University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Impact of academic scholarships on persistence of first-generation low-income students

(USC Thesis Other)

Impact of academic scholarships on persistence of first-generation low-income students

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content

Impact of Academic Scholarships on Persistence of First-Generation Low-Income Students
by
Mercy Arlyn Willard

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May, 2021

© Copyright by Mercy Arlyn Willard 2021
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Mercy Arlyn Willard certifies the approval of this Dissertation

David Cash
Kristan Venegas
Rudy Castruita, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2021

iv

Abstract
This study utilized Yosso’s critical race theory and Bourdieu’s social capital theory to examine
the impact of academic scholarship programs on the persistence of first-generation low-income
Latino students at public 4-year universities in Southern California. It sought to determine how
academic scholarship programs contribute to the development of financial and social capital and
the persistence of first-generation Latino students. Data were gathered by surveying first-
generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year universities in Southern
California who were scholars in an academic scholarship program. Additionally, interviews were
conducted with five survey respondents to further understand the nature of the programming
offered by the academic scholarship program, the value they perceive such programming to
have, and how they perceive their success in the academic scholarship program to be evaluated.
Findings demonstrated that academic scholarship programs do contribute to the acquisition of
financial and social capital for first-generation low-income Latino students and hence their
persistence. They also demonstrated that while academic scholarship programs support the
acquisition of dominant forms of social capital, they play a pivotal role in the persistence of low-
income Latino students in the absence of culturally relevant pedagogy at universities.

v

Dedication
To my parents, without whom I would not have achieved this. Thank you for all your sacrifices
to ensure my brothers and I had all we needed.
To my brothers, thank you for always supporting and cheering me on.
To my beloved son Damian, thank you for your patience and understanding while mom was
away pursuing her dreams. You are my greatest motivation!
To all other first-generation low-income Latinas who have experienced the imposter syndrome or
ever doubted themselves: ¡Si se puede!

vi

Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge my committee members, Dr. Rudy Castruita, Dr. David
Cash, and Dr. Kristan Venegas. Your mentorship and support were invaluable to me.
I would also like to thank the first-generation low-income students who participated in
this study. Thank you for entrusting me with your stories and helping me add to the body of
literature that demonstrates that we come with many forms of capital to college. To the amazing
tribe of fellow Latina academics who encouraged me to embark on this academic journey and
motivated me along the way: I am forever grateful.

vii

Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................ v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................... x
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................... 4
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................ 5
Significance of the Study ..................................................................................................... 6
Delimitations of the Study ................................................................................................... 6
Definition of Terms ............................................................................................................. 6
Organization of the Study .................................................................................................... 7
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................... 9
Latino Experiences of First-Generation Low-Income Students in Higher Education ......... 9
Factors That Influence Persistence of Low-Income First-Generation Latino Students .... 13
Strategies to Improve Persistence of First-Generation Low-Income Students .................. 16
Academic Scholarship Programs ....................................................................................... 20
Social Capital Theory Framework ..................................................................................... 21
Critical Race Theory .......................................................................................................... 22
Summary of Literature ...................................................................................................... 23
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 24
Purpose of the Study .......................................................................................................... 24
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 24

viii

Selection of Population ...................................................................................................... 25
Design Summary ............................................................................................................... 26
Instrumentation and Protocols ........................................................................................... 27
Data Collection .................................................................................................................. 29
Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 29
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 31
Chapter Four: Data Analysis ......................................................................................................... 32
Purpose of the Study .......................................................................................................... 33
Participant Demographics ................................................................................................. 34
Coding of Data .................................................................................................................. 35
Findings for Research Question 1 ..................................................................................... 36
Findings for Research Question 2 ..................................................................................... 46
Findings for Research Question 3 ..................................................................................... 55
Findings for Research Question 4 ..................................................................................... 57
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 59
Chapter Five: Conclusions and Implications ................................................................................. 61
Purpose of the Study .......................................................................................................... 61
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 62
Methodology ...................................................................................................................... 62
Results and Findings .......................................................................................................... 63
Implications of This Study ................................................................................................ 68
Recommendations for Future Research ............................................................................. 71
Concluding Remarks ......................................................................................................... 72

ix

References ..................................................................................................................................... 73
Tables ............................................................................................................................................ 84
Appendix A: Participation Letter .................................................................................................. 93
Appendix B: Scholar Survey ......................................................................................................... 94
Appendix C: Interview Protocol .................................................................................................... 98

x

List of Tables
Table 1: Gender of Participants ..................................................................................................... 84
Table 2: University Attended and Class Standing ......................................................................... 85
Table 3: Number of Years as a Scholar in Academic Scholarship Program .................................. 86
Table 4: Demographics of Scholars Interviewed ........................................................................... 87
Table 5: Programs Offered by Academic Scholarship Program .................................................... 88
Table 6: Impact of Academic Scholarship Program on Student Experience ................................. 89
Table 7: Benefits Students Sought in an Academic Scholarship Program .................................... 90
Table 8: How Students Perceive Their Success Is Evaluated in the Academic Scholarship
Program ................................................................................................................................... 91
Table 9: Information Academic Scholarship Program Solicits From Scholars ............................. 92

