assess mental health,
managing mental health, and seeking help for mental health issues. Finally, the fourth type of
knowledge is metacognitive knowledge. Metacognitive knowledge is the awareness of one’s own
cognition and particular cognitive processes (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Student-athletes
12

will have to question their own awareness about mental health issues and develop the skills
necessary to self-assess their mental health and well-being.
Knowledge Influences
For student-athletes to be 100% confident in their ability to effectively manage their
mental health and well-being, there are specific skills and knowledge they need to acquire.
Student-athletes need to know how to self-regulate, they need to know how to self-assess for
mental health issues, and they need to know how to access mental health resources on campus
and seek help. Student-athletes are at a higher risk for mental health issues compared to their
non-athlete peers, so these skills are imperative for long-term mental health and well-being.
Intercollegiate athletic departments need to work with their student-athlete population to
improve their skills and knowledge. Clark and Estes (2008) state that by increasing knowledge,
skills, and motivation, while focusing on organizational goals, the organization can achieve
success. By focusing on increasing the knowledge, skills, and motivation, change will occur
because learning is the actual change (Mayer, 2011). Learning is defined as the change in
knowledge attributable to experience, and the changes in knowledge involve a change in the
learner. The learner’s knowledge has changed, and the cause of that change is the learner’s
experience (Mayer, 2011). This change is what will lead to organizational change.
Self-Regulation
For student-athletes to effectively manage their mental health and well-being, they need
to be able to self-regulate. Self-regulation includes both procedural and metacognitive skills.
According to Merriam-Webster (2020), self-regulation is the act or condition of regulating
oneself. Rueda (2011) suggests that people need to know the cognitive process which affects the
how and why of their choices. Student-athletes’ awareness of their own thoughts, feelings, and
13

emotions (cognitive process) is important because the research shows there is still inadequate
support on college campuses to address these mental health issues. Morrissette and Doty-
Sweetnam (2010) found that minimal attention has been devoted to understanding the
relationship between the educational environment and student distress. Additionally, regulation
of emotions is central to psychological health, and several emotion regulation strategies have
been identified as beneficial (Troy et al., 2017). Student-athletes need to know more about
themselves so they can learn how to cope with mental health and well-being issues. Fleishman
(1984) defined coping as cognitive or behavioral responses that reduce psychological distress or
stressful conditions. With limited attention devoted to this issue, it is imperative that student-
athletes possess the ability to self-regulate their emotions.
Student-athletes’ long-term success will largely depend on their ability to self-regulate
their mental health and well-being. Zivin et al. (2009) studies college students’ mental health
persistence over a two-year period. Among the students who stated they had at least one mental
health problem in the first year of the study, 60% of those same students had at least one mental
health problem two years later. Fewer than half of the identified students received treatments
(Zivin et al., 2009). This study was important as it shows that mental disorders are prevalent and
persistent among college students, but that most students do not receive the proper treatments
(Zivin et al., 2009). This makes self-regulation vital to student-athletes’ long-term mental health
and well-being.
According to Rueda (2011), students who self-regulate can compensate for and overcome
many problems, even under imperfect learning conditions and in less than adequate learning
contexts. Chamanabad et al. (2011) found that there is a significant correlation between student’s
metacognition/self-efficacy and their mental health. Levin et al. (2018) sought to prove that self-
14
help strategies could increase the rate of college student seeking help for mental health problems
by reducing stigma for seeking that help. Thirty-six percent of participants reported that they
were likely to seek help from a mental health professional, 48% of respondents reported
intentions to use one or more self-help resources (website, app, and/or book), and 26% of student
participants specifically intended to seek help, but not from a mental health professional (Levin
et al., 2018). The researchers concluded that self-help delivered online or through books provides
an important opportunity to increase the reach and impact of mental health services among
college students. The current findings suggest that offering self-help can help overcome the
stigma to seeking treatment (Levin et al., 2018).
Self-regulation skills. There are different skills that student-athletes could incorporate in
their lives to improve self-regulation. According to Bettis et al. (2017), there are two promising
avenues for preventive intervention in college students which include the development of skills
to cope with and regulate emotions in response to stress and the enhancement of executive
function skills that are necessary for managing stress and regulating emotions. Additionally,
mindfulness meditation has proven to improve people’s lives and be a possible treatment for a
variety of conditions that may involve a deficit in self-regulation (Tang et al., 2014). In a study
conducted by Baumeister (2010), 69 U.S. college students spent two weeks doing one of three
self-control exercises: (a) monitoring and improving posture, (b) regulating mood, or (c)
monitoring and recording eating. Compared with the non-exercise group, the participants who
performed the self-control exercises showed significant improvement in self-regulatory capacity.
Whatever methods student-athletes choose to use, building self-regulatory strength will come
from practice.
15
Learning self-regulation. The ability to master self-regulation is important for student-
athletes. According to Koestner et al. (2010), self-regulation concerns the integration of social
values and guidelines into personal values. Rueda (2011) states that self-regulation is strategic in
solving problems and allows people to consider contextual and conditional aspects of a given
problem or activity. As Wolters and Benzon (2013) found, students’ beliefs about their
metacognitive strategy use were a strong individual predictor for each of the reported
motivational regulation strategies. Finally, students who expressed a greater tendency to plan,
monitor, and control their cognitive engagement were also more likely to report using strategies
intended to manage their motivational processing (Ghassemi, 2018).
Self-regulation will allow student-athletes to manage their mental health and well-being.
In a study by Koestner et al. (2010), students completed initial assessment scales that measured
academic self-regulation, intrinsic motivation, and depressive symptoms. Cumulative GPAs and
career exploration assessments were also collected. After one year, the students completed the
same scales, revealing that self-regulation, but not intrinsic motivation, was significantly related
to lower depressive symptoms over time (Koestner et al., 2010). The study suggests that in
domains where the central activities are not high in intrinsic appeal, such as politics and
education, self-regulation will play a more prominent role in predicting positive adjustment
outcomes (Koestner et al., 2010). While student-athletes might be intrinsically motivated at
times, self-regulatory skills will help them remain confident in their ability to manage their
mental health and well-being over a longer period of time.
Self-Assessment
Self-assessment is one of the best ways to help student-athletes increase their confidence
in their ability to effectively manage their mental health and well-being. There are many free
16

online resources available that walk individuals through a mental health assessment. Based on
the assessment, the website may suggest steps an individual can take to seek more help if needed.
Student-athletes can also incorporate self-care into their daily routine, which will allow them to
self-assess their mental health based on their ability to complete that routine. Jenkins et al.
(2019) studied nursing education programs, finding that it was important for the program to
respond to students’ mental health challenges and support them in developing strategies to help
cope with stressors associated with nursing school and the healthcare industry. Nursing students
were asked to incorporate their own self-care strategies, which enhanced their capacity for
engaging in self-care practices and had a positive impact on their ability to cope with stressors
(Jenkins et al., 2019). This study illustrates that a self-care assignment that fosters students’
capacities to identify and address stressors through self-care practices can have a positive impact
on their engagement in self-care and overall well-being. By understanding how student-athletes
self-assess, student-athletes will be more equipped to handle mental health situations when they
arise. While there may be hurdles, intercollegiate athletic departments have to aid in student-
athletes’ procedural knowledge development of mental health resources on campus because it
will be worth it in the end.
Accessing Mental Health Resources
Research shows that there is a stigma attached to mental health, particularly within the
student-athlete population, which might lessen the likelihood that this student population will
seek out the help they need. Champlin et al. (2018) examined a new initiative called “Try
Something New”, which aligned mental health help-seeking behaviors with “trying something
new.” The goal of the initiative was to encourage students to engage with this important message
and act. The researchers found that packaging the information and appealing to students’ fears
17

and inhibitions was worth the effort, and that creating that frame of reference, such as getting
help from a personal trainer, helps students understand that seeking help for mental health
concerns is normal and useful (Champlin et al., 2018). By equating this important health
behavior with the anxiety or uncertainty evoked by other first-time events, students acknowledge
that seeking professional help for mental health can be difficult but attainable (Champlin et al.,
2018). While there is a stigma attached to having mental health issues, which impacts seeking
mental health resources on a college campus, repackaging the information may garner more
interest from student-athletes.
Help Seeking Mental Health Resources
For student-athletes to be confident in their ability to effectively manage their mental
health and well-being they need to know how to seek mental health resources. According to
Downs et al. (2016), there are innate issues with finding resources on campus for many
resources. The process of accessing services in college is idiosyncratic because, depending on
the institution, students and their families may have to interact with many different college staff
members to get help (Downs et al., 2016). This process could intimidate student-athletes from
seeking help.
Watson (2006) maintains that it is important to educate student-athletes about the services
offered and potential benefits of counseling that would help them become more informed about
the process. Watson (2006) found that many student-athletes claimed they had no issues that
required formal counseling and would feel uneasy in the role of client. Student-athletes need to
understand what role a counselor plays and how counseling would benefit them. Education
would clarify any misconceptions about counseling and frame the activity as developmentally
focused rather than pathology based. It would also afford student-athletes the opportunity to
18

learn what occurs in a counseling session and what they can expect to do in a session (Watson,
2006). Table 1 outlines the identified knowledge influences, types, and potential assessments for
this study.
Table 1
Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments
Stakeholder Goal
The stakeholder goal is that 100% of student-athletes will be able to effectively manage their
mental health and well-being.
Knowledge Influence Knowledge
Types
Knowledge Assessment
Student-athletes need to know
how to ask for help and where to
find the resources they need.

Student-athletes need to know
how to self-regulate.
Procedural Collecting data through surveys to find
out what resources are most needed and
where to place them on campus.

Sample questions may look like:
Do you feel you have enough support
on campus to help you during difficult
times?
Would you know where to go on
campus to get the services you need in
the event of a mental health crisis?
Student athletes need to know
how to self-assess their mental
health.
Metacognitive Collecting data through surveys to find
out what resources are most needed and
where to place them on campus.

Sample questions may look like:
Do you feel you have enough support
on campus to help you during difficult
times?
Would you know where to go on
campus to get the services you need in
the event of a mental health crisis?

Motivation
In addition to knowledge influences, intercollegiate athletic departments will have to
identify motivational influences to accomplish their organizational goal. Clark and Estes (2008)
assert that knowledge tells us how to do things and is our storehouse of experience, while
19
motivation gets us going, keeps us moving, and tells us how much effort to spend on work tasks.
While motivation was once thought to be an inherent trait, recent work on motivation, especially
on achievement or academic motivation, emphasizes the beliefs that a person develops related to
themselves as learners to learning tasks, activities, and related factors (Rueda, 2011). Essentially,
just because someone knows how to do something, does not mean they want to do it or will do it
(Rueda, 2011). In fact, although motives can be conscious, in many cases, they are assumed to be
unconscious or implicit and as such, differ from more cognitive constructs, such as goals that
people strive for, which also represent their wishes and desires (Pintrich, 2003).
Motivation is key when making change within an organization because it is inherently
cultural. We develop motivational beliefs from others with whom we interact in the variety of
social contexts and ecological niches we inhabit (Rueda, 2011). In addition, motivation is not
just how someone does something, but why. As previously mentioned, having the knowledge to
do something does not mean someone will do it; they also need to have the motivation. Clark and
Estes (2008) assert that motivation is the product of an interaction between people and their work
environment. This means that people will be more motivated in some situations than in others
and we cannot assume why. Aguinis and Kraiger (2009) concur that people are motivated by the
people around them. Transformational leaders who exhibit charismatic behaviors are able to
motivate and provide intellectual stimulation among followers, and treat followers with
individual consideration, which improves the morale (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009). Finally, Mayer
(2011) maintains that there are five conceptions (interest, beliefs, attributions, goals, and
partnership) of how motivation works. These five conceptions shed light on the how and why
people are motivated which will affect any organizational goal (Mayer, 2011). The following
section will describe the motivation influences that impact student-athletes.
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General Value
The first motivational influence is assessing value. Values are one of the three powerful
ways people express their views about what they expect will make them effective; they will
accept what they believe helps them while rejecting what they believe stands in their way (Clark
& Estes, 2008). There are three different types of values: (a) Interest Value, (b) Skill Value, and
(c) Utility Value (Clark & Estes, 2008). Interest Value states that people will more easily and
quickly choose to do what interests them the most, and that people are generally interested in
mastering a new skill or adding to their expertise (Clark & Estes, 2008). Since it is suggested to
show the connections between the performance goals and people’s interests (Clark & Estes,
2008), student-athletes should understand the benefits of being confident in their mental health
and well-being as it relates to their athletic performance.
Skill Value states that most people seem more willing to do things that they believe
challenge one of their special skills (Clark & Estes, 2008). By connecting performance goals and
people’s abilities, it is an opportunity for people to highlight their skills. For student-athletes,
being “the best” at sports might encourage student-athletes to “be the best” with their mental
health and well-being too.
Finally, Utility Value is determined by how well a task fits into an individual's goals and
plans or fulfills other basic psychological needs. The value of doing the work necessary to
succeed may motivate someone's effort (Eccles, 2006). Utility Value states that much of what a
person does is not because they love it or excel at it; rather, they want the benefits that come
when they finish (Clark & Estes, 2008). Utility Value asks people to focus on the benefits of
finishing the task and not their lack of interest or discomfort (Clark & Estes, 2008). By
describing realistic benefits of completing a less desired task or goal, people will have a better
21
chance of accomplishing their goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). Some examples of the realistic
benefits of gaining confidence in their mental health and well-being would be having the
opportunity to play on the team, transfer as an athlete to a four-year school, or earn a scholarship.
In addition, student-athletes will need to work closely with the coaching staff. Each student-
athlete will be tasked with attaching themselves to the end goal of not just being physically
healthy, but mentally healthy as well.
Self-Efficacy
The next motivational influence is self-efficacy. Pajares (2006) states that self-efficacy
beliefs are judgements that individuals hold about their capabilities to learn or to perform courses
of action at designated levels. This theory explains whether individuals believe they can
accomplish a specific goal. Individuals are more likely to accomplish goals when they believe
they can actually accomplish them because high self-efficacy can positively influence motivation
(Pajares, 2006). Rueda (2011) claims that it is important not to confuse self-efficacy with self-
esteem though because self-esteem is much weaker in explaining how we behave in specific
tasks or activities. This is important because individuals with higher self-efficacy, greater belief
in their own competence, and higher expectations for positive outcomes will be more motivated
to engage in, persist at, and work hard at a task or activity (Rueda, 2011). Student-athletes will
need to evaluate their own belief systems to achieve confidence in their mental health and well-
being. Bandura (2000) expands on perceived self-efficacy:
Efficacy beliefs influence the courses of action people choose to pursue, the challenges
and goals they set for themselves and their commitment to them, how much effort they
put forth in given endeavors, the outcomes they expect their efforts to produce, how long
they persevere in the face of obstacles, their resilience to adversity, the quality of their
22

emotional life and how much stress and depression they experience in coping with taxing
environmental demands, and the life choices they make and the accomplishments they
realize. (p. 309)
By understanding self-efficacy beliefs, student-athletes will be able to effectively manage their
mental health and wellbeing.
The benefits of self-efficacy. For intercollegiate athletic departments to reach its
stakeholder goal of having their student-athletes effectively manage their mental health and well-
being, student-athletes must first be motivated to gain confidence in their mental health and well-
being. If the student-athletes are not motivated to attain confidence in their mental health and
well-being, it is unlikely they will achieve its stakeholder goal. Pajares (2006) states that people
must first understand that they are capable of learning what is being taught or capable of
performing tasks before achieving any goal.
Research supports the benefits of self-efficacy. Shahbazzadegan et al. (2013) found that
positive thinking improved student-athletes’ self-efficacy. The training of positive thinking and
emotional intelligence components relatively improved the athletes’ viewpoints towards race
conditions and unexpected events, and persuaded them to respect their rivals, establish friendly
relations, and encourage a sense of empathy in sports fields (Shahbazzadegan et al., 2013).
Additionally, the researchers believe that if athletes learn that losing is not everything, they will
participate at the competitions and exercise with more confidence (Shahbazzadegan et al., 2013).
Finally, they recommended sports’ authorities, instructors, and trainers hold positive thinking
and emotional intelligence training courses by sports psychologists, which would lead to mental
health promotion and self-efficacy of athletes to succeed at sports fields (Shahbazzadegan et al.,
2013). By providing instructional support (scaffolding) early on, building in multiple
23

opportunities for practice, and gradually removing the support, people can improve their self-
efficacy skills (Pajares, 2006).
It is also imperative that intercollegiate athletic departments provide their student-athletes
opportunities to understand what they are learning. Baker (2006) posits that it is important to
debrief the thinking process upon completion of a learning task. If student-athletes were
motivated to adopt positive thinking strategies into their routine, they would have a good chance
of achieving the organizational goal of being confident in their mental health and well-being.
Moreover, these self-efficacy skills benefit student-athletes after their college years. Taylor and
Betz (1983) found that student-athletes with low career decision self-efficacy are more likely to
avoid career and decision-making tasks such as choosing a major, learning about their own skills
and interest, and seeking out relevant career information.
Table 2 details the motivation influences for intercollegiate athletic departments. The
table focuses on self-efficacy and value theory motivation types and how they will individually
be assessed. Through interviews, intercollegiate athletic departments could accomplish their goal
of having 100% of their student-athletes confident in their mental health and wellbeing.
Table 2
Motivational Influences and Assessments
Stakeholder Goals
The stakeholder goal is that 100% of student-athletes will be able to effectively manage their
mental health and well-being.
Motivational Indicator(s)
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Self-Efficacy: Student-athletes need to feel
confident in managing their mental health and
wellness.
Written survey about their confidence in their
own ability to increase their mental health and
well-being.