1

Chapter One: Overview of the Study
First-generation Latino college students bring with them many cultural assets when they
enroll in postsecondary education. This is often overlooked, and a deficit perspective is
sometimes taken when this population is studied. Latino students bring with them resilience and
a “dream of bettering their futures through a willingness to learn and to succeed in their
academic careers” (Rios-Ellis et al., 2015, p. 38). The sacrifices their families have made to
facilitate these opportunities are not taken lightly and are where this resilience emerges. Many
Latino students are bicultural and can navigate linguistically and culturally between their own
and the dominant culture (Ybarra & Lopez, 2004). Family is also central in the Latino
community. It often includes extended family members, which allows students to develop social
skills and an ease in forming relationships (Rios-Ellis et al., 2015, p. 39). These assets, described
as community cultural wealth by Yosso (2005), coupled with the proper support can result in
their persistence in school and positive academic outcomes.
First-generation low-income students face additional barriers that can affect their
persistence in higher education. According to McDonough (1997), a first-generation student is in
“uncharted waters and is facing a high degree of uncertainty in what college choices to make” (p.
100). This is the result of not having access to knowledge about college within their families
(York-Anderson & Bowman, 1991). Like most parents, Latino parents support and encourage
their children to pursue higher education to the best of their ability, but sometimes they are
unable to guide them in persisting in college due to their lack of familiarity with the system.
Pascarella et al. (2004) found that students whose parents did not have more than a high school
diploma took fewer credit hours and were less likely to participate in extracurricular activities or
have non-course-related interactions with peers compared with students whose parents had a
2

college degree. These “high impact” activities allow for better integration in college and
contribute to student persistence and success (Ward et al., 2012, p. 49). This gap in knowledge
can affect the academic performance and persistence of first-generation Latino students. First-
generation Latino college students are also more likely to be from lower socioeconomic
backgrounds. Horn and Nuñez (2000) found that half of first-generation college students come
from low-income families, compared with one third of students who have one parent who
attended some college. Cost is a major obstacle to pursuing higher education for students from
low-income backgrounds (St. John, 2003).
First-generation students comprise 34% of students in 4-year institutions (Choy, 2001).
According to the U.S. Department of Education (2017, 2018), fewer first-generation college
students were on track to earn a degree after 3 years than their continuing-generation peers. In
addition, almost 90% of first-generation students enrolled in colleges and universities in the
United States do not graduate within 6 years (Saenz et al., 2007).
Academic scholarship programs seek to improve first-generation college students’ degree
attainment rates and retention. Pharris-Ciurej et al. (2012) found that academic scholarship
programs
attempt to mitigate the financial, human, social, or cultural capital deficits in isolation or
in combination. The most widespread programs have addressed financial capital deficits
through the provision of scholarships, grants, and loans. There are also programs
designed to compensate for the lack of human, social, and cultural capital resources by
using teachers, counselors, and mentors to encourage students’ educational ambitions, to
improve study skills, and to provide knowledge about the college application process. (p.
921)
3

Consistent with Pascarella et al. (2004), academic scholarships provide first-generation low-
income students the opportunity to participate in extracurricular activities and peer involvement,
which allows them to gain the social capital necessary to “succeed academically and benefit
cognitively” (p. 278) in college. Academic scholarships also allow for the development of
relationships with what Stanton-Salazar and Dornbusch (1995) referred to as institutional
agents—individuals who can share information about campus resources—which has been found
to positively influence academic outcomes.
First-generation Latino college students are more likely to be from lower socioeconomic
backgrounds. In fact, 42% of first-generation students who were dependents were from the
lowest family income quartile, meaning their families earned less than $25,000 per year (Choy,
2001). Nunez and Cuccaro-Alamin (1998) found that first-generation students were twice as
likely as non-first-generation students to experience challenges in being able to integrate
socially. This can negatively affect a sense of belonging at school and hence persistence.
Studies have also found that the social capital first-generation college students often lack
can be compensated for by external resources and opportunities. For first-generation college
students working through the college application process, their network on social media can
provide necessary information and role models and compensate for the lack of parental support.
The virtual support and resources allow students to have higher confidence in the college
application process and in their ability to be successful in college (Wohn et al., 2012). Herbert
(2018) found that study abroad opportunities, participating in undergraduate research, and
sharing intellectual passions with a supportive adult contributed to the success of first-generation
college students (p. 107). Similarly, academic scholarship programs can be external sources of
financial and social capital and contribute to students’ sense of belonging on campus.
4