24

Sample questions may look like:
Do you believe you are able to increase your
mental health?
General Value: Student-athletes need to see
the value of managing their mental health and
wellness.
Written survey items that assess their
perception of the utility value of mental
health resources on athletic and academic
performance.

Sample questions may look like:
Do you think mental health workshops are
beneficial to athletic and academic
performance?

Organization
Organizational culture is the most important “work process” in all organizations because
it dictates how people work together to get their jobs done (Clark & Estes, 2008). Schein (2017)
defines culture as the accumulated shared learning of that group. It solves its problems of
external adaptation and internal integration, which has worked well enough to be considered
valid; therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, feel, and
behave in relation to those problems (Schein, 2017). Within intercollegiate athletic departments,
there should be an athletic culture that helps student-athletes effectively manage their mental
health and well-being. Schein (2017) states the espoused belief systems and values have left
large areas and behaviors unexplained, leaving people with a feeling that they understand a piece
of the culture, but do not have the entire culture in their hand. To achieve their organizational
goal, intercollegiate athletic departments must understand how their culture is impacting change.
In organizations, work culture is present in the conscious and unconscious understanding of who
they are, what they value, and how they do things as an organization (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Without a basic understanding of what culture exists, organizations are unlikely to reach their
goal because the culture of an organization shapes its outcomes (Schein, 2017).
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Cultural Models and Cultural Settings
Culture and cultural processes are often thought of as pertaining to individuals rather than
organizations, and are notoriously difficult to define and operationalize for several reasons: (a)
they are not always visible; (b) much of what we consider cultural knowledge is automated, and
therefore, not always transparent or easily accessible to individuals or individuals within a
specific organizational setting; and (c) they involve values that are relative (Rueda, 2011).
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) introduced the notion of cultural models as shared mental
schema or normative understandings of how the world works or ought to work. These cultural
models can be used to help shape the ways that an organization is structured, including its values,
practices, policies, and reward structure (Rueda, 2011). Cole et al. (2006) defines cultural
settings as the visible aspects of an organization that can be seen as the who, what, when, where,
why, and how of the routines which constitute everyday life (as cited in Rueda, 2011). Once the
cultural models and settings in a classroom, school, or even an entire district or educational
organization are clear, it is easier to understand why people in that context think and behave and
respond in the ways they do (Rueda, 2011).
Intercollegiate Athletic Departments Need to Communicate their Goals and Values to their
Student-Athletes
Communication is an essential organizational influence that must be explored to
accomplish the goal of having 100% of student-athletes effectively manage their mental health
and well-being. Administrators need to communicate their philosophies, concerns, and plans
regarding student-athlete mental health, and work together with their group members to be
effective leaders. Bolman and Deal (2013) state that there are four different interpretations of an
organizational process (structural frame, human resource frame, political frame, and symbolic
26

frame) that impact organizational change. This presents a problem depending on which frame
administrators are using to examine the student-athlete mental health problem.
For intercollegiate athletic departments to accomplish their goal of having 100% of their
student-athletes effectively manage their mental health and well-being, the leaders need to have a
vision for communicating their plans. Clark and Estes (2008) state that one critical component of
success is that top management must continually be involved in the improvement process by
clearly and candidly communicating to everyone and demonstrating with visible management
involvement. Clark and Estes (2008) state that clear and candid communication engenders trust
and helps people adjust their performance to accommodate unexpected events. Administrators
need to communicate effectively and authentically for their student-athletes to understand they
are genuinely concerned with their overall health.
Administrators must strive to continually be involved in the departments they oversee to
understand the culture they are creating and to manage the staff they supervise. Without a proper
grasp on what is going on within the department, intercollegiate athletic departments will fall
short of accomplishing their organizational goal. Schein (2017) explores the leader’s role when it
comes to developing cultures within an organization. It will be important for leaders to
understand why student-athletes need mental health resources to change the perceived image of
mental health within athletics. Leaders must also be willing to continually share their own vision,
rather than being the official representative of the corporate vision. If administrators are
authentic and candid, other employees will hopefully join the cultural shift. Through
communicating their visions of a physically, mentally, and emotionally healthy athletic
department to their student-athlete population and staff, resources will be put in place because
trust increases the spread of commitment to change on all levels (Clark & Estes, 2008). With this
27

information, administrators can help bridge the gap between the lack of mental health services
offered to student-athletes on their campus.
Resources to Support Student-Athletes Mental Health and Well-Being
If intercollegiate athletic departments want to accomplish their goal of having 100% of
their student-athletes effectively manage their mental health and well-being, they need to provide
resources for their students. According to Sudano et al. (2017), a student-athlete's mental and
physical health status should be considered equally important. Sudano et al. (2017) suggest
providing an integrated care practice model for student-athletes. For example, after an injury, an
athlete must be cleared to participate. That same approach should be applied to significant
mental health events to ensure students are not a danger to themselves or others, and that the
stress of athletic participation will not hinder their mental health recovery. Given the highly
variable presentation and course of mental health events, a slow progression back to activity
based on an athlete's response may be necessary; such a situation requires acceptance by the
medical and coaching staff (Sudano et al., 2017).
While the focus of this study was on student-athletes, this problem is widespread, and a
recent study supports the use of resources on college campuses to aid in mental health issues.
Sontag-Padilla et al. (2018b) surveyed over 39,265 students from the University of California
(UC) system, California State University (CSU), and California Community College (CCC) in
their first survey and 19,946 students in the second survey. During the span of one year, they
observed that all three higher education systems reached a large number of students in their goal
of offering mental health services. They found that students were more likely to report receiving
information about student mental health issues from online resources (e.g., Facebook, email,
campus website, Student Health 101) (ranging from 59% for relationship difficulties to 72% for
28

alcohol and other drug use) and in-person training or on-campus presentations (ranging from
58% for alcohol and other drug use to 68% for how to help others in distress) than from online
trainings at their campuses (ranging from 21% for depression/anxiety to 46% for alcohol and
other drug use) (Sontag-Padilla et al., 2018b). The use of nontraditional methodologies like
social media and online resources, in addition to on-campus resources, is helping colleges meet
the needs of their students. Overall, the researchers believe that schools should partner more
heavily with campus organizations or settings that serve students who may have higher rates of
mental health issues, such as academic support or counseling centers and student health centers
(Sontag-Padilla et al., 2018b). Together, they believe these targeted efforts can complement
ongoing universal campaigns that reach the student population more broadly (Sontag-Padilla et
al, 2018b).
The literature clearly presents the ongoing mental health crisis in college athletic
departments across the country and the need for resources available to student-athletes. This
problem intensifies because according to Brooks et al. (1987), the majority of professionals who
work with student-athletes were former college student-athletes themselves, and their sole
responsibilities were to maintain academic eligibility and enhance sport performance. Watson
(2006) states that student-athletes may not be aware of the range of services available across
campus, and if the school is aware of the mental health challenges facing their student-athlete
population, they may be hesitant to offer enough support. Institutions may assume a cautious role
and choose not to offer additional support services to their student-athletes for fear of violating
NCAA rules and regulations. Additionally, if an athletic program is successful, the university
may be hesitant to deal with student-athletes’ problems, assuming that interventions will only
29

serve to create adverse reactions from students, alumni, and fans, and supporters of the program
may choose to ignore problems when the team is winning (Watson, 2006).
Flexible Mental Health Opportunities
Intercollegiate athletic administrations need to be flexible with the mental health
resources they offer to create an environment where student-athletes feel safe using them. One
successful approach is offering online resources. This approach would be new and unique, and
could prevent student-athletes from feeling the social stigma still attached to mental health
within athletics. Mckinley and Ruppel (2014) explored the use of online resources as a tool for
student to avoid mental health stigma. The findings showed that perceived vulnerability was
significantly associated with visiting any Internet website and joining an online support group,
while self-efficacy predicted greater perceived usefulness and trust for online support groups.
This study could help intercollegiate athletic administrators identify what barriers and challenges
students would face before attempting an online resource tool for their athletes.
Additionally, intercollegiate athletic administrators could offer flexible times for
counseling sessions that are more conducive to student-athlete schedules. Flexible service hours,
such as early morning or later evening hours, would allow student-athletes who want to talk with
a counselor the opportunity to do so without disrupting their academic or athletic schedules
(Watson, 2006). Counseling centers could coordinate with athletic departments to find blocks of
time that would meet the scheduling needs of several student-athletes at once, increasing their
accessibility and minimizing any barriers to accessing counseling services (Watson, 2006).
Funding
Intercollegiate athletic administrators need to prioritize funding for mental health
resources if they want to accomplish their organizational goal. A recent study identified four
30

common facilitators to mental health funding: (a) crises related to mental health, (b) data, (c)
activism, and (d) upper-level leadership (Hunt et al., 2012). The researchers found that by
providing a promising venue for prevention and treatment of mental illness in young adults, there
is a path to success and well-being (Hunt et al., 2012). Additionally, since mental health is the
foundation for student well-being and academic success, all higher education institutions,
regardless of their interest in mental health, have an incentive to promote this agenda (Hunt et
al., 2012). Intercollegiate athletic administrators should provide resources that the college as a
whole needs to be successful; mental health and well-being being the foundation of that success.
Additional Personnel on Campus
There are many barriers to student-athletes getting the necessary help they need on a
college campus. Funding and mental health stigma were explored, but the most obvious way that
intercollegiate athletic administrators could help their student-athletes is to employ more mental
health professionals on campus. Providing more full-time or part-time counselors or
psychologists/psychiatrists would be ideal, but if funding is an issue, intercollegiate athletic
administrators could explore bringing in non-clinical professionals. For instance, schools could
provide training to resident advisors (RAs), who are tasked with learning about residents and
helping them navigate university life (Raghavan, 2014). This is a particular application of task
shifting, where non-professionals are trained to identify possible health and mental health needs
among members of their communities, and either deliver or facilitate the delivery of appropriate
interventions to individuals demonstrating such needs (Raghavan, 2014). This creative use of
non-professionals is a way intercollegiate athletic administrators could bring more attention to
mental health issues on campus.
31

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and
Motivation and the Organizational Context
The conceptual framework is a conception or model of what a person plans to study, what
is going on with their findings, and a theory as to why this phenomena is occurring (Maxwell,
2013). The theory guides the rest of the research design process to help assess and define goals,
develop realistic and relevant research questions, select appropriate methods, and identify
potential validity threats to the conclusion (Maxwell, 2013). The importance of the conceptual
framework cannot be overlooked as all aspects of the study are affected by its framework
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Maxwell (2013) states that the conceptual framework is constructed by empirical
literature, theoretical literature, personal experiments, and thought experiments. While each
resource is named separately, they all work in unison to create the framework for this specific
problem of practice. In order to understand a problem at its core, all four resources need to be
explored. The empirical literature in this dissertation included original research, surveys, and
data. The theoretical literature focused on the theories surrounding this specific problem of
practice and may be supported by the data from the theoretical literature. The personal
experiments help the researcher make sense of these resources through personal experiences and
thought experience help identify what could be true.

32
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) state that if any organizational gaps are to be addressed,
alignment between the organization and its employees has to begin with compatible goal
structures. In the conceptual framework illustrated in Figure 1, the smaller blue circle represents
the organization itself, as well as the cultural setting and model influences. The organization
impacts the stakeholder group in multiple ways, which is indicted by the placement of the largest
33
blue circle below. The influences were chosen specifically for intercollegiate athletic
organizations and stakeholder group as these influences (communication and resources) were the
most important for change.
For every action or non-action from the blue circle, there is a ripple effect to the largest
blue circle and then, ultimately, to the small blue rectangle. There is a consistent message being
sent to the student-athletes, which is that their mental health is not a priority. School
administrators do not offer specific mental health services to student-athletes because, in part,
administrators are not educated on the mental health issues plaguing their student-athletes. Clark
and Estes (2008) assert that every organization needs to communicate clear business goals that
are translated into concrete, challenging, and current individual and team performance goals.
Furthermore, employees must have adequate knowledge, motivation, and organizational support
to achieve important work goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Some intercollegiate athletic
administrators overseeing athletics might not have been affiliated with athletics prior to their
appointment, so there are innate issues when aligning goals because these administrators have
never experienced the stressors faced by student-athletes. To meet the goal of having 100% of
student-athletes feel confident with their mental health and well-being, intercollegiate athletic
departments need to play a vital part in changing the culture and advocating for mental health
resources. Only then will the organization and its employee/stakeholder group share compatible
goals.
The larger blue circle, which is directly below the smaller blue circle represents the
stakeholder group (student-athletes). The stakeholder’s knowledge and motivation factors are
clearly defined within the circle. The knowledge influences selected are specific to the needs of
the organization and stakeholder group. Clark and Estes (2008) assert that there are three causes
34
for performance gaps: (a) people’s knowledge and skills, (b) their motivation to achieve the goal,
and (c) organizational barriers. Without these three factors in place, there will not be successful
goal achievement (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Student-athletes need to understand two specific knowledge influences (procedural and
metacognitive). The first knowledge identified for this study, procedural knowledge, refers to
knowing how to do something to accomplish specific activities (Krathwohl, 2002). Student-
athletes must be able to understand how to create educational opportunities and support systems
to achieve their organizational goal. Metacognitive knowledge is the awareness of one’s own
cognition and particular cognitive processes (Krathwohl, 2002). Student-athletes will have to
question their own awareness on mental health issues.
Additionally, student-athletes will need to understand their motivational influences (self-
efficacy and value) to address their own biases regarding mental health. Self-efficacy is needed
for student-athletes to evaluate their own belief system, both the positive and the negative, to
understand how their beliefs may impact the organization’s goal. Pajares (2006) states that self-
efficacy beliefs are judgements that individuals hold about their capabilities to learn or to
perform courses of action at designated levels. Organizations need to assess their goals and
psychological needs to make sure they are aligned with the collective goal (Eccles, 2006).
Finally, the small blue rectangle outlines the organizational goal. For this goal to be
achieved, cultural models and setting, knowledge, and motivational factors must be addressed.
Clark and Estes (2008) reaffirm that, for successful change to happen, there must be clear goals
accompanied by effective work procedures, motivational support, and assessment of results that
reflect both the achievement of the vision and the connection of business and work goals.
Intercollegiate athletic administrators will have to work hard at addressing the current gaps
35