While research exists on strategies that influence the persistence of first-generation
college students, less is known about the impact academic scholarship programs have. It is
important to focus on this problem, as first-generation college students represent one third of all
students enrolled in higher education institutions in the United States and hence are a sizable
population whose needs cannot be overlooked (U.S. Department of Education, 2015). A lack of
persistence by first-generation college students can also affect their earning potential,
contributing to the cycle of poverty that many Latinos face (Gonzalez, 2011). In fact, the average
income for a Latino with a 4-year college degree rises to $58,000 from $33,000, which is the
average income for Latinos without higher education (Gonzalez, 2011). However, Latinos who
have completed a 4-year degree are still in the minority. In 2008, only 13% of Latino families
had a bachelor’s degree, compared with 35% of non-Latino Whites (Gonzalez, 2011).
Statement of the Problem
There is a lack of research on the impact that academic scholarship programs have on
students, and even less literature is available when it comes to the impact that these programs
have on the persistence of first-generation low-income Latino students. This study sought to
assess the impact that academic scholarship programs have on the persistence of first-generation
low-income students. It examined what is offered by such programs, the value students believe
such activities to have, and how success is defined by the programs. Studies have shown that the
graduation rates of Latinos would need to triple to be on par with those of non-Latino Whites
(Gonzalez, 2011). Hence, it is important to determine if academic scholarship programs
contribute to student persistence and can help close the gap in graduation rates.
5

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of academic scholarship programs
on the persistence of first-generation low-income Latino students at public 4-year universities in
Southern California. More specifically, the study sought to determine how academic scholarship
programs contribute to the development of financial and social capital and the persistence of
first-generation Latino students. The following research questions guided this study:
1. What is the nature of the programming provided by academic scholarship programs to
first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year universities in
Southern California?
2. How do first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year
universities in Southern California utilize the programming offered by academic
scholarship programs?
3. What do first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year
universities in Southern California who participate in academic scholarship programs
perceive the value of the program to be?
4. How do academic scholarship programs evaluate success for first-generation low-
income Latino students attending public 4-year universities in Southern California
from the student perspective?
Bourdieu’s social capital theory and Yosso’s critical race theory were utilized as
conceptual frameworks. Social capital, according to Häuberer’s reading of Bourdieu, is a
“relationship immanent capital that provides useful support when it is needed. Stable
relationships create honor and reputation among its members and are, thus, most effective for
building and maintaining trust” (2011, p. 38). Yosso’s critical race theory helps to “better
6

understand, affirm, and harness the non-dominant forms of capital, or cultural wealth, present in
marginalized peoples’ communities” (Tichavakunda, 2019, p. 657) that, coupled with the social
capital discussed by Bourdieu, can result in better outcomes. In this study, I did not assume that
first-generation Latino students are devoid of any assets to assist in their success and persistence
in higher education.
Significance of the Study
The significance of the study is to enhance the literature by exploring the impact of
academic scholarship programs on the persistence of first-generation low-income Latino students
attending public 4-year universities in Southern California. Given the low persistence rates for
first-generation Latino low-income students, this study aimed to add to the body of literature that
examines how academic scholarship programs help improve outcomes utilizing an asset-based
perspective.
Delimitations of the Study
The delimitations of the study include its focus solely on first-generation low-income
students. In addition, only students attending public 4-year institutions in Southern California
were studied.
Definition of Terms
Terms used in this study were defined as follows:
• Financial capital: “Assets that constitute a family’s economic resources,” such as
income, wealth, or property (Massey et al., 2003, p. 5).
• First-generation student: A student whose parents did not attend college.
• Latino: A person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or
other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).
7

• Low-income: Describes “an individual whose family’s taxable income for the
preceding year did not exceed 150 percent of the poverty level amount” (U.S.
Department of Education, 2020).
• Persistence: Continual enrollment in a higher education institution with the goal of
completing a 4-year degree.
• Public university: A university owned and largely funded by the state in which it is
located.
• Sense of belonging: Successful integration in the social and academic realms in an
institution of higher education.
• Social capital: Defined by Hoffman et. al (2005) as
§ A network of relationships developed over time that provide a basis for trust… and
can be separated into five distinct dimensions. They are information channels, social
norms, identify, obligations and expectations, and moral infrastructure (p. 95).
Organization of the Study
This study comprises five chapters. Chapter One introduced the assets that first-
generation college students bring with them as they enroll in higher education as well as the
barriers to persistence they face. It provided rationale behind the importance of assessing
academic scholarship programs and their impact on the persistence of first-generation Latino
low-income students. Chapter Two provides a review of the literature in relation to the research
questions. In particular, the literature review focuses on social capital, financial capital, and
sense of belonging. Chapter Three reviews the methodology used in the study. It describes the
selection criteria for participants, the data collection methods, and an analysis of collected data.
Chapter Four provides the findings and interpretation of collected data. Chapter Five discusses
8

the findings in further detail, implications for further research, and recommendations that can be
utilized for the improvement of academic scholarship programs and hence contribute to the
persistence of first-generation Latino low-income students.