within their organization to meet their stakeholder goal of having 100% of their student-athletes
developing the confidence to manage their mental health and well-being through resources
offered within their athletic department.
Summary
The purpose of this study was to explore how mental health issues impact intercollegiate
student-athletes’ ability to effectively manage their mental health and well-being. The findings of
this study will help support changes within athletic departments to better serve student-athletes.
In Chapter Two, the stakeholder group’s knowledge (procedural/meta-cognitive), motivation
(general value/self-efficacy), and organizational (communication/resources) influences were
introduced, and the Clark and Estes gap-analysis framework was examined. Additionally, the
study’s conceptual framework was presented and described. In Chapter Three, methodological
approach used for this study will be presented and examined.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
Introduction
The focus of this research was about the mental health and well-being of former student-
athletes. This study aimed to identify the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
of former student-athletes who participated in an intercollegiate athletic program within the last
15 years. The researcher sought out to find if there were needs within intercollegiate athletic
programs which affected the suggested organizational goal. The following research questions
guided this study:
1. What were the former student-athletes’ knowledge and motivation in relation to being
able to effectively manage their mental health and well-being?
2. How did former student-athletes’ knowledge and motivation interact with school
administrators to help their confidence in managing their mental health and well-being?
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders for this study were former student-athletes who competed on an
intercollegiate athletic team at a four-year institution. The former student-athletes competed at
six different schools which were comprised of both public and private institutions. There were 12
Division I schools included and one Division II school included in the study. Additionally, the
stakeholders represented different ages, races, and genders which made the study complex and
rich in data. This study was important because research has shown student-athletes are at a
greater risk for mental health issues. Refer to Chapter Five for a more detailed description of the
participants.
Interview Criteria and Rationale
Interviews were selected for this study. The researcher used their professional network
and the snowball method to interview 13 former student-athletes.
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Criterion 1
Participants of the study were former student-athletes who competed at a four-year
institution within the last 15 years.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
Thirteen participants were selected for this study. Of the 13 participants, nine of the
stakeholders were contacted directly by the researcher, while four stakeholders were contacted
using the snowball method. More than 16 individuals expressed interest in participating in the
interviews for this study, but only 13 were interviewed. The stakeholders were selected based on
their sport, age, gender, and school. This selection method allowed the researcher to attain
diverse data which would provide more meaningful findings. While the majority of the
stakeholders were recruited to play at their institutions, two stakeholders started their careers at
local community colleges. Additionally, the stakeholder group consisted of seven individuals
who identified as female and six individuals who identified as male.
This study attempted to determine the relationship between the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational variables impacting former student-athletes’ mental health. To determine that
relationship, the researcher conducted qualitative interviews for three key reasons. First,
qualitative interviews provide a natural setting for participants. Creswell and Creswell (2018)
stated that qualitative researchers gather information by talking directly to people and seeing
them behave and act within their context which often extends over a prolonged period of time.
The interviews allowed the researcher to meet with individuals via Zoom or FaceTime to speak
freely about their experiences as former student-athletes. The ability to ask additional questions
during the interviews allowed the researcher to gather crucial information which led to emerging
themes amongst the participants. Interviews were also identified because this study focused on
38

mental health. Discussing mental health issues is very difficult and the researcher wanted to
make sure the participants felt comfortable sharing their experience. While quantitative research
could have been used, it would not have given the researcher all the information needed to make
a clear recommendation for the organization. Additionally, the researcher would not have been
able to ask follow-up questions to get clarity on the answers provided from the participants.
Finally, the researcher used qualitative interviews because of the global COVID-19 pandemic.
Data Collection
This study focused on the knowledge and motivational factors of former student-athletes
who competed on an intercollegiate athletic team within the last 15 years. This data will help
intercollegiate athletic departments meet their goal of having 100% of student-athletes feel
confident with their mental health and well-being. While there are many ways to collect data,
qualitative research was the best method for this study. The mission of this study was to collect
data that would help identify the issues within intercollegiate athletic departments, and help
colleges provide the mental health services student-athletes desperately need. The qualitative
data collection method to interview 13 individuals was preferred because it allowed the
researcher to collect large amounts of very specific information from respondents.
It was imperative the researcher spoke with former student-athletes as their
understanding and insight on their intercollegiate athletic experience was invaluable. As former
student-athletes, the participants were able to speak honestly about their experience without fear
of information getting back to their coach or teammates. Additionally, the years following their
intercollegiate athletic experience allowed the participants to reflect on what their mental health
was like and gave the researcher clear guidance on what they needed in retrospect.

39

Interview Protocol
The researcher created the interview questions to help organizations reach their goals of
having 100% of the student-athletes confident with their overall mental health and well-being.
The interview included four demographic questions at the beginning of the interview which
helped the researcher disaggregate the data. The demographic questions included what sport they
played, what years they played the sport, what gender they identified as, and at what institution
they competed. The interview also included ten questions regarding the general mental health
and wellness of the participants, and contained follow-up questions depending on the
participant’s response.
Interview Procedures
Knowing that the subject matter was directly related to mental health, the study used
former student-athletes who competed in the last 15 years within an intercollegiate athletic
program. For the study, the researcher was methodical as to which participants were selected.
The sport the participant played, what gender they identified as, or what years they competed
were all taken into consideration when selecting participants for the study. The diversity of the
participants (race, ethnicity, sport, and gender) helped the researcher gain a broader perspective
of the mental health challenges within intercollegiate athletic departments. The researcher
appreciated the candid responses from the former student-athletes because, as Robinson and
Firth Leonard (2019) stated, there is a social desirability bias. Social desirability bias occurs
when respondents are reluctant to tell the truth about any behaviors or attitudes that could be
perceived as negative or unflattering, or they may be more likely to overestimate responses about
positive behaviors and underestimate responses about negative ones (Robinson & Firth Leonard,
40

2019). The researcher was aware of this issue and understood that there was a chance of current
student-athletes experiencing social desirability bias compared to former student-athletes.
Data was collected in June 2020. As previously mentioned, five participants were
selected from the researcher’s personal network, while eight participants were selected using the
snowball method. The researcher sought former student-athletes who participated around the
time the researcher graduated. Five participants were connected through an alumni network at
one school. The researcher accessed their contact information and messaged them directly. Eight
participants were friends of the five alumni participants. The researcher accessed their contact
information via one of the initial five participants. Of those eight participants, five came from
doing a snowball sampling from one participant. The participants were notified electronically as
to when and how their interview would take place. Some of the interviews were conducted using
Zoom, while other interviews were conducted using FaceTime. The average interview lasted
approximately 40 minutes. The researcher found that some participants were not as comfortable
talking about mental health issues as their peers. Each participant approved the recording of their
interview. In addition, the researcher had audio transcripts and took notes during the interviews
which allowed for follow-up questions.
Data Analysis
Creswell and Creswell (2018) state that qualitative research is an approach for exploring
and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. In
this study, the researcher set out to examine the mental health and well-being of former student-
athletes. This process meant exploring and understanding a wide variety of student-athletes and
their personal experiences as former college athletes. In order to get the right information needed
from the data collection, the researcher used Creswell and Creswell’s (2018) five step process.
41

The first step was organizing and preparing the data. In this step, the researcher organized all the
transcripts from the participants. Then the researcher removed information that was not relevant
to the study such as filler words and repetition. Once the data set was cleaned, the researcher
organized the responses based on sport, gender, and year of graduation. Next, the researcher
looked at the data. After organizing and preparing the data, the researcher read the data. Each
transcript was carefully read and understood by the researcher. In addition to reviewing the
transcripts, the researcher combined the notes taken during each interview and attached them to
the correct participant. This allowed the researcher to understand in depth the unique responses
provided by each participant.
Third, the researcher coded all the data. This process was guided by the research
questions for this study and helped the researcher focus on specific topics. The specific topics
were color coded and allowed the researcher to easily access similar data. The fourth step was
generating themes. After the data was coded, the researcher began to identify themes within the
transcripts. The themes were used to understand the assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences in the study. The themes that emerged in this study were:
1. Student-athletes knew how to access mental health resources (K1).
2. Student-athletes knew how to self-regulate (K2).
3. Student-athletes knew how to self-assess (K3).
4. Student-athletes understood the value of managing their mental health and well-being
(M1).
5. Student-athletes had confidence in managing their mental health and well-being (M2).
6. Student-athletes felt supported by their coaches (O1).
7. Student-athletes felt supported by their organization (O2).
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Finally, step five was representing the themes. The themes in this study are clear and
align with the research questions guiding the study. There is a brief description of the themes and
data to support each theme presented. The data is presented in KMO order as to follow the
interview line of questioning with the participants. That information is followed by data from the
transcripts. The findings for this study will be identified and explained in Chapter Four.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
The findings of this study were of high interest to the researcher as their personal
experience as a former student-athlete made the data that much more interesting and relevant.
While the researcher felt they were prepared to conduct a credible study, they worked to make
sure there were no threats that would taint the validity of the data. Maxwell (2013) states that
although methods and procedures do not guarantee validity, they are essential to the process of
ruling out validity threats and increasing the credibility of conclusions. This study produced new
interview questions that may have presented validity and reliability problems. To combat this
issue, the researcher enacted four activities to create a valid and reliable study. First, the
researcher completed the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) training offered by
the University of Southern California. This training was crucial to understand how to administer
a viable study. Second, the researcher worked with people educated on mental health, and
adapted themes and ideas to this study so that there was a higher likelihood for a credible
outcome. Third, the researcher used other members of the community who were knowledgeable
about intercollegiate athletics to help brainstorm questions. Additionally, the researcher worked
closely with their chair to make sure knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences were
being addressed in the interviews. Robinson and Firth Leonard (2019) stated that brainstorming
and talking through potential questions with research colleagues can identify possible challenges
43

or weaknesses. Finally, this study engaged potential respondents or informants to solicit input
from informants with subject-matter expertise to share insights related to the subject matter and
to help anticipate any challenges (Robinson & Firth Leonard, 2019).
Ethics
It was imperative, both personally and professionally, to follow ethical standards when
collecting data because people needed to trust the data collection process. The establishment of
trust is pivotal in the research portion because practitioners intervene in peoples’ lives (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). The researcher started the data collection process by going through the
University of Southern California’s IRB process. This process ensured that the study was
performed ethically and to the university’s standards. The chosen qualitative research method for
this study was interviews. Collecting data from multiple former student-athletes who attended
different institutions provided a robust and helpful understanding as to the issues within
intercollegiate athletic departments.
The researcher is a former national champion and Olympian, who experienced their own
mental health and well-being issues as a former student-athlete. The researcher’s main interest
has been to make mental health a priority within intercollegiate athletic programs. As Maxwell
(2013) stated, a clear understanding of the goals motivating your work will help you avoid losing
your way or spending time and effort doing things that do not advance these goals. While the
researcher’s goal was to collect data that could be used to make real change within athletic
programs, the researcher needed to be careful not to use their own experiences to lead the data
collection. This was especially important as some of the participants were the researcher’s
contemporaries in terms of age when they competed in college. Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
stated that while the researchers’ values and biases can be inferred through statements of their
44

assumptions, their decision as to how to handle discoveries has a direct impact on the
trustworthiness of their entire study. Each former student-athlete had a different response to the
interview questions, and the researcher was open-minded and understood that the findings might
not be what they expected. However, it was necessary to present the findings in an ethical
manner. The researcher understood that no matter what the data showed, presenting the
information as factually as possible was crucial in being an ethical researcher.
Limitations and Delimitations
For this study, there were some limitations. First, the impact of COVID-19 presented a
challenge for the researcher as interviewing participants had to be done via Zoom or FaceTime.
The researcher would have preferred to meet the participants in person to create a more
comfortable environment. Second, the researcher originally had difficulty finding individuals
who played different sports. The researcher had to broaden their professional network and seek
out participants with different backgrounds. Ultimately, the snowball method was used to collect
additional participants for the study. The third, and arguably most important limitation, was the
variable concerning the years participants competed on an intercollegiate athletic team. The
researcher would have preferred to interview former student-athletes who graduated within the
last five years, but only two participants fit that criteria. This presented a challenge for the
researcher because the information provided from the participants might not be as relevant,
which in turn, might not make the recommendation as strong.

45

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to identify knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences that impacted student-athletes from being able to manage their mental health and
well-being while competing on an intercollegiate athletic team. The Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis was used to conduct the qualitative study. Chapter Four presents the stakeholders, the
interview data, and the findings of this study. The questions that guided this study were:
1. What were the student-athletes’ knowledge and motivation in relation to being able to
effectively manage their mental health and well-being while in college?
2. How did student-athletes’ knowledge and motivation interact with school administrators
to help shape student-athletes’ abilities to become confident in their mental health and
well-being?
Participating Stakeholders
There were 13 participants in the qualitative study. Seven participants identified as
female, while the other six participants identified as male. Seven participants played water polo,
four participants played baseball, one participant swam, and one participant was on the track
team. Ten participants attended private universities in California, while two participants attended
public universities in California. One participant attended a school in Tennessee. Of the 13
participants, only two graduated within the last five years; the remaining participants graduated
more than five years ago.

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Table 3
Demographic Information of Participants
Pseudonym Gender Race Division Sport Years of
Participation
Mary Female White and
Black
D1 Track and Field 2006-2010
Barbara Female White D1 Water Polo 2003-2007
Ellie Female White and
Nicaraguan
D1 Water Polo 2003-2007
Carly Female White D1 Water Polo 2003-2007
Sue Female White D1 Water Polo 2007-2011
Arielle Female Pacific Islander D2 Swim 2003-2005
Janet Female White D1 Water Polo 2014-2018
Steve Male White D1 Water Polo 2000-2005
Mike Male White D1 Water Polo 2016-2019
Riley Male Hispanic D1 Baseball 2008-2011
David Male White D1 Baseball 2007-2009
Darren Male White and
Black
D1 Baseball 2005-2008
James Male White D1 Baseball 2008-2011

Findings
The research findings of this study are divided to assess each influence that the researcher
developed after synthesizing the data. The study was guided by the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that have been presented in this dissertation. The knowledge influences
that were assessed were procedural and metacognitive knowledge. The knowledge themes the
researcher developed were: (a) accessing mental health resources on campus, (b) knowing how
47

to self-regulate, and (c) knowing how to self-assess. The motivation themes the researcher
developed were: (a) having confidence in managing mental health and well-being and (b)
understanding the value of managing mental health and well-being. Finally, the organization
themes developed were: (a) student-athletes felt supported by their organization and (b) student-
athletes felt supported by their coaches.
The data presented examines the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences in
the study. While there were assumed influences based on the conceptual framework, the findings
indicate whether or not there were actual needs or strengths within the organization that could be
identified. For this study, if 75% of the responses confirmed the assumed influence, it was
considered as a need, strength, or was mixed/undetermined in the study.
Results
Knowledge Results
It was crucial the researcher asked questions that would clearly address the assumed
knowledge influences (procedural and metacognitive knowledge). Procedural and metacognitive
knowledge influences were selected based on Bloom’s Taxonomy structure (Krathwohl, 2010).
Procedural knowledge is how to do something; methods of inquiry and criteria for using skills,
algorithms, techniques, and methods. Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge of cognition in
general, as well as awareness and knowledge of one’s own cognition (Krathwohl, 2010). The
participants were asked to describe their overall student-athlete experience while in college.
Then, more detailed questions were asked about how that experience impacted their mental
health and well-being while in college. In addition to understanding their overall experience, the
researcher sought to understand how knowledgeable the student-athletes were in accessing
mental health resources on campus. It was important for the researcher to not just know if the
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institutions provided mental health resources; rather if the student-athletes knew where and how
to access them. Additionally, it was important for the researcher to know who participants felt
they could speak with if they had a mental health issue (which not all of the participants stated
they had). Finally, the researcher rounded out the knowledge influence questions by finding out
if former student-athletes could self-regulate or self-assess their mental health while in college.
Table 4
Assumed Knowledge Influences, Determination, and Summary of Findings
Assumed Knowledge Influence Need, Strength, or Undetermined Finding
Student-athletes need to know how to ask
for help and where to find the resources
they need.
Need: Student-athletes understood there may
have been mental health resources on campus,
but did not know how to access them.
Student-athletes need to know how to self-
regulate.
Strength: Most student-athletes believed they
had knowledge to self-regulate.
Student athletes need to know how to self-
assess their mental health.
Need: Student-athletes lacked proper skills to
self-assess their mental health and well-being.

Research Question One
The first research question guiding this study was, “What were the student-athletes’
knowledge and motivation in relation to being able to effectively manage their mental health and
well-being while in college?” It was clear, through the data analysis, that the participants had
very different collegiate experiences. In relation to the first knowledge influence (procedural),
participants were mostly unsure of where to go or who to ask for help. Even though the majority
of the participants responded that they did not know, the total did not reach 75% of the
participants, which proved to be a need in this study. To be clear, some participants said they did
not know where to go, but were confident they could have found out. While that response is
49

promising, it still shows there was little clarity in where student-athletes could go if they
struggled with their mental health and well-being.
In relation to the second procedural influence (self-regulation), some participants had an
easier time adjusting to college, and those who felt they had a good grasp on their mental health
and well-being shared that they had learned skills prior to entering college.
More than 75% of participants reported that they had good self-regulation skills, which
proved to be a strength in this study. For example, the participants that said they could regulate
their mental health and well-being, shared that they learned self-regulatory skills in childhood
while having adverse family experiences. The researcher assumed then, that those who learned
skills early in childhood were better prepared for adversity later in life when the pressures of
athletics and academics came to a climax. While the intent of the study is not to presume that
early childhood education in self-regulation is the key to confidence in mental health and well-
being in college, it is something that could be explored later. This was a strength in the study.
Regarding self-assessment, it seems most participants had no conscious understanding of how to
self-assess, which also proved to be a need in this study.
Procedural Knowledge
Accessing Mental Health Resources on Campus
As Clark and Estes (2008) stated, it is necessary to determine whether people know how
(and when, what, why, where, and who) to achieve their performance goals. In this study,
participants were asked to explain their understanding of the mental health resources offered on
their college campus while in attendance. Eight participants reported that they had no idea where
they would have gone if they struggled with mental health issues during their collegiate years.
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Some respondents felt comfortable that they could have figured out where to go for help if they
really needed it. David noted:
Looking back on it, you’re in college, and your ego is through the roof. In terms of
someone specific on campus who I would reach out to for mental health purposes, I
would say no, no one comes to mind. I didn’t think to reach out for help or anything, but
if I were going to, I would have reached out to my trainer.
Arielle shared, “I never asked what services were available, but I know that there were some
somewhere. I know if I asked my coach or even a teammate, they would have guided me to the
right place.” Steve acknowledged that they did not know exactly where to go for help, but that
they would have gone directly to their coach to find out. Barbara reported:
I guess not specifically. I could have probably figured it out, but I as far as which
building to go to or what person to see, not that I can remember. We knew we weren’t
getting enough support, but we didn’t know how to ask for it.
However, some respondents had no idea and were not comfortable asking for any help.
Carly asserted:
It’s like when you are injured you know exactly where to go and who is accessible. If you
are sick, you know to go to the health center, but there was no mention or emphasis on
where to go if you were struggling mentally.
Darren concurred, “I guess not specifically. I could have probably figured it out, but I as far as
which building to go to or what person to see, not that I can remember.” James posited:
As far as on campus help, nothing comes to mind. During that time, they didn’t have
anybody come to you at the beginning of season and say, ‘here are the people that you
can access if you have some sort of real issue’.
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Finally, Sue observed:
I had no idea where to go for help and I definitely was not going to ask my coach. When
you’re in a really challenging situation, mentally and physically, with everything you are
being required to do, you don’t want to go to your coach and say you are struggling. You
would have absolutely been seen as weak and there wasn’t a way to bring it up without
having a “x” put on your back afterwards.
The remaining participants recalled that they did know where to access mental health
resources on campus. It is important to note that two respondents graduated in the last few years,
which may have something to do with their ability to access the robust offerings on their college
campuses. The youngest participants had a very different experience than the participants who
graduated years ago. The researcher found this refreshing as the younger participants seemed to
be exposed to more mental health information and support than the older participants which
shows changes in supports and resources in intercollegiate athletic departments. Riley stated:
I knew we had psychologists and therapists who were dedicated to working with the
student-athletes. I personally never reached out to them, but they were in our planners
and they had their phone numbers in them. I didn’t know where their offices were or who
they were, but I knew how to get a hold of them and that made it really easy.
Mike concurred, “Definitely! We had so many meetings about who we could talk to. We could
have gone to our trainers or different sport psychiatrists. They were fairly clear about where we
could go to get help.” Mary shared:
Every student had access to the Student Mental Health center and different organizations
that they could use, but a lot of the guidance came from our specific student-athlete
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academic advisors. They would always gage how you were doing and would make
recommendations based on where you were mentally.
Janet commented:
Yes, I did know where and who to ask for help on campus. They told us a lot of what was
available to us and they held a lot of meetings. Our coach was very supportive of us using
these resources.
Finally, Ellie recalled, “Yes, I knew who to ask for help, and I was doing all the things they
recommended, but it didn’t necessarily work.”
Knowing How to Self-Regulate
As Rueda (2011) states, students who self-regulate can compensate for and overcome
many problems under imperfect learning conditions, and are very similar to the kinds of students
or individuals who are sometimes referred to as resilient. These students are able to do and
achieve things when others in similar circumstances cannot, even under less than ideal conditions
(Rueda, 2011).
An important part of this study was understanding if the participants knew how to self-
regulate. As mentioned previously, self-regulation is key to being able to manage one’s mental
health and well-being. If the students knew how to self-regulate, it was assumed that they would
be better able to manage their mental health and well-being while in college. During the
interview, participants were asked if they knew how to self-regulate and if they did anything to
help manage their mental health. Six participants said they were not able to self-regulate. Ellie
mused, “No, definitely not.” Janet agreed:
I think in the beginning it was tough, there were a lot of factors going on in my life that
weren’t conducive to having good mental health. I had mental health and family issues
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and it was hard to balance my first two years. It was a lot better my junior and senior
year.
Sue maintained, “No, I could not self-regulate. I wasn’t able to manage or regulate anything. I
was just in survival mode.” David divulged, “To be honest, it was just sheer determination on my
part. There was no regulation, I just told myself things had to get done and I blocked everything
else out.” Carly recalled, “Now, when I look back, I don’t think I was doing a great job at
regulating anything. After leaving sports and talking to a sports psychologist, I was able to move
forward. I just didn’t have the skills then.” James remembered:
I was not able to self-regulate. I was never present or conscious in the moment. I was
dependent on my successes and my failures would control my mind for days, weeks, and
months. If I had a bad game, I would bring that to the next practice or game. I just wish I
would have had the ability to monitor and self-regulate because I think I would have been
much more successful.
The findings revealed, though, that some participants who said they could not self-
regulate did do things that helped them manage their struggles, but they were not necessarily
healthy coping strategies. Participants spoke about drinking, drugs, eating disorders, and sex as
outlets while living through overwhelming experiences while in college. Ellie shared, “So many
of my teammates coped in really toxic ways like by drinking in excess, having multiple sexual
partners and being reckless with their sex life, some of them did drugs, and a lot had eating
disorders.” These coping strategies were used to “numb the pain.” As Sue noted:
You know, you go to school and then practice, and the only thing I did to relieve stress or
“manage” my stress was go out and drink and party. Obviously, that was not healthy, but
I was just numbing all the pain.
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There also seemed to be a team bonding component to these experiences. For example, after a
hard practice, players would bond over a night of drinking or drugs. Participants shared that both
alcohol and substance abuse were well-known, but there was a common understanding that
everyone was just trying to survive in their own way. Carly considered:
Yeah, I mean the whole goal was to survive the day, the week, the month. We didn’t have
the ability to see the big picture. We were really living in the moment. So, when we
finished a grueling practice our thought wasn’t to rest and recover, it was to celebrate and
have as much fun as we could before the torture started again.
Unfortunately, even when some participants sought the appropriate help, they still
struggled with their mental health. Ellie posited:
Yeah, I mean I was doing the things that they (therapists) told me to do, as far as
recommendations to help with my mental health. I was going to therapy, church, and
doing more community things, so you would expect that I should be able to handle this
and understand when I was struggling, but I had no clue. I was so busy trying to please
everyone and perform so I wouldn’t lose my scholarship.
The remaining participants believed that they were able to regulate their mental health. Mary
stated:
So, for me, it was always a balancing act. I would consciously do something daily that
would add a bit of fun into my life. It had to happen and when it did, I was in a better
place mentally.
Mike concurred:
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Yes. I think so. It was definitely difficult at the beginning, but I think towards the end I
was able to speak with different people and really start to look at the big picture which
helped me move past the hurt, frustration, and disappointment I had.
Riley noted, “Yeah, I think so. One thing that really helped me was time management. If I was
organized, I felt better mentally.” Steve mentioned:
I think I was able to self-regulate. When I had a mental barrier, I was able to reach out to
friends and people I trusted that could help me get back on track mentally. Just opening
up to other people helped me manage my mental health.
Barbara recalled:
I think I was able to self- regulate most of the time. For me, it was really finding an outlet
by either stepping out of the situation and going home for the weekend, or going to the
movies with my friends or even going to a party. I just had to remove myself from the
daily grind of training. The ability to do that carried over to when I was training for the
Olympics”.
Arielle agreed, “Yeah, I was able to self-regulate” and Darren remembered, “Yes. It never came
up into my conscious frame of thought, but I think I did a good job balancing my workload and
keeping everything in order.”
The researcher identified common themes from the participants who said they could
manage their mental health and well-being. First, they had support from individuals outside of
their sport/team. Participants who were able to disconnect from the team, just for a little bit, felt
recharged upon returning. Barbara recalled that, on hard days, her mom would drive up to see
her for lunch or dinner. This interaction was beneficial in managing her mental health and well-
being. In addition, Barbara shared that she had friends outside of the team and they valued her as
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more than just an athlete. Mary stated that making conscious decisions about who to befriend
while in college helped them. For example, Mary knew surrounding herself with positive people
would have a positive impact on her. She was focused on being friends with people who shared
her outlook on life. James and Ellie noted that having access to older teammates made difficult
situations tolerable. Participants who were on national teams or played in summer leagues were
exposed to older professionals who passed on years of experience. This advice was invaluable
for the younger athletes who looked up to these players as role models. Some of the skills shared
helped these former student-athletes navigate the difficult arena of intercollegiate athletics.
The second theme was using positive self-talk. Mary, Arielle, and Riley stated that
adverse childhood experiences helped them hone their mental health and well-being skills. They
learned how to use positive self-talk to adapt in challenging situations. Through talking
themselves through difficult situations, they were able to get through hard things and excel. This
is a skill that all three participants maintain they use today.
The third theme referenced was having time management skills as a way to manage
mental health and well-being. Darren stated, “I guess having boundaries and time management
skills helped me.” By knowing how to use their time, they were less stressed about classes,
assignments, and practice/games. The preparation in scheduling alleviated a lot of stress for these
former student-athletes.
Finally, Arielle alluded to her experience as a Division II student-athlete to increasing her
confidence regarding her mental health. While Arielle did not know she was the only Division II
athlete interviewed, she did point out that her experience was far different from that of a Division
I athlete concerning the pressure to succeed, scholarship expectations, and commitment. When
asked, Arielle stated, “Honestly, maybe it’s because I was not at a Division 1 school so I didn’t
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have as much pressure on me athletically.” While this was not the focus of this study, the
experience between Division I and Division II former student-athletes could be explored in the
future.
Metacognitive Knowledge
Knowing How to Self-Assess Mental Health
Student-athletes need to have the skills to self-assess. Students who are capable of
effective learning are able to regulate their learning and take responsibility for the acquisition
and maintenance of new skills (Rueda, 2011). This suggests that if student-athletes have the
skills to self-regulate, they are also able to acquire new skills. This is important to note as most
participants felt that they could self-regulate, but most did not have the ability to self-assess.
Through self-regulation, self-assessment is possible.
In this study, participants were asked if they felt they had the skills necessary to self-
assess their mental health while in college. This may have included self-assessment techniques or
conscious activities participants did to get a grasp on where they were at mentally. While the
majority of participants felt that they had some idea how to self-regulate, almost all the
participants struggled to identify clear and conscious self-assessment methods that would help
gauge whether or not they were struggling with their mental health and well-being. Mary stated,
“I guess there was nothing I consciously thought about to self-assess.” Ellie noted, “No, I mean, I
just could have been so much better if I knew how.” Darren mused, “I don’t think I knew how,
but I don’t think any of us did. I think people just didn’t want to know or didn’t have the
knowledge or information to even know what the problem was.”
These results validated a need in this study. However, there were four individuals who
felt they never experienced a mental health issue and their responses might not be helpful in this
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section. Time may have played a role in participants being unable to remember any specific
mental health issues, or if perhaps, looking back on the experiences now, they did not seem as
challenging because so much time has passed.
Through analysis, the researcher found that while the participants did not think they were
consciously self-assessing, they might have been self-assessing. Sue said, “I definitely wasn’t
going to ask myself for help.” This indicated to the researcher that there was an awareness of
issues, but they consciously chose who and where to seek help. In Sue’s case, they never would
have sought help from their coach. Additionally, David shared, “I just told myself things had to
get done and I blocked everything else out.” The researcher believed that, as with Sue’s
statement, there was some level of self-assessment. The fact that David was able to acknowledge
he had issues, but pushed everything aside, showed that he did have the ability to self-assess.
Within the self-regulation questions, participants alluded to using positive and negative
strategies to cope with their mental health and well-being. To regulate anything, there must be an
understanding of what is going on. The participants highlighted their own “self-assessment”
through how they managed to cope with their mental health and well-being. For example,
participants who sought help from family or friends knew they were not in a good mental state.
Upon realizing that, they were able to decide how to cope. Furthermore, those who used
unhealthy coping mechanisms had to acknowledge their mental state. The participants were able
to connect mental health components to coping strategies, which showed the researcher that there
were self-assessments strategies that were used, just not consciously.
Motivation Results
The researcher explored two motivation influences. The first motivation influence
focused on self-efficacy: Did student-athletes have the confidence they could manage their
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mental-health and well-being? Essentially, the researcher focused on: (a) when people choose, or
fail to choose, to actively pursue a work goal; (b) when people have many goals and distractions,
and are tempted not to persist at a specific goal; and (c) when people have chosen a goal and are
persisting while facing distractions, but have to decide how much mental effort to invest into
achieving the goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). The second motivation focused on expectancy value
theory: Did the former student-athletes value their mental health and well-being?
Regarding self-efficacy, the participants had varying degrees of confidence. Some
participants felt they had no confidence, others felt they were pretty confident, and the rest stated
they did not have a mental health problem so the question did not apply to them. The researcher
took careful notes and asked follow-up questions for each participant to understand their
experience in its entirety. It was very important that the researcher understood if they valued
their mental health, if they had confidence to manage it during college, and if anything
influenced their motivation. The participants were asked to explain how important mental health
resources were for student-athletes. Every participant shared their overwhelming support of
mental health resources for student-athletes. Even if they were not consciously aware of what
they needed at the time they were playing a sport in college, they all stated they needed
something. In fact, many participants compared mental health to being equal or of higher
importance than physical health. However, even though all participants were aware of how
important their mental health was, some still refused to seek mental health resources out of fear.