9

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
A student’s ability to persist in higher education is affected by many variables. The
number of variables is even greater among first-generation low-income students. Toutkoushian et
al. (2015) found that first-generation students were significantly less likely than non-first-
generation students to enroll in institutions of higher education. Those who do enroll are less
prepared than their continuing-generation counterparts; they often need to enroll in remedial
courses, delay declaring a major, perform poorly in school, and have to repeat courses (Chen &
Carroll, 2005).
First-generation students persist less and complete college at a lower rate compared with
other students (Ishitani, 2003). According to the U.S. Department of Education (2017), fewer
first-generation college students were on track toward earning a degree after 3 years compared
with their continuing-generation peers. This highlights the need to examine the experiences of
first-generation students more closely and the programs that have been created to provide
resources and support, such as academic scholarship programs. First-generation college students
comprise a sizable population in 4-year institutions of higher education, representing 34% of
students (Choy, 2001) and hence a population whose needs cannot be ignored.
Latino Experiences of First-Generation Low-Income Students in Higher Education
The experiences of first-generation low-income students differ from those of continuing-
generation students. Due to being the first in their families to pursue higher education, they are
often unable to turn to family for information about how to navigate the educational system and
tend to come from lower-socioeconomic backgrounds. St. John et al. (1996) found that a
student’s aspiration for higher education was influenced by their “socioeconomic background
including family income, parental education, and encouragement” (p. 180). These factors all
10

affect the experiences of first-generation college students and their persistence while pursuing
higher education.
Less Prepared Than Continuing-Generation Students
The experience of first-generation Latino students in higher education is influenced by
many external factors that affect their ability to persist in higher education, be successful
academically, and graduate. To begin, they are less prepared academically than their continuing-
generation counterparts and have been found to complete more remedial courses as
undergraduate students (Adelman, 1999). According to the National Center for Education
Statistics (2010), 43% of Latino low-income students in college take at least one remedial
course.
Like all students entering college for the first time, first-generation students experience
challenges due to being away from home for the first time if they live on campus or move to a
new city to attend college. These challenges may be coupled with difficulties resulting from
cultural, social, and academic transitions (Enstrom & Tinto, 2008). Enstrom and Tinto conducted
a multi-institution longitudinal 4-year study with a sample of 5,729 students from 40 2-year and
4-year institutions. They found that students had many fears about participating in class,
sometimes due to English being their second language or questioning if they belonged in college.
Enstrom and Tinto came to these findings in the context of analyzing the effectiveness of
learning communities, but they point to the challenges first-generation students face in higher
education. They concluded that while institutions are not purposely excluding students, they are
not implicitly including them and providing the necessary support that would enable their
success and persistence. The literature on first-generation college students points to the major
factors affecting their ability to acclimate and persist in college: not being academically prepared
11

and hence having trouble meeting academic demands, a sense of not belonging, and financial
hardships (Astin, 1984).
Financial Difficulties
First-generation low-income students often face financial difficulties that affect their
ability to focus on school and, ultimately, their persistence. Although being low-income allows
students to qualify for increased financial assistance if they are permanent residents, financial
gaps still exist. Tuition costs increase annually while grants fail to increase at proportionate
levels, forcing students and their families to pay more out of pocket (College Board, 2017).
Melguizo and Chung (2012) found that although a student may be receiving large scholarships or
financial support, many first-generation low-income students are still required to work during
college. Students are forced to do so in order to cover other costs of higher education, such as
textbooks and academic travel, or to support their families (Melguizo & Chung, 2012).
Latino students are more likely to have financial difficulties that negatively affect their
ability to persist in college compared with other racial groups (Longerbeam et al., 2004).
Coupled with conservative beliefs regarding debt and borrowing, first-generation students are
more likely to have unmet financial needs despite receiving financial aid as a result of not taking
out loans offered to them (Goldrick-Rab et al., 2016).
Cultural Differences
First-generation students are forced to adapt their behavior to align with the independent
norms that facilitate success in college, although they may have pursued higher education for
altruistic motives such as helping their families. This can strongly affect students; Stephens et al.
(2012) found that adapting to such norms can raise cortisol levels and negative emotions to the
point that it can influence biological functioning. Such cultural discontinuity can severely impair
12