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Table 5
Assumed Motivation Influences, Determination, and Summary of Findings
Assumed Knowledge Influence Strength, Need, or Undetermined Finding
Student-athletes need to feel confident in
managing their mental health and well-
being.
Mixed: Some student-athletes felt confident in
managing their mental health and well-being.
Student-athletes need to see the value of
managing their mental health and well-
being.
Strength: Student-athletes valued their mental
health and well-being.

Having Confidence in Managing Mental Health and Well-Being
Having confidence in one’s ability to manage their mental health and well-being is a
large part of whether or not they will be able to actually manage their mental health and well-
being. Eccles (2006) stated that having higher expectations for success and perceptions of
confidence can positively influence learning and motivation. While some participants reported
that they had confidence managing their mental health and well-being, others were very honest
about their lack of confidence and what contributed to it. Ellie stated, “I wasn’t confident, but
shoot, I survived it right? I must have done something to get to this point.” Sue made one of the
most poignant statements:
I never had anyone to talk to directly. I didn’t think the coaches or teachers cared. I
remember a freshman coming to our school and she was a top recruit. She ended up
leaving half-way through the fall semester; not having played one season, because she
couldn’t handle everything that was going on. The coaches spun it in a way where she
had mental problems and wasn’t tough enough to handle our system. I think all that
outside noise contributed to this lack of confidence I had. Knowing that I was struggling,
but not being able to get the help from the people who were supposed to be helping me.
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David noted, “I didn’t have the confidence I needed. I would get overstressed and end up having
panic attacks. I didn’t realize at the time how important training my mind was.” James posited,
“The biggest problem I had back then was my mental health. I definitely didn’t have the
confidence to manage it.” Carly recalled, “I wasn’t confident in managing my mental health. I
didn’t know how to identify triggers because I was so numb to everything. I thought I was
managing it, but it really wasn’t effective.”
The researcher found that athletic culture had a large impact on whether the participants
felt they had confidence in their ability to manage their mental health and well-being. Former
student-athletes were exposed to very nuanced attempts to shame, belittle, and stigmatize mental
health issues. This toxic culture prevented these participants from seeking help out of fear they
would be judged. Sue mentioned that she never would have felt comfortable going to her coach
about these issues and had, in fact, watched one of her teammates quit the team because they
struggled with mental health issues. When the player left the team and the school, the coach
referenced about the player’s lack of toughness and commitment. These subtle jabs at individuals
perpetuated the stigma attached to mental health within intercollegiate athletics and isolated
some participants even more.
Some participants said they could manage their mental health and well-being. Janet
stated:
I was pretty good at managing my mental health. I think we put in the work athletically
and academically which gave me the confidence to succeed. I felt like I was doing
everything possible which added to my confidence in managing my mental health.
Darren agreed, “Yeah, I think I was confident.” Mike echoed that sentiment, “I was fairly
confident. Because I never experienced anything traumatic, when I would feel down, I would be
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able to calm myself down and remind myself the situation was not that serious in the big scheme
of things.” Riley recalled, “I feel like I had a really good grasp on it” and Arielle noted, “I was
very confident. I can deal with stuff pretty easily. A lot of that has to do with my childhood. I
deal with things on my own.” Steve remembered:
I think I was very confident because I knew that whenever I had an issue, I forced myself
to talk to someone about it. That worked for me and still does. If something is bothering
me, I have to get it off my chest. That made me confident in handling issues.
Barbara commented:
I was pretty confident. I mean, there were a few times while I was in college and training
on the national team simultaneously that I felt I was going off the deep end, but overall, I
was confident in my approach. I made sure I surrounded myself with my family and
friends. Even if I was just having a bad day, my mom would drive up or I would call my
friends. I had support wherever I looked.
These responses were interesting because it shows that athletics proved to be a positive
outlet for some of the respondents. While the focus of the study was on the contributing factors
of managing mental health and well-being, the researcher found that some participants needed
athletics to manage their lives and mental health. For example, Janet had a very difficult time
personally during the first two years of college. Family issues monopolized her time and created
chaos in her life, but while she was in practice, she was able to enjoy being in the moment and,
for a short period of time, she was happy. Arielle shared, “Personally I definitely struggled and
athletics helped me manage what was going on with my family.” In some cases, athletics
contributed to a participant’s confidence and overall well-being, and was an escape from
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problems within their everyday life. While this was not the focus of the study, it could be
explored in future research.
Of the six respondents who expressed confidence in managing their mental health, four
participants were male. While the researcher cannot confirm that men are more likely to be
confident in their mental health and well-being, gender stereotypes might have played a role in
those levels of confidence. James suggested that his male ego may have contributed to his
confidence, “Yeah, hahah, it was probably just my ego at the time though.” The female
participants were more likely to seek outside help from family, friends, and therapists. In
addition, they were able to talk about some of their issues with teammates. While some male
participants confided in teammates and friends, others did not. Some participants might have
been aware of the stigma attached to mental health issues and acted mentally tough to avoid
unwanted attention. This approach to acting mentally healthy might have contributed to their
confidence as they spent considerable time acting like everything was fine.
However, there was one participant, Mary, who said while she felt like she did not have a
mental health issue, but was confident that she could have handled an issue. Through the analysis
of Mary’s responses, it is unclear whether time played a role in the participant being unable to
remember any specific mental health issues, or if, looking back on the experiences, they do not
seem as challenging because so much time has passed. It is difficult to assume that this
participant did not struggle slightly with mental health issues based on some answers. For
example, Mary stated, “If I knew I had something that was going to consume a lot of my time, or
that would stress me out or give me a lot of anxiety, I would try to plan ahead.” This response
indicates that it is possible it has been too long for Mary to remember the specifics of her entire
athletic experience.
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Finally, although most participants felt they did not know how to self-assess, they
acknowledge that they were regulating their mental state. Even if they did not know they were
capable or confident in self-assessing, they were making conscious decisions to change the
trajectory of their day by doing specific activities to manage their mental health and well-being.
For the participants to self-regulate in different ways, there must be a level of self-assessment.
Understanding the Value of Managing Mental Health and Well-Being
Managing mental health and well-being proved to be very important for participants.
Eccles (2006) stated that learning and motivation are enhanced if the learner values the task. All
of the participants valued managing their mental health and well-being. Ellie stated:
I didn’t understand the value then, but now I understand mental health should be
available to all student-athletes. There is a stigma attached to mental health issues and so
athletes do all sorts of things to cope. In a way, I guess I did understand on some level the
value of being mentally healthy, I just didn’t have the words for it. I definitely knew we
were all suffering though, and needed a way out.
Janet noted:
Managing mental health is very important. Without proper mental health, I wouldn’t have
been able to complete the necessary tasks for school or athletics. Now that I am training
for the Olympics, that good mental foundation has helped me time and time again.
Mary shared:
I think to become successful, you have to be aware of your own mental health. It starts
with the things you do when you are young like developing good habits to have good
mental health. If people don’t get that foundation, they have to surround themselves with
people that do.
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Mike recalled, “It is the most important thing for a student-athlete. If they can get help
with their mental health, then their play in sports will improve along with their grades.” Arielle
agreed, “It is really important. There is so much pressure on student-athletes and mental health is
a real problem. Even when I was in school, there wasn’t enough information or help about it, but
we knew people needed it.” Barbara also concurred, “It is so important. Having competed in the
Olympics, the depression and challenges that come with training are brutal.” Steve reported:
Mental health was and is a huge issue. It is a big aspect of being a student-athlete. There
are more expectations for student-athletes and I can’t imagine being a student-athlete now
with social media. It is important that people get the help they need to succeed in sports
and school.
Carly posited:
Having your mind straight is more important than your physical ability. If your mental
well-being isn’t intact, other areas of your life can’t thrive or succeed. I would have had a
very different college experience if I had the proper tools.
David suggested, “People should feel just as comfortable talking about a mental health issue as
they do a muscle ache or cramp. It should be a priority.” Sue argued:
You’re going to have a lot of people struggling not only during that time period (college),
but well after they’re done playing sports. It is incredibly important for people to be
mentally healthy to adjust after sports as well. Honestly, I was “lucky” I was able to play
all four years, but it was also traumatizing in so many ways.
Riley asserted, “I think it is just as important as study hall. Study hall is required for the majority
of students, and every student has access to a trainer. Mental health needs to be checked up on
pretty frequently with student-athletes.” Mary mused:
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I think to become successful, you have to be aware of your own mental health, and it
starts with things when you are a child. Developing good habits so when a mental health
issue occurs, you can handle it. You have to surround yourself with people who are going
to help make you a better person as well.
Darren considered, “It is important, but I guess depending on each individual’s life and
experience, it is up to them to determine how important it is.” James stressed, “If I were a coach
now, I would have them spend as much time working on their mental health as they did in the
weight room. It’s the biggest skill that still gets overlooked.”
The researcher found that while the participants valued their mental health and well-being
in college, it was at the most basic level. It was not until after their collegiate years that they
were able to unbox the complexities surrounding mental health and the effects it has on a
person’s life. There seemed to be a much greater value in managing one’s mental health and
well-being as the participants have had time to reflect on their individual experiences. The
overall consensus is that there are many benefits to managing one’s mental health and well-
being. This includes, but is not limited to, academic success, athletic success, and a foundation
for success after athletics ends.
Research Question Two
The second research question guiding the study was, “How did student-athletes’
knowledge and motivation interact with school administrators to help shape student-athletes’
abilities to become confident in their mental health and well-being?” During the interviews, the
researcher worked towards understanding the organizational complexities that impacted the
participants’ mental health and well-being while in college. The assumed influences were: (a)
colleges communicating their goals and values to their student-athletes and (b) colleges offering
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mental health resources to their student-athletes. The participants were asked to describe what
resources were available to them during their collegiate years. In addition, they were asked if
they felt their schools valued their mental health and well-being and how that was conveyed to
them. It was important to know if the participants felt they had the support they needed while in
college.
In the study, seven participants shared that their colleges did not provide enough support
to them while they were in college. Some of the participants shared that both administrators and
coaches neglected to share what resources were available to them, if there were any resources at
all. Some participants stated that even if there were resources on campus, the use of them was
not supported by the coaching staff or athletic department and there was a stigma attached to
doing so. Four participants stated that they did feel supported by their organizations and two
participants felt the question did not apply to them or their experience. While each collegiate
experience was unique, there were similarities between sports, years played, and gender.
Organizational Results
The researcher wanted to identify what goals and values were communicated to student-
athletes and what resources were available to them during their collegiate years. The researcher
was aware of the athletic culture that was prevalent on many college campuses (even today) and
that culture had to be considered when preparing for the interviews. Culture is a way to describe
the core values, goals, beliefs, emotions, and processes learned as people develop over time in
family and work environments (Clark & Estes, 2008). Clark and Estes (2008) describe three
types of culture: (a) culture in the environment, (b) culture in groups, and (c) culture in
individuals. Culture in the environment shows that people believe cultural patterns can be
changed by changing the work environment (Clark & Estes, 2008). Culture in groups focuses on
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cultural patterns can be changed by changing the beliefs and knowledge of groups of people at
work (Clark & Estes, 2008). Finally, culture in individuals highlights personal culture, which
describes a person’s core knowledge and motivational patterns, and how every individual is
unique, regardless of their national heritage, family experiences, religion, race, and gender (Clark
& Estes, 2008). This study examined the cultural impacts that prevented some student-athletes
from getting the mental health support they needed. As mentioned previously, in the study, the
term “administrator” was left open to interpretation by the participants. However, most of the
participants interpreted that to mean “coach”.
Table 6
Assumed Organization Influences, Determination, and Summary of Findings
Assumed Knowledge Influence Need, Strength, Invalidated, or
Undetermined Finding
The organization needs to have clear goals
and values that are communicated to
student-athletes about their mental health
and well-being.
Need: Majority of student-athletes did not feel
supported by their colleges.
Student-athletes need resources to help
manage their mental health and well-being.
Strength: Student-athletes felt their
organizations provided resources.