a student’s ability to focus on educational goals. Covarrubias et al. (2018) called this cultural
mismatch theory: Students are at a disadvantage when they mismatch with independent norms
and tend to struggle academically.
Many first-generation college students face increased demands and expectations by
family that limit their ability to focus on self-achievement. Mitchell and Jaeger (2018) found
that, for some, “the need to help parents or siblings left them less motivated toward college” (p.
598), and the help included providing emotional support and advocacy, financial support, and
being a language and financial broker. Ziemniak (2010) found that when parents viewed their
children’s education as a way of making their own unrealized dreams of higher education come
true, there were “fewer conflicts between students’ school lives and family obligations” (p. 123).
Kao (2004) found that siblings in a household may have different educational outcomes, and the
intensity of the connection between the individual siblings and their parents could be the
differentiating factor.
Possess Capital
A review of the literature portrays first-generation low-income college students at a
disadvantage when it comes to persistence. A deficit perspective is often used, and rarely is there
mention of the skill that such students acquire as a result of their circumstances or culture. Vélez-
Ibáñez and Greenberg (1992) first discussed these funds of knowledge and pointed out that
benefits were derived from belonging to a cluster household. Rios-Aguilar et al. (2011) found
that working-class and economically marginalized families used their social network and
Stanton-Salazar and Dornbusch (1995) found that these networks are used to access information
much like institutional agents. These students should not continue to be portrayed as devoid of
any capital.
13

Factors That Influence Persistence of Low-Income First-Generation Latino Students
There are differences between first-generation and continuing generation students that
impact persistence. Financial difficulties also play a role in a student’s ability to attend school.
Social Capital
First-generation students find themselves unable to turn to family or friends for assistance
to navigate the transition to college, as they do not possess knowledge about this. Stanton-
Salazar (1997) called this a lack of familial and nonfamilial social capital. While family
members may support students’ pursuit of higher education, they are not able to clarify or teach
about academic standards and other relevant educational capital for their children to be
successful in college (Gandara & Contreras, 2009). Consequently, first-generation college
students’ parents are unable to direct them to what Ward et al. (2012) called high-impact
activities. These high-impact activities facilitate integration into college and include speaking to
professors outside of class time, studying in the library, or joining a student club or organization
(Ward et al., 2012, p. 49). Latinos, as a group, face the highest challenges when it comes to
possessing social capital, compared with other groups (Coleman, 1990).
Bourdieu (1986) highlighted the benefits of possessing social capital and its ability to
help students access needed resources to achieve academic success. Consistent with Urbina
(2015), it is important to understand the true variables that influence the persistence of first-
generation low-income students rather than assume that low persistence is due to low ambition
(p. 17). If students are equipped with educational capital, they are at an advantage, as they can
successfully navigate the educational system.
Urbina (2015) pointed to the educational system being patriarchal and created for “whites
by whites” (p. 70). This is a topic not commonly addressed in discussions of social capital. The
14

expectation for first-generation low-income students to learn and acclimate to the educational
system and norms as they exist, without consideration for the other factors that affect their ability
to do so, is problematic. A review of the literature shows the stress that arises from negotiating
how to adapt to the dominant culture. Berry et al. (1998) used the term acculturation, defining it
as “the internal negotiation over the degree to which a minority individual’s personal attitudes
and behaviors conform to both the norms of the dominant culture and the culture of origin” (p.
248). This process creates acculturation stress that, coupled with the normal pressures of
acclimating to college life, can lead to an increased risk for mental health problems such as
depression and anxiety among first-generation Latino students (Mayorga et al., 2018).
Kao (2004) pointed to the importance of distinguishing between potential social capital
and the actual level of social capital achieved. Current research on persistence often focuses on
educational outcomes, utilizing metrics such as grade point average and units completed, or
student perceptions, but not on both. In essence, the achieved social capital is not well
understood and requires a focus on both the students’ perceptions and other educational metrics
such as progress toward degree completion.
Financial Capital
Massey et al. (2003) defined financial capital as the “assets that constitute a family’s
economic resources,” such as income, wealth, or property (p. 5). For first-generation Latino
students, financial capital tends to be low, as total family income tends to be lower compared
with that of continuing-generation students (Mehta et al., 2011). Urbina found that first-
generation students tend to be the “sons and daughters of families who work in low-paying jobs”
(p. 17). Lower financial capital also helps explain why parents without a college degree are less
15

likely to have a plan as to how to pay for their children’s college or save for it (Hillman et al.,
2015).
A national survey by the Pew Research Center (2009) showed that only about 48% of
Latinos plan to obtain a college degree, while 98% indicated that a college degree is important to
be successful. The most common reason for Latinos not pursuing a college degree was financial
difficulties in supporting their family (Pew Research Center, 2009). Mehta et al. (2011) indicated
that first-generation students were more likely to work 20 or more hours per week and rely on
grants and loans to pay for tuition compared with continuing-generation students.
Research has shown that first-generation low-income students must find ways to pay for
college and other costs in addition to overcoming other obstacles that new college students face.
While their families are supportive of their pursuit of higher education, financially they are
unable to provide support (Trevino & DeFreitas, 2014).
Lack Sense of Belonging
First-generation low-income Latino students quickly learn that there are differences
between them and continuing-generation students when it comes to social and financial capital.
This results in feeling like they do not belong and fit into the culture and environment of higher
education institutions (Holland & Farmer-Hinton, 2009). Tovar et al. (2009) defined sense of
belonging as a need or desire to be connected through formal and informal interactions. They
found that “mattering and sense of belonging are two distinct but related constructs” (p. 174).
Colleges and universities can create an environment that is responsive to the needs of first-
generation college students to contribute to their sense of mattering or belonging. Establishing a
culture where students feel they matter or belong is important, as a feeling of not belonging or
mattering has been linked to dropping out of college (Schlossberg, 1989). When students feel
16

that they matter, they are more likely to become active participants instead of observers (Tovar et
al., 2009, p. 175).
Enstrom and Tinto (2008) indicated that it can be difficult to motivate first-generation
students with the traditional tactics used for continuing-education students, as the former are
more likely to be unprepared and preoccupied with family responsibilities and have not been part
of a college-going culture due to their parents’ lack of knowledge. Pascarella et al. (2004) found
that students whose parents did not have more than a high school diploma took fewer credit
hours and were less likely to participate in extracurricular activities or have non-course-related
interactions with peers than students whose parents had a college degree. This makes acclimating
and creating a sense of belonging more difficult. Astin’s theory of student involvement shows
that increased learning occurs with greater involvement (Astin, 1999).
While it is undeniable that first-generation low-income students often experience feelings
of not belonging, a review of the literature shows that the focus is often on the skills that such
students need to acquire to combat these feelings. A greater focus needs to be directed at how
students and institutions of higher education can work together to ensure that a sense of
belonging can be developed. The responsibility should not rest solely on the students, who are
already overcoming a lack of social and financial capital as well as the normal challenges that
new college students experience.
Strategies to Improve Persistence of First-Generation Low-Income Students
Many strategies are implemented by colleges and universities to improve the retention of
first-generation low-income students. It is challenging to devise specific strategies that could be
utilized across the board, as there are many variables to consider. These variables include student
characteristics as well as institutional ones. In a study of 1,167 first-generation students and
17

3,017 continuing-generation students, Lohfink and Paulsen (2005) found that for first-generation
students, attending a private university was negatively related to persistence and larger
institutional size was positively related to persistence (p. 415). However, there are some
commonly implemented strategies to support the retention of first-generation low-income
students.
Mentorship
While mentorship is often cited as a retention strategy for first-generation students, “the
absence of a widely accepted operational definition of mentoring” (Jacobi, 1991, p. 505) is
problematic. Some definitions are contradictory and lack clarity “about the antecedents,
outcomes, characteristics, and mediators of mentoring relationships despite a growing body of
empirical research” (Jacobi, 1991, p. 505; see also Crisp & Cruz, 2009). According to Jacobi
(1991), most definitions are from the standpoint of the role that the mentor plays in the lives of
mentees. What is common among most definitions is that a mentor provides “a helpful,
supportive, and personal relationship with a student, and often serves as a role model” (Jacobi,
1991, p. 507; see also Docherty & Phillips, 2018).
The relationship between a mentor and a mentee can take many forms, and some prove to
be effective while others do not. An effective mentorship relationship is said to occur when the
mentee uses the knowledge gained from the mentor to have a more productive and meaningful
life (Kent et al., 2013). It is important to take into consideration the patriarchal nature of the
educational system when implementing mentorship programs. According to Hinsdale (2015), the
roles that mentors play in the lives of students are deeply rooted in social and academic histories,
and it is important to note that perceptions of students’ interactions with mentors are also
affected by this history (p. 42).
18