Student-Athletes Felt Supported by their Organization
The majority of participants did not feel supported by their organizations. Schwitzer et al.
(2018) found that students improved academically with support on campus. This could also
apply to the student-athlete population regarding both athletic and academic improvement. The
organization has a large undertaking to ensure students are receiving the support they need to
manage their mental health and well-being. For individual professionals, this requires being
aware of such students, approaching and engaging the person, providing feedback about what
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behaviors brought to mind the possibility of mental health concerns interfering with academic
success, testing the student’s response, and attempting to make a counseling center referral
(Schwitzer et al., 2018).
Additionally, based on their research, when campus professionals in various roles believe
a student might be experiencing academic roadblocks stemming from disruptive or distressing
problems falling within the mental health domain, they should actively pursue referrals to the
counseling center (Schwitzer et al., 2018). To confront negative social norms about help-seeking,
student affairs professionals in campus life roles should continue to offer counseling center
presentations and faculty should invite classroom presentations. The goals should be identified
earlier to produce positive effects on GPA (Schwitzer et al., 2018).
Of the thirteen participants, seven participants reported that they did not feel supported by
their organizations. Ellie stated:
I think they would like to say that they value the mental health and well-being of their
athletes, but obviously, they didn’t. We had people with addictions, suicidal thoughts,
and serious issues, but we had to actively seek out resources, nobody took the time to
reach out to us. And you’re definitely not taught to ask for help because then you’re seen
as weak. Then, unfortunately, the resources that are available aren’t being used and they
end up being defunded because no one uses them.
Mary recalled, “I don’t remember them reminding us a lot of our options. They could have done
a better job.” Carly remembered, “I was so lost and at so a low point and I had no idea what was
offered. I think looking back, it was very low on the totem pole in terms of importance.” David
asserted, “There wasn’t constant support. I don’t remember them offering resources, no, that
wasn’t the case for us.” Darren agreed, “They could have done a better job providing more
70
information.” Sue shared that the school did very little to help and never disciplined their coach
for bad behavior. The school’s lack of support for the students made them feel helpless. Sue
revealed:
My school did the bare minimum. It is hard to say because I love this school, but they did
not do as much as they should have for their student-athletes. We did not have the
appropriate resources available to us and we never had real communication about what
we could do in the event of a mental health crisis and that’s something I would have
really appreciated. They also didn’t manage the coaches they had. My coach was
extremely verbally abusive and they allowed it.
Barbara maintained, “No, they could have done a much better job and made services more
available to us. Especially since it was well-known our coach was verbally abusive and his
behavior was known to cause problems with certain athletes.”
Four participants felt their colleges valued their mental health. Janet indicated:
Yes, they did value our mental health. They were really upfront about telling us what
resources were available to us. Everything was free too so it helped us not stress about
paying for the help we may have needed. It was readily available and easily accessible for
people of all financial levels.
Mary concurred, “They definitely valued my mental health and well-being. I knew where to go if
I needed help. I don’t think I did, but I knew there were resources if I needed them.” Mike noted,
“They were very proactive in making sure we knew where and who we could talk to. They were
definitely concerned with our mental well-being because we had at least two meetings a year.”
Riley remembered:
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They did a great job. At the beginning of every year they had a meeting where we got the
whole team together and we would meet with the nutritionist, therapists, and counselors
and all their contact information was given to us.
Two participants felt these questions might not apply to them. Steve stated, “I don’t know
how much they supported me personally or how much they valued my mental health. I think the
support came from the coaches and the administration depended on the coaches to deal with us.”
The participant may not have known or understood the relationship between the administration
and the coaches. Since the participant was so comfortable with their coaching staff, they might
have just assumed that was the case. If another member of that team was interviewed, the
response may have changed depending on how close the participant was with the coach. Arielle
declared, “I can’t really comment on that since I never needed to reach out to anyone.” Again, it
is difficult to determine if too much time has passed since the participants were in school to elicit
an honest response for this question.
Student-Athletes Felt Supported by their Coaches
The NCAA found that coaches can play an active role in the mental well-being of
student-athletes (Ryan et al., 2018). In fact, the NCAA GOALS study found that 73% of student-
athletes believed that their coach cared about their well-being (Ryan et al., 2018). In this study,
some former student-athletes stated that they felt supported by their coaches, while some felt
they could definitely talk to them if they were struggling. This is important considering the role
coaches play in student-athletes’ lives.
Coaches can help create cultural norms within the intercollegiate athletic environment
that support and demystify the counseling experience. Further, coaches are central to creating an
organizational culture that emphasizes the importance of positive mental health and encourages
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the solicitation of treatment when necessary. In fact, because of the amount of time spent with
student-athletes and the depth of the relationship, evidence supports the argument that student-
athletes have varying levels of comfort discussing sensitive issues with their coaches. The
majority of student-athletes say they would feel comfortable talking to coaches about mental
health issues; although, that level of comfort is much lower among women (49% compared to
62% of men) (NCAA, 2016). Because of the amount of time and the depth of the relationship,
coaches can be highly influential in eliminating barriers to seeking mental health help and
becoming facilitators of the process for student-athletes (Rice et al., 2016 as found in Ryan et al.,
2018).
Korsgaard et al. (2002) found that managerial trustworthy behaviors appeared to
engender trust and encouraged extra role behavior that was observable to others. Additionally,
they found that managerial trustworthy behavior in the face of negative encounters may actually
have widespread beneficial consequences for the organization (Korsgaard et al., 2002). This
study showed how important the relationship is between employees and managers. While the
coaches in this study were not “managers”, they were in an authoritative position that strongly
influenced whether student-athletes sought the help they needed while in school. If individuals
felt they could trust their managers/coaches, it was beneficial to the organization. In this study, if
student-athletes felt they could trust their coach, they could have asked for the mental health
services they needed, which would have led to a more positive experience for the student, team,
department, and the school. However, if the student-athlete did not trust their coach with finding
the proper mental health resources, student-athletes suffered during their collegiate years and, as
the data shows, long after their athletic career ended.
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Additionally, Nicholls et al. (2016) found that although the path between supportive
coaching behaviors and mental toughness was not significant, when task-involving climate was
considered, supportive coaching behaviors positively influenced task-involving climate, which in
turn, positively influenced mental toughness. This study illustrates the importance of coach
behavior on influencing the climate, which may affect mental toughness levels (Nicholls et al.,
2016). By having a supportive coach, student-athletes would be better prepared to manage their
mental health and well-being.
Of the thirteen participants, five former student-athletes felt strongly that they were not
supported by their coach regarding their mental health and well-being. Ellie stated:
I know that people tried to file complaints about my coach, but they would threaten
anyone who went against him by saying the administration would always support him
because he won championships. I think deep down he wanted to help me, but wasn’t
educated enough on the subject of mental health himself. So no, he couldn’t have
supported me at all.
Mike asserted, “I wouldn’t have talked to my coaches because it would have been awkward
talking to them about that kind of stuff. I just didn’t see them in that light.” In some cases, the
participants were not able to talk to their coaches about anything other than sports. Building a
personal connection with the coaching staff could have been very awkward and difficult
considering how players who were close to coaches were perceived. The researcher assumed that
being close to a coach might have caused a rift within the team, which most players would have
avoided at all costs for the sake of team unity and belonging.
Additionally, some participants felt like their coaches were allowed to behave in any
manner without fear of repercussions. Sue remembered, “Our coach wasn’t monitored and he
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was allowed to do or say whatever he wanted. I would have never felt comfortable talking to
him.” Carly mentioned, “I definitely needed more support from the coaching staff. No one ever
checked in and they seemed to turn a blind eye to what was going on, especially if you weren’t a
starter on the team.” Barbara reported, “I was in a very difficult program with a very difficult
coach. I’m not sure I could have really opened up to him.”
Seven participants stated that they could talk with their coach about mental health issues.
Janet affirmed, “Yes, definitely. My coaches were very upfront about how important it was to
manage our mental health and always talked to us about the resources on campus.” Mary agreed,
“Yes, my coach is still a big part of my life. She had the ability to help me during difficult times
and I am very thankful to her.” Riley shared, “I wouldn’t have had an issue talking to my
coaches. I wasn’t worried about any potential backlash or judgement.” David recalled, “Yes, for
sure. I felt very supported by him and could have gone to him for anything.” Steve noted, “Yes, I
felt I could open up to my coach if there were issues, but it would have been nice to have
someone not affiliated with the program to talk to.” Arielle remarked, “I could have gone to talk
to my coach about seeing someone. I am not sure I would have shared everything with them, but
I would have been comfortable asking for help.” James concurred, “Yes, definitely. I could have
confided in my coach.”
One participant, Darren, felt that this question was not relevant to their specific
experience stating, “I didn’t have those issues so I never thought to talk to my coaches about my
mental health.” Again, the researcher can only assume that perhaps too much time has passed for
an accurate response on this subject or that this experience seems trivial in comparison to other
life experiences since college.

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Summary
This chapter includes the findings of the thirteen interviews. The research questions were
used to guide and create interview questions that could best identify knowledge, motivation, and
organization influences that contributed to stakeholders’ meeting their desired outcomes. The
responses from each participant were documented electronically and a hard copy was used to
cross reference each response. The researcher used methods studied throughout the program to
properly identify themes.
While the majority of participants felt they could self-regulate their mental health, almost
all participants stated they did not have the skills needed to self-assess their mental health.
Furthermore, most participants were unsure where they could receive the help they needed if a
mental health crisis occurred. Participants were clear that they all valued their mental health, but
some could not articulate that during their collegiate years. However, although they valued
mental health, only some were confident in their ability to manage their mental health and well-
being. The findings also show that most of the participants could have received more mental
health services and that the school could have done a better job communicating where and how
to access those resources. It is important to note though, that participants who graduated within
the last five years seemed to have a much more positive student-athlete experience. Overall, they
felt like they had the resources available to them, coaches who talked openly about the benefits
of mental health and the awareness and language to address mental health issues; this was a
positive finding. Perhaps more recently, there has been an emphasis on providing the mental
health resources student-athletes need. Finally, an emerging theme was the relationship student-
athletes had with their coaches. The researcher found that the more accessible and supportive the
coach was, the better the student-athlete said their mental health was.
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CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS AND SOLUTIONS
In Chapter Four, the strengths and needs of nationwide intercollegiate athletic
departments were assessed based on the 13 participants’ responses. The data was coded and
organized under knowledge, motivation, and organization (KMO) influences. Themes were
developed, which helped to make sense of the findings as they related to the research questions
guiding the study. In Chapter Five, the researcher presents recommendations based on the
findings of the study and supports the recommendations through different theories. Kirkpatrick
and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) four-level model are used to show how intercollegiate athletic
departments can better serve their student-athletes regarding mental health and well-being.
Additionally, limitations, delimitations, and recommendations for future research are presented.
Discussion
The modified gap analysis framework by Clark and Estes (2008) used in this study, as
well as the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) framework used for the recommendations in this
study, have clear limitations when addressing the real findings of the study. The gap analysis
acknowledges needs and strengths within former intercollegiate athletic departments. While 15
years beyond their experiences as a student-athlete may seem significant, the researcher believes
the participants shared invaluable information that could inform athletic departments today. The
experiences described by the participants indicate the personal nature of their experiences, even
15 years later, and show how important and applicable their experiences are for student athletics.
One specific finding was the increase of mental health resources for more recent
graduates. In theory, this seems like a very positive finding. However, the athletic culture itself
will not change, no matter what resources schools provide unless the coach is supportive of these
resources/programs. If a coach has a long tenure at the school, that same culture will exist,
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despite additional funding for mental health resources unless the coach is open to accepting new
ideas and integrating these resources into their programs. Essentially, student-athletes separated
by years, could quite literally have close to identical experiences if the coach did not change their
stance on mental health no matter what the school was doing. Given that most participants
discussed their coaches as the “administrator” when asked about how administration affected
their management of their mental health and well-being, athletic departments across the country
need to look at what resources they are offering and who is the gatekeeper of that information.
Coaches need to align with others in the administration about mental health supports for student
athletes.
Additionally, the researcher noted the lingering trauma experienced and described by the
participants. While many of these former student-athletes were in their thirties, the recollection
of their experiences brought most to tears during the interviews. It is a misconception that
athletic administrations need only focus on the years a student-athlete plays for the institution.
The participants in this study may have carried their trauma past their playing days. Such trauma
can affect student-athletes far into the future, as it did with some of the participants in this study.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
This study assumed that there are two knowledge types that influence student-athletes’
self-regulatory skills relating to their ability to manage their mental health and well-being. The
two knowledge types that the study explored were procedural knowledge and metacognitive
knowledge. Procedural knowledge refers to knowing how to do something to accomplish
specific activities (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). In this study, procedural influences examined
if former student-athletes knew how and where to access mental health services on their
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campuses while they were in school if they struggled with their mental health and well-being.
Metacognitive knowledge is the awareness of one’s own cognition and particular cognitive
processes (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Metacognitive influences examined if the former
student-athletes had the necessary self-regulatory and coping skills to manage their mental health
and well-being. Table 7 identifies the assumed knowledge influences, as well as the principles
and recommendations to address the knowledge needs.
Table 7
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Procedural Knowledge
Influence: Student-athletes need
to know how to ask for help and
where to find the resources they
need.
Self-regulatory strategies,
including goal setting and self-
evaluation, enhance learning
and performance (APA, 2015;
Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Denler
et al., 2009).
Provide targeted training that
helps student-athletes
understand what services are
accessible on campus if they
need help with their mental
health.
Procedural Knowledge
Influence: Student-athletes need
to know how to self-regulate.
Self-regulatory strategies,
including goal setting and self-
evaluation, enhance learning
and performance (APA, 2015;
Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Denler
et al., 2009).
Provide targeted training
opportunities on how to self-
regulate mental health.
Metacognitive Knowledge
Influence: Student-athletes need
to know how to self-assess.
Provide opportunities for
learners to engage in guided
self-monitoring and self-
assessment before, during, and
after learning (Baker, 2006).
Provide targeted training
opportunities for student-
athletes to learn how to self-
assess their mental health and
well-being. This could be
accomplished through
scaffolding and assisted
performance training which will
help students self-assess.

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Increase Procedural Knowledge through Training
The results and findings of this study indicated that student-athletes need more procedural
knowledge related to knowing where and how to access mental health services on their college
campus, and how to self-regulate their mental health and well-being. A recommendation rooted
in social cognitive theory was selected to close the gap with both of these findings. Regarding
knowing where and how to access mental health services on a college campus, Scott and
Palincsar (2006) affirmed that targeting training and instruction between the individual’s
independent performance level and their level of assisted performance promotes optimal
learning. This suggests that if student-athletes were offered targeted training on how to access
mental health resources on their college campus, they may be more inclined to seek out and use
these services. Additionally, optimal learning could be achieved by training student-athletes how
to regulate their mental health and well-being through targeted training, observations, self-
evaluation, and modeling. The recommendation is to provide yearly training workshops so
student-athletes know where and how to obtain mental health support on campus and how to
self-regulate to maintain a level of overall health and well-being.
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that training can result in high impact learning in any
context, and that effective training must provide, in each lesson or segment, a specific procedure
that shows trainees exactly how to accomplish a performance goal. Mak et al. (2017) found that
web-based mental health programs showed improvement in mental health from pre- to post-
assessment, and such improvement was sustained three months post-intervention. They noted
that the high attrition rate in their study suggested the need for refinement of future technology-
based psychological programs and for mental health professionals to team up with experts in
information technology to increase personalization of web-based interventions to enhance
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adherence (Mak et al., 2017). This evidence shows that online training might be one way to
disseminate information to student-athletes. With the stigma surrounding mental health within
athletics, providing resources online might make getting help to student-athletes easier. If
students can access mental health resources via their phone or computer, a larger group of
student-athletes will be served each year, leading to a more confident and mentally healthy
athletic community. Finally, student-athletes need to receive developmental and integrated
instruction to cultivate competency in learning how to manage their mental health and well-
being.
Improve Metacognitive Skills to Help Student-Athletes Self-Assess Mental Health
The findings of this study indicated that student-athletes need to have metacognitive
knowledge related to how they self-assess their mental health and well-being. A recommendation
from cognitive theory states that effective observational learning is achieved by organizing and
rehearsing modeled behaviors, then enacting them overtly (Mayer, 2011). This is important
because student-athletes will first need to learn how to self-regulate. Learning is enhanced when
learners have opportunities to engage in self-monitoring and self-assessment during the learning
process (Baker, 2006). This suggests that student-athletes who improved their metacognitive
skills may have a better understanding of how to self-assess their mental health and be able to
manage their mental health and well-being. The recommendation is to provide student-athletes
with self-assessment opportunities that allow them to learn self-regulatory skills to manage their
mental health and well-being, and to promote self-regulation by thinking about their own mental
health on a regular basis.
A recommendation from social cognitive theory states that it is beneficial to teach
learners strategies to manage their motivation, time, learning strategies, control their physical
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and social environment, and monitor their performance (Dembo & Eaton, 2000). Rochat et al.
(2018) found that metacognitive therapy and attention training techniques contributed to
improving mental health outcomes. By teaching metacognitive skills, student-athletes will be
better equipped to handle mental health issues that may occur.
However, Clark and Estes (2008) affirmed that the major factor influencing the transfer
of knowledge is the attitude and actions of the managers and supervisors of the people who are
trained. In this study, coaches are the strongest influence in the student-athletes’ lives. Their
positive or negative influence directly affect how, if at all, student-athletes self-assess their
mental health. This suggests that if student-athletes had communities of care, specifically, the
support of their coaches, they would be more willing to use the metacognitive skills learned
during their training. While the intervention suggested for this knowledge gap is to provide
training opportunities that allow student-athletes to learn self-regulatory skills to manage their
mental health and well-being, in the following implementation plan, the role of the coaches in
supporting these learned behaviors in their daily lives will be addressed.
Motivation Recommendations
This study assumed that there were two motivation factors that influence student-athletes’
ability to manage their mental health and well-being. The two motivation influences that the
study explored are expectancy value and self-efficacy. Values are one of the three powerful ways
people express their views about what they expect will make them effective (Clark & Estes,
2008). People will accept what they believe helps them while rejecting what they believe stands
in their way (Clark & Estes, 2008). In this study, expectancy value examined if former student-
athletes knew the value of managing their mental health and well-being. Pajares (2006) stated
that self-efficacy beliefs are judgments that individuals hold about their capabilities to learn or to
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perform courses of action at designated levels. For the purpose of this study, the self-efficacy
influences examined if the former student-athletes had confidence in managing their mental
health and well-being. Table 8 identifies the assumed motivation influences, as well as the
principles and recommendations to address the influence gaps.
Table 8
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation Influence Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
General Value: Student-athletes
need to see the value of
managing their mental health
and wellness.
Rationales that include a
discussion of the importance
and utility value of the work or
learning can help learners
develop positive values (Eccles,
2006; Pintrich, 2003).

Materials and activities should
be relevant and useful to the
learners, connected to their
interests, and based on real
world tasks (Pintrich, 2003).
Provide student-athletes
opportunities to observe, assess,
and model strategies to be able
to balance their mental health
and well-being. Additionally,
having coaches/ peers discuss
the benefits of managing their
mental health will help SA
value their mental health.
Self-Efficacy: Student-athletes
need to feel confident in
managing their mental health
and wellness.
Ask learners to think aloud:
have them talk about what they
are doing as they solve a
problem or read a text (this can
also be observed; Baker, 2006).

Modeling to-be-learned
strategies or behaviors improves
self-efficacy, learning, and
performance (Denler et al.,
2009).
Have coaches and peer mentors
such as national team athletes or
professionals model strategies
that improve self-efficacy.

Increase Value of Managing Mental Health and Wellness in Student-Athletes
Some participants admitted to struggling during their intercollegiate athletic career, but
all participants understood the value of having access to mental health resources on campus. It is
important for student-athletes to value their mental health if they are going to be confident in
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managing it. A recommendation rooted in expectancy value theory has been selected to close this
motivation gap. Rationales that include a discussion of the importance and utility value of the
work or learning can help learners develop positive values (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003). The
recommendation is for the organization to provide student-athletes opportunities to observe,
assess, and model strategies from both coaches and peers to balance their mental health and well-
being. In doing so, student-athletes will see the value in being able to manage their mental health
and well-being because these role models will show why valuing mental health is pivotal to their
overall mental health and well-being. This approach of observing, modeling, and assessing
strategies related mental health and well-being will help strengthen general value amongst
student-athletes.
Rueda (2011) stated there are four types of values that impact motivation: (a)
attainment/importance value, (b) intrinsic value, (c) utility value, and (d) cost value. These value
dimensions are assumed to determine the overall value one attaches to a task (Rueda, 2011). For
this study, utility value was used to explore motivation influence. Utility value refers to how
useful one believes a task or activity is for achieving some future goal. Clark and Estes (2008)
found that much of what we do is chosen not because we love it or excel at it, but because we
want the benefits that come when we finish. Utility value asks people to focus on the benefits
that come with completing a task and not on their lack of interest or discomfort (Clark & Estes,
2008). This is incredibly important for student-athletes. While there is still a stigma attached to
mental health within athletics, student-athletes will be more inclined to seek help if they value
the benefits of confidently managing and regulating their mental health. The ability to stay
mentally healthy will allow them to perform better on and off the field, which allows student-
athletes to see the value of regulating their mental health and well-being. From a theoretical
84
perspective, by having student-athletes value their mental health and well-being, they will be
more likely to accomplish their personal and professional goals.
Increase Self-Efficacy in Student-Athletes
When interviewed, some participants felt comfortable managing their mental health and
well-being. Of the student-athletes who felt comfortable, they identified modeling as an effective
tool in learning about managing their mental health and well-being. A recommendation rooted in
self-efficacy theory has been selected to close this motivation gap. Modeling to-be-learned
strategies or behaviors improves self-efficacy, learning, and performance (Denler et al., 2009).
Additionally, behavioral modeling facilitates transfer when both positive and negative models
are used and when opportunities to practice are provided (Taylor & Betz, 1983). The
recommendation is for the organization to provide student-athletes opportunities to observe,
assess, and model mental health and well-being strategies from their coaches and peers. For
example, coaches who have had training in mental health will model proper behavior when
stressful situations occur. This could include pre- and post-game activities that help the student-
athletes manage their mental health and well-being. Student-athletes might have a hard time
managing anxiety before games and coaches could lead them through breathing exercises or
even guided meditations. After a loss, student-athletes might feel defeated so coaches could work
with them on how to process their emotions and manage their thought processes. Learning these
tools from a trusted authority figure will enhance the experience for the student-athlete because,
hopefully, the coach is someone the student-athlete trusts.
Additionally, some of the participants stated that they benefited from peer role models.
Colleges could invite recently graduated student-athletes to talk about their experience.
Depending on funding, schools may also benefit from inviting professional athletes to speak to
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the student-athletes about how they managed their mental health over the years and share
strategies that may help student-athletes self-regulate, self-assess, and manage. As Denler et al.
(2009) found, modeled behavior is more likely to be adopted if the model is credible, similar
(e.g., gender, culturally appropriate), and the behavior has functional value.
Observing, modeling, and assessing strategies related to mental health and well-being
will help strengthen self-efficacy amongst student-athletes. Self-efficacy theory explains whether
individuals believe they can accomplish a specific goal (Pajares, 2006). Individuals are more
likely to accomplish goals when they believe they can actually accomplish them because high
self-efficacy can positively influence motivation (Pajares, 2006). According to Zhao and Shi
(2018), perceived self-efficacy in managing happiness reflects positive psychology. Due to
differences in cognitive nature, attitude led to the observed differentiation of college students’
self-evaluation (Zhao & Shi, 2018). From a theoretical perspective, self-efficacy skills are
necessary for student-athletes to accomplish their goals. Their belief in their ability and their
attitude to accomplish something are determining factors for their long-term success.
Organization Recommendations
This study assumed that there were two organization types that influence student-
athletes’ ability to manage their mental health and well-being. The study explored having
intercollegiate athletic departments communicate goals and values to their student-athletes and
providing resources to help student-athletes with their mental health and well-being. Denning
(2005) stated that effective leaders are aware of various types of communication and how these
communication modalities influence change and the environment within the organization.
Colleges and universities need to address the mental health of students on their campuses
because poor mental health hinders students’ academic success, and untreated mental health
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issues may lead to lower GPAs, discontinuous enrollment, and lapses in enrollment (Ketchen
Lipson et al., 2019). Additionally, an institution’s investment in student mental health is
important to the social, educational, and economic well-being of students, their campuses, and
broader society (Ketchen Lipson et al., 2019). For this study, the researcher examined if student-
athletes’ former athletic administrations clearly communicated their goals and values to their
student-athletes and if they provided adequate resources for them. Table 9 identifies the assumed
organization influences, as well as the principles and recommendations to address the influence
gaps.
Table 9
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Communicating goals and
values to student-athletes.
Effective leaders are
knowledgeable of
communication processes and
how to use them for effective
organizational change (Denning,
2005; Lewis, 2011).
Provide seminars each semester
so athletic administration shares
their goals and values with their
student-athletes.

Coaches create a supportive
atmosphere for student athletes;
Communities of Care.
Providing resources for student-
athletes.
Organizational effectiveness
increases when leaders ensure
that employees have the
resources needed to achieve the
organization’s goals.

Ensuring staff’s resources needs
are met is correlated with
increased student learning
outcomes (Waters et al., 2003).
Budget for mental health
resources (or additional) such as
sport specific counselors, bi-
annual mental health seminars,
and workshops.

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Student-Athletes Need Support from their Institutions and Coaches
Some participants felt that their colleges and coaches adequately supported their mental
health and well-being. This suggests that communication between college administrators and
coaches and their student-athletes is vital to the overall mental health and well-being of the
student-athletes. Coaches can help create cultural norms within the intercollegiate athletic
environment that support and demystify the counseling experience. Further, coaches are central
to creating an organizational culture that emphasizes the importance of positive mental health
and encourages the solicitation of treatment when necessary. In fact, because of the amount of
time spent with student-athletes and the depth of the relationship, evidence suggests that student-
athletes have varying levels of comfort discussing sensitive issues with their coaches (Ryan et
al., 2018).
A lack of communication or lack of support related to accessing mental health resulted in
a damaging effect on the student-athletes’ mental health and well-being. A recommendation
rooted in communication theory has been selected to close this organizational gap. Gilley et al.
(2009) stated that effective leaders are aware of the influence of motivation as it relates to
communication and its role in organizational change. Clark and Estes (2008) argue that it is
important to communicate constantly and candidly to those involved about plans and progress.
This suggests that administrators and coaches need to work together to convey values, goals, and
philosophies to their student-athletes so they understand that their mental health and well-being
is a priority to the organization. By making this a priority, colleges strengthen their communities
of care for their student-athletes. The recommendation is for the organization to hold bi-annual
seminars for college administrators and the coaching staff to convey the importance of student-
athletes being mentally healthy during their tenure at the university. Additionally, administrators
88
and coaches must work to develop an organized list of resources are available to the student-
athletes. For example, administrators might prepare a welcome video for each team at the
beginning of each season. The coach would elaborate on the message and provide additional
resources and support for the student-athletes.
Administrators and coaches should be clear about communicating their goals and values
and the importance of staying mentally healthy. Participants who reported that they had open
communication with their coaches and administrators about their mental health options felt more
confident in managing their overall mental health and well-being. According to Egan (2019),
promoting a positive environment for mental health and well-being among student-athletes is an
important mission for every athletics department to allow student-athletes to perform at their best
socially, academically, and athletically. Student-athletes need to know that mental health
resources are valued and communicated about by their campus communities to have confidence
in managing their own mental health and well-being.
Colleges Need to Offer Mental Health Resources to Student-Athletes
Few participants reported that there were mental health resources available to them while
they were in college. To clarify, resources available meant that, at some point during their
intercollegiate playing years, they were notified by their coach or administration that specific
mental health resources were available to them on campus. A recommendation rooted in
communication theory has been selected to close this organizational gap. According to Clark and
Estes (2008), effective change efforts ensure that everyone has the resources (like equipment,
personnel, or time) needed to do their job, and that if there are resource shortages, resources are
aligned with organizational priorities. By prioritizing mental health within college athletic
departments, student-athletes are more likely to receive the mental health resources they need.
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The recommendation is for the organization to prioritize funding for student-athlete mental
health resources. This may include sport specific counselors, bi-annual mental health seminars,
and workshops. While this recommendation is specifically for student-athletes, it may be
impactful for the larger campus community as well.
Organizations need to provide mental health resources to their student-athletes. In the
study, student-athletes who reported that they had access to mental health resources, were also
more confident in managing their mental health and well-being. They were supported by
counselors or psychologists who were able to provide tools and additional resources to help
manage their mental health and well-being. By having resources available, these student-athletes
learned skills to self-assess and self-regulate. Ensuring that all student-athletes can access care
with a licensed mental health provider who understands sports culture and the importance of
athletics can help many student-athletes with their identities (Egan, 2019). Student-athletes need
mental health resources on campus.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) created an improvement and evaluation framework
that was applied to the previously discussed solutions in this section. Evaluating any training
program can improve the program, maximize transfer of learning to behavior and subsequent
organizational results, and demonstrate the value of training to the organization (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Effective training strategies ensure that valuable, limited resources are
dedicated to the programs and interventions that will bring about the most impact (Kirkpatrick&
Kirkpatrick, 2016). The four levels that Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick created are presented in
reverse so they keep the focus on what is most important; the program outcome that is
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accomplished through improved on-the-job performance (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The
framework begins with Level 4 (results) and Level 3 (behavior). After these two components are
explored, Level 2 (learning) and Level 1 (reaction) can be addressed. The New World
Kirkpatrick Model outlines the framework for both implementation and evaluation in this study.
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
The organizational goal of this study was to identify student-athletes confidence in
managing their mental health and well-being. College administrators and coaches need to
communicate their goals and values related to mental health and their student-athletes.
Additionally, the organization will provide access to mental health resources on campus for
student-athletes for them to have confidence in managing their mental health and well-being. The
stakeholder goal in this study was to have student-athletes confident in managing their mental
health and well-being. This goal will be measured by the student-athletes’ knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences. The expected outcome of this study is to identify how
college administrators could better support their student athletes’ confidence regarding how they
manage their mental health and well-being.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), the purpose of a training is not done
until its contribution to business results can be demonstrated and is acknowledged by
stakeholders. This study also identified leading indicators. Leading indicators provide
personalized targets that contribute to organizational results. They also establish a connection
between performance of critical behaviors and the organization’s highest-level result
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Table 10 represents the external and internal outcomes
planned for the study.
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Table 10

Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes

Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Increase in the number of
former student athletes who felt
satisfied they were able to
successfully manage their
mental health and well-being in
college.
1. Number of former student
athletes who state they feel
satisfied with the support they
received to manage their mental
health and well-being.
1a. Exit interviews/annual
interviews.

1b. Surveys with former
student-athletes.
Internal Outcomes
1. Increase in number of
student-athletes seeking mental
health and well-being support
services.
1. Number of student-athletes
seeking services for mental
health and well-being.
1a. Annual surveys from
student-athletes.

1b. Reports from mental health
and well-being service entities
(data masked for privacy).
2. Increase in communication
with student-athletes.
2. Student-athletes provide
feedback on whether level,
frequency, and effectiveness of
communications coming from
athletic department.
2. Annual surveys from student-
athletes.

3. Increase communication
within the athletic department
regarding values and goals in
relation to mental health and
well-being.
3. Number of
meetings/seminars/workshops.
3 Record number of meetings
held by athletics department.
4. Increase in resources offered
to student-athletes on mental
health and well-being.
4a. Number of meetings,
seminars, workshops attended
by students.

4b. Athletic department budget
allocation for student-athlete
mental health and well-being
programs.

4c. Athletic department staffing
to support student-athlete
mental health and well-being
programs.
4a. Attendance reports from
events geared toward student-
athlete mental health and well-
being.

4b. Annual budget review of
line items related to mental
health and well-being.

4c. HR annual report regarding
hiring and staffing allocations.
5. Increase in the number of 5. Attendance records from 5 Athletics department review
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coaches who receive training
on mental health and mental
health services on campus.
training offered to coaches. of training records quarterly.

Level 3: Behavior
Critical Behaviors
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) state that critical behaviors, if performed reliably, will
have the biggest impact on the targeted program outcomes. To allow for maximum potential,
critical behaviors need to be specific, observable, and measurable, and one also needs to be able
to count the number of times a particular behavior occurs or note the quality or accuracy of the
performed behavior (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Table 11 depicts the critical behaviors of
student-athletes that are needed to gain confidence in managing their mental health and well-
being.
Table 11

Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Student athletes
complete all
workshops and
training offered.
1. Attendance at
workshops and
trainings.
1. Attendance tracked by
athletic department.
1. Each semester.
2. Student-athletes
self-assess their
needs related to
mental health and
well-being.
2. Self-reporting by
student-athletes.
2. Surveys from student-
athletes.
2. Annual.
3. Student-athletes
solicit support for
mental health and
well-being.
3. Number of athletes
requesting assistance for
mental health and well-
being services.
3a. Surveys from student-
athletes.