While mentorship programs can help students access information and gain social capital,
ineffective mentorship “diminishes their backgrounds, their families, their histories, and asks
them to assimilate to dominant academic and social norms” (Hinsdale, 2015, p. 41). Cultural
differences must be acknowledged in order for mentorship relationships to be effective (Kent et
al., 2013).
Institutional Agents
Institutional agents are another group of individuals commonly referred to in retention
strategies for first-generation low-income students. Stanton-Salazar (2011) defined institutional
agents as individuals who are in positions of power and can transmit information about “school
programs, academic tutoring and mentoring, college admission, and assistance with career
decision making” (p. 117). In essence, they can help students grow their social capital and
knowledge about these areas. These individuals can include teachers, school personnel,
counselors, peers, or other adults (Holland & Farmer-Hinton, 2009). Holland and Farmer-Hinton
(2009) found that institutional agents can help students acquire social capital not available to
them through their families and hence can support student persistence by providing them
resources and information. Valenzuela (1999) indicated that institutional agents care about
students’ success and that it is important for all to be “understood, appreciated, and respected”
(p. 108).
Institutional agents can play a crucial role in student success provided they understand
cultural nuances and first-generation low-income students’ lives. They support students by
connecting them to resources and information that can assist them in excelling in school,
graduating from high school and college, and developing a positive sense of being at school
(Holland & Farmer-Hinton, 2009; Valenzuela, 1999).
19

Scholarships
Scholarships help first-generation low-income students cover costs of tuition, books,
transportation, and room and board. They are commonly referenced as a technique to assist with
accessing higher education and supporting the persistence of low-income students. Given first-
generation low-income students’ low financial capital, one would expect that scholarships would
increase their enrollment or retention. However, not every study finds evidence that scholarships
do so. Pharris-Ciurej et al. (2012) looked at data of 5,000 high school students who received a
scholarship and found there to be no changes in educational outcomes as a result of the program,
while Dynarski (2003) found that merit-based scholarship programs increase college enrollment
and completion. A review of the literature shows that it is difficult to reduce race and
socioeconomic differentials through scholarships (Dynarski, 2003). Dynarski (2003) also
mentioned that studies have found that a “$1,000 drop in schooling costs increases college
attendance by 3 to 4 percentage points” (p. 286).
While there are mixed findings on the effectiveness of scholarships for first-generation
low-income students, what is certain is that these students have lower financial capital. Many
first-generation students do not complete the FAFSA to access federal financial aid (King, 2004),
leaving them to find other sources of funding to cover costs. Higher levels of borrowing have
been found among first-generation students who have high expected family contributions.
Furquim et al. (2017) found that this was likely the result of students being less able to cover the
expected family contribution and having to take out loans to do so.
Scholarships are worth looking at further, given that first-generation college students tend
to come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and that covering educational costs is a
challenge for them. This is another area where a cultural lens needs to be employed, as
20

differences in resources, applying for financial aid, and borrowing have been found between
first-generation and continuing-generation students.
Academic Scholarship Programs
Academic scholarship programs combine mentorship, scholarships, and access to
institutional agents. Pharris-Ciurej et al. (2012) found that academic scholarship programs
attempt to mitigate the financial, human, social, or cultural capital deficits in isolation or
in combination. The most widespread programs have addressed financial capital deficits
through the provision of scholarships, grants, and loans. There are also programs
designed to compensate for the lack of human, social, and cultural capital resources by
using teachers, counselors, and mentors to encourage students’ educational ambitions, to
improve study skills, and to provide knowledge about the college application process. (p.
921)
According to Portes (1998), social capital can be obtained through affiliation in social systems
and networking. Academic scholarships act as these social systems and allow first-generation
low-income students to acquire and benefit from the resources, financial support, and
relationships that Portes (1998) described as the things that one can profit from in order to attain
goals. Mentors and institutional agents whom students can access as part of academic
scholarships can help them understand and learn social norms, values, and expected behaviors,
which can lead to improved sense of belonging and persistence (Coleman, 1990).
A review of research revealed no study had been conducted on the impact of academic
scholarship programs at public universities in Southern California on first-generation low-
income students. Existing research has focused on specific academic scholarship programs in
specific locations (Anderson-Rowland, 2010; Jang, 2018). A review of these studies revealed
21

that the implementation of academic scholarship programs is also inconsistent, as there are no
well-defined best practices for what an academic scholarship should include or how to measure
effectiveness. Each of the components, including mentorship, scholarships, and the impact of
institutional agents, has been evaluated separately.
Hence, it is important to evaluate academic scholarships using a critical race theory lens
to acknowledge the differences between first-generation low-income Latino students and
continuing-generation students that a review of the literature has revealed. It is also important to
understand students’ perception of the impact that academic scholarships have to differentiate
between potential social capital and the actual level of social capital acquired (Kao, 2004)
through academic scholarship programs.
Social Capital Theory Framework
The term social capital was introduced by Bourdieu and Coleman around the same time,
although they did so separately. Bourdieu borrowed Karl Marx’s definition of capital and used it
to mean accumulated wealth in material form (Marx & Engels, 1969). Similar to economic
capital, social capital is difficult to secure, but it is worth the effort as it produces “profits and
even grows as it is being reproduced” (Häuberer, 2011, p. 35). According to Bourdieu, social
capital is
the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a
durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance
and recognition or in other words, to membership in a group—which provides each of its
members with the backing of the collectivity-owned capital, a “credential” which entitles
them to credit, in the various senses of the word. (1986, pp. 248–249)
In essence, according to Bourdieu, the capital resides in the relationships, and these provide
22