3b. Reports from mental
health and well-being
service entities (data
masked for privacy).
3a. Annual.

3b. Each semester.

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Required Drivers
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) state that required drivers fall under two headings: (a)
support and (b) accountability. In this study, the stakeholder group is dependent on the support
and accountability of the organization. Student-athletes will not be able to confidently manage
their mental health and well-being unless they are supported and provided the optimal
opportunities to be successful. In this way, the organization must be accountable to its student-
athletes to ensure the goals are met. Table 12 defines which drivers are necessary for colleges to
attain their desired outcomes; however, the rewarding driver method has been left out due to the
context of this study.
Table 12
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Colleges provide seminars,
workshops, and talks about the
importance of mental health to
student-athletes.
Each semester 1
Colleges provide resources for
student-athletes’ mental health.
Ongoing 2
Conduct semester meetings that
include administrators, coaches,
and student-athletes to document
progress in confidence in mental
health and well-being.
Ongoing 1
Encouraging
Colleges bring in former student-
athletes to share their
experience.
Ongoing 2
Monitoring
Colleges will track student-
athlete participation in meetings
and training.
Each semester 2
Colleges review feedback and
surveys from student-athletes.
Each semester 3

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Organizational Support: Communities of Care
For colleges to achieve their organizational goals, they need to support their student-
athletes. There were five drivers described in Table 12 that will help colleges support their
student-athletes. In addition to those five drivers, colleges need to provide coaches with training
to support student-athletes. Coaches are central to creating an organizational culture that
emphasizes the importance of positive mental health and encourages the solicitation of treatment
when necessary (Ryan et al., 2018). By educating coaches, student-athletes have a better chance
of getting the help they need and securing a strong advocate in the process. Student-athletes
should be able to rely on their coaches in the event of a mental health crisis, and by providing
training, coaches can be a valuable resource for their student-athletes. Additionally, colleges
need to listen to feedback from coaches and mental health professionals. By obtaining feedback
from the coaches directly, the administration will be more prepared to create or offer workshops
for student-athletes. This knowledge will be meaningful to create lasting change.
Level 2: Learning
Learning Goals

The learning goals selected are listed below. These goals identify knowledge and
motivation goals related to student-athletes. Each goal will help student-athletes achieve their
goals of being confident with their mental health and well-being.
1. Articulate what mental health services are available on campus. (K1 Procedural
Knowledge)
2. Plan and monitor their mental health to self-assess. (K3 Procedural Knowledge)
3. Plan and monitor their mental health to self-regulate. (K2 Procedural Knowledge)
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4. Articulate confidence in their ability to manage mental health and well-being. (M1 Self-
Efficacy Motivation)
5. Articulate value the ability to manage mental health. (M2 Expectancy Value Motivation)
Program
The learning plan for student-athletes is to ensure that they understand how to gain
confidence in managing their mental health and well-being while in college. To achieve that
goal, student-athletes will be required to attend bi-annual meetings, seminars, and workshops
that discuss the prevalence of mental health amongst student-athletes, and how to self-assess and
self-regulate. The program will also include guest speakers such as former student-athletes,
administrators, health care workers, and counselors, along with information about how to access
resources available on campus. The skills learned in college will benefit them while competing
on an intercollegiate athletic team and long after they stop competing. The learning objectives
for this program ensure that student-athletes are given access to mental health talks, workshops,
and seminars bi-annually. This allows for student-athletes to understand what resources are
available to them each semester and what tools they can use to manage their mental health and
well-being.
Evaluation of the Components of Learning
Table 13 shows the planned program to support the learning objectives for student-
athletes. The suggested methods will support the knowledge required for the student-athletes to
meet their goal of managing their mental health and well-being.

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Table 13
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Not measured
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Discussions with coaches as to where to access
mental health resources.
After the learning programs
Discussions with coaches as to who to speak to if
struggling with mental health issues.
After the learning programs
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Discussions with teammates and coaches during
and after the program.
During the learning programs/after
Reflection on mental health beliefs. During the learning programs/after
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Discussions with teammates and coaches. During the learning programs/after
Check-in with peer mentors. During the learning programs/after
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Personal goal setting. During the learning programs/after
Written reflection. During the learning programs/after

Level 1: Reaction
Table 14 shows the reaction to the learning program during and after the training. In

particular, it demonstrates the student-athletes’ engagement, relevance, and satisfaction with the
training sessions.
Table 14

Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Mobile participation via cell phones (during
sessions).
During programs
Attendance. During programs
Discussions (outside of sessions). Immediately after programs
Relevance
97
Collect feedback from participants to see if
the program met their needs and answered
questions about mental health resources.
Immediately after programs
Customer Satisfaction
Feedback from the participants (surveys) Immediately after programs
Evaluation Tools
To evaluate whether the program was beneficial to the participants, feedback must be
collected. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s New World Model (2016) is the foundation for
assessing both immediate and delayed feedback to ensure that the facilitators acknowledge, edit,
or delete portions that may not be effective for the targeted audience. Additionally, delayed
evaluation will ensure that the training is meeting larger organizational goals.
Immediately Following Program Implementation
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) detail how to best evaluate a program’s effectiveness.
To ensure that the program is meeting the desired outcomes, it is important that the facilitators
administer a survey immediately following the training. By obtaining feedback immediately,
facilitators can make adjustment to the teaching approach and/or content to meet the needs of the
learner (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The survey will ask questions about how the student-
athletes viewed the program, what they learned, what could be improved upon, and how they can
use this information to strengthen their mental health and well-being (refer to Appendix A). The
responses are shared with the facilitators who would discuss the feedback with administrators.
Additionally, it is important for coaches to continue the discussion of mental health off the field
and solicit genuine feedback from their student-athletes as to what worked during the program
and what did not work. Coaches can connect with program facilitators and relay additional
feedback. This survey serves as a way to assess the value of the information in real time so that
the program facilitators can adapt.
98
Delayed for a Period After the Program Implementation
Delayed feedback is crucial for long-term success within intercollegiate athletic
departments. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) state that delaying Level 1 measurement may
be beneficial for people who may have a different opinion about the quality of the program after
they have attempted to apply the concepts they have learned. For student-athletes, this might
entail practicing the skills they were taught in the training program. Giving the participants time
to use these new skills will allow them to provide facilitators with genuine feedback as to
whether these strategies work.
Appendix C shows the questionnaire that participants would complete for the facilitators
and administrators to understand how beneficial the training program has been for student-
athletes. With the delayed results, intercollegiate athletic departments will have a better idea of
how to effectively serve their student-athlete population regarding helping them manage their
mental health and well-being.
Data Analysis and Reporting
After data analysis, the findings must be organized in a way that sheds light on what the
program really offered the student-athletes. This means that the goal of this program must be
kept in mind as the facilitators disaggregate the data. Facilitators need to analyze and synthesize
the findings in a way that presents meaningful information to the administrators so they can
make sense of the findings. Once the findings are organized, the facilitators must provide a
report to the administrators. Discussing the findings and how they relate to the overarching goal
of the program will help administrators make sense of the information. The administrators will
have to collaborate with the facilitators to adjust/edit/omit things from the program to enhance its
effectiveness. Finally, the team coaches will be given a copy of the report and will work with the
99
facilitators to share feedback from the student-athletes. Figure 2 is an example of the data the
report may contain.
Figure 2
Student-Athlete Participant Feedback
Summary
In this section, the researcher discussed how to use Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016)
New World Model to create and evaluate the effectiveness of the recommended training
program. It is important to collect data throughout and immediately following the program to
ensure that student-athletes are receiving the appropriate information to help manage their mental
health and well-being. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) state that there are three key data
analysis questions: (a) Does...Meet Expectations; (b) If Not, Why Not?; and (c) If So, Why?
Once the facilitator has received this information, it is important to filter out all the noise because
100

some of the data will be neither useful nor important to the stakeholders (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). It is important that the facilitators listen to the feedback from the student-
athletes to ensure the program is informative, helpful, and meaningful to their development as
mentally healthy student-athletes.
Limitations and Delimitations
For this study, there were a number of limitations. First, the impact of COVID-19
presented a challenge for the researcher as interviewing participants had to be done via Zoom or
FaceTime. The researcher would have preferred to meet the participants in person to create a
more comfortable environment. Second, the researcher had difficulty finding individuals who
played different sports. The researcher had to broaden their professional network and seek out
participants with different backgrounds. Ultimately, the snowball method was used to collect
additional participants for the study. However, a more robust group of participants would have
been preferable in order to examine mental health issues affecting different athletic sports. The
third limitation was the number of participants. While the researcher was able to interview
thirteen participants, a much larger sample group would have been helpful to the study. Finally, a
clear limitation was the number of years since the participants participate on an intercollegiate
athletic team. The researcher would have preferred to interview more former student-athletes
who graduated within the last five years for more recent experiences.
Future Research
Future research on this problem of practice should include interviews with participants
who have graduated within the last five years. In this study, only two participants graduated
within the last five years which made their experiences very relevant considering the recent
developments supporting mental health and well-being across college campuses in the United
101
States. Additionally, participants from this study were mostly Division I student-athletes. It
would be beneficial to interview community college student-athletes and Division II student-
athletes to see if elements such as funding, scholarships, retention, completion, and athletic
pressure had any impact on their overall mental health and well-being. While the researcher tried
to recruit a diverse group of participants, future research should include different racial and
ethnic backgrounds and sports. There may be findings within certain racial and ethnic groups
and/or sports teams that directly affect mental health and well-being. Future research could also
focus on the intersection of sexual orientation with their experiences as student athletes.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to identify strengths and needs within intercollegiate
athletic programs in the United States. Clark and Estes’ (2008) framework was used to examine
the knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps that prevent schools from achieving their
goal of having their student-athletes be confident in their ability to manage their mental health
and well-being. The pressure student-athletes are under to perform in and out of the classroom
makes their college experiences high stress compared to their peers. The researcher found that
student-athletes were stressed and struggled with their mental health and well-being. While some
student-athletes were better at consciously managing their mental health and well-being, others
were not. Since most participants were college student-athletes more than 15 years ago, they
were less inclined to know or talk about mental health issues. What is promising, though, is that
the two participants who graduated in the last five years were very confident in managing their
mental health and well-being. This showed that the intercollegiate athletic programs they
102
participated in have drastically altered their approach to offering mental health resources on
campus and the stigma attached to mental health might be slowly changing for the better.
Americans love watching their favorite student-athletes compete throughout the year.
Schools make a lot of money off of their athletic programs due to the performance of these
student-athletes. Unfortunately, peak performance is the main goal and mental health is rarely
discussed. Student-athletes are susceptible to a myriad of issues including depression, anxiety,
and suicide. Intercollegiate athletic departments are only one small part of the problem. The
athletic “system” in the United States is failing young athletes in every sport. Whether student-
athletes quit, get cut, get injured, or retire, the end is painful. If the next generation of young
athletes is going to be mentally and physically healthy, things need to change within every youth
league, club team, and athletic department.
Mental health is more widely discussed today. Many student-athletes struggle with
mental health issues in an attempt to achieve greatness as an athlete. The lack of support within
intercollegiate athletics has left generations of former student-athletes struggling with their
mental health. While it may seem like it is only an “athletic” problem, the impact of minimal
mental health resources has a trickle-down effect on society. Student-athletes graduate and form
relationships, have children, teach, coach, and contribute to society. Their inability to regulate/
manage their mental health is something that, unfortunately, shapes the next generation.
Colleges and universities must take mental health seriously because student-athletes
need the help. Intercollegiate athletic departments can no longer ignore and turn a blind eye to
the research that shows the devastation that the lack of mental health resources can have on
student-athletes. It should be the responsibility of every athletic department to help student-
103
athletes manage their mental health and well-being because it is the foundation for a healthy life.
If colleges and universities continue to work towards offering mental health resources on their
campuses, the mental health landscape in the United States will look a lot better in the future.
104

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Appendix A
Interview Questions
1 How would you describe your mental health and well-being as
a former student-athlete?
2 Tell me about your approach to managing your mental health
and well-being as a former student-athlete.
Motivation-Efficacy
3 If you had a mental health issue, did you know where to ask
for help?
Knowledge -
Procedural
4
5
Who were some of the people you knew you could talk to if
you had a mental health issue?
What’s your personal belief on the importance of student-
athletes’ ability to manage their mental health and well-being?
Organization-
Community of Care
Motivation-Value
5 How confident were you in managing your mental health and
well-being while in college?
a. Tell me what contributed to that level of confidence.
Motivation-Efficacy
6 How important is it for the school to support the mental
health resources being offered to its student-athletes?
Organizational-
Cultural Settings
7 How much do you feel your organization/school valued your
mental health and well-being?
a. How was this conveyed/communicated to you?
Organization-
Community of Care
8 Do you feel your organization/school provided enough support
in regards to your mental health and well-being? Why or why
not?
a. What supports were particularly helpful?
b. What supports would have been helpful to you?
Organizational
9 If you struggled with your mental health, were you ever
worried about people judging you?
Motivation-Efficacy
10 Is there anything else you would like to share with me?
115

Appendix B

Post Program Immediate Feedback Survey

Instructions: Please respond to the following questions about your experience in the

student-athlete mental health program.

1. The program helped me identify what mental health problems are prevalent to
intercollegiate student-athletes.

a. Yes
b. No

2. The program helped me identify what mental health services are available on campus.

a. Yes
b. No

3. The program helped me identify key individuals on campus who are qualified to help me with
mental health issues if they arise.

a. Yes
b. No

4. The program helped me learn self-regulation and self-assessment skills.

a. Yes
b. No

5. The program made me feel like my health and well-being was/is important to the campus
community.

a. Yes
b. No

6. The program gave me confidence in managing my mental health and well-being.

a. Yes
b. No

7. I found this program useful and plan on using the skills I have learned.
a. Yes
b. No

8. The guest speakers helped me understand what a student-athlete might experience in college.
116

a. Yes
b. No

9. What are some ways this program could be improved? What would you like to see added or
omitted?

117

Appendix C

Delayed Program Feedback

Directions: Please complete the following survey. This survey will be very helpful in letting the
facilitators of this program know if what you learned previously has been beneficial to managing
your mental health and well-being. Feel free to provide additional comments in the boxes to help
us better understand your response.
1. I have personally benefited from knowing what services are available to me.
a. Yes
b. No
2. I have practiced some of the self-assessment and self-regulation strategies taught in the
program.
a. Yes
b. No
3. I feel that the campus community cares about my mental health and well-being.
a. Yes
b. No
4. I have used strategies from the guest speakers to manage my mental health and well-being.
a. Yes
b. No
118
c. N/A
5. I am confident that my coach supports me being mentally healthy as well as physically
healthy.
a. Yes
b. No
6. The program has been very helpful in me managing my mental health and well-being.
a. Yes
b. No
c. N/A
7. Is there anything else you would like to see added or omitted from the program in the future?

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Asset Metadata

Creator Van Norman, Moriah (author)

Core Title Improving student-athlete mental health services: addressing the mental health needs of college student-athletes

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2020-12

Publication Date 11/22/2020

Defense Date 09/29/2020

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag findings,knowledge,mental health,motivation,OAI-PMH Harvest,organization influences,recommendations,student-athlete

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

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Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC11668652

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