access, prestige, and other benefits. These benefits are available to that individual only because
of the sense of mutual commitment that develops and are not available to those outside of the
relationship. He also maintained that capital multiplies as the number of relationships grows.
Social capital theory is widely referenced in terms of the value and support it can provide
in achieving educational goals. Particular populations for which the theory is often used include
low-income and first-generation college students. While the theory has been criticized for several
factors, it effectively points to relationships that facilitate access to resources, which grows as the
number of relationships grows.
In academia, first-generation college students who come from a lower socioeconomic
background can benefit from increasing their social capital via mentorship programs, academic
scholarship programs, and academic counselors. Much evidence exists indicating that, as social
capital increases, so do the outcomes of these students when cultural assets are taken into
consideration.
Critical Race Theory
Critical race theory is a framework that “foregrounds race and racism in all aspects of the
research process” (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002, p. 24). Contrary to most research strategies, it
views the experiences and backgrounds of students of color as sources of strength as opposed to
taking a deficit perspective (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). Critical race theory is composed of five
elements: the “intercentricity of race and racism with other forms of subordination,” challenging
the dominant ideology, a commitment to social justice, a focus on experiential knowledge, and
using a multidisciplinary approach (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002, pp. 25–26).
For the purposes of this study, a focus on experiential knowledge is the most relevant.
The experiences of first-generation low-income students are taken into consideration, and the
23

dominant ideologies are challenged in terms of the acquisition of social capital (Yosso, 2005).
Yosso (2005) called the experiences that students of color possess community cultural wealth
and indicated that these are often unmeasured. Through storytelling, family histories, and
narratives, social capital theory provides a different lens through which the experiences, social
capital, and acquisition of additional social capital by students of color can be assessed. A critical
race theory lens also can help identify gaps in research related to the impact of academic
scholarship programs on students of color, the negative consequences mentorship can have if
cultural aspects are not considered, and the differences in funding sources utilized by first-
generation low-income students.
Summary of Literature
A review of the literature shows that first-generation students tend to have less financial
capital, knowledge about the educational system, and financial aid compared with their
continuing-generation counterparts. This affects their ability to develop a sense of belonging and
their persistence in school. However, they are not devoid of capital when they transition to
college as most of the literature portrays. They possess persistence, the ability to develop
relationships easily, and resilience (Yosso, 2005). Academic scholarship programs combine
interventions such as scholarships, mentorship, and access to institutional agents to support
student persistence, but these have not been evaluated as a comprehensive program. In addition,
the cultural aspects of first-generation low-income students, which the literature shows are not
often taken into consideration, should affect how such programs should be implemented. The
literature contained no studies looking at the impact of academic scholarship programs on first-
generation low-income students attending public universities in Southern California. Chapter
Three details how this study was conducted.
24

Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter will discuss the methodology utilized to conduct the study. Latinos who
have a 4-year degree are still in the minority. In 2008, only 13% of Latino families had a
bachelor’s degree, compared with 35% of non-Latino Whites (Gonzalez, 2011). The graduation
rates of Latinos would need to triple to be on par with those of non-Latino Whites (Gonzalez,
2011). Hence, it is important to determine if academic scholarship programs contribute to student
persistence and can help close the gap in graduation rates. There is a lack of research on the
impact that academic scholarship programs have on students, and even less literature is available
when it comes to the impact that these programs have on the persistence of first-generation low-
income Latino students. This study sought to assess the impact that academic scholarships have
on the persistence of first-generation low-income Latino students attending a public 4-year
university in Southern California.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of academic scholarship programs
on the development of financial capital and social capital and how they contribute to the
persistence of first-generation low-income Latino students. A better understanding of their
impact as a cohesive program, versus looking at the individual components, can help best
practices for academic scholarship programs. This can also facilitate more consistent
implementation for such programs.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
25

1. What is the nature of the programming provided by academic scholarship programs to
first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year universities in
Southern California?
2. How do first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year
universities in Southern California utilize the programming offered by academic
scholarship programs?
3. What do first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year
universities in Southern California who participate in academic scholarship programs
perceive the value of the program to be?
4. How do academic scholarship programs evaluate success for first-generation low-
income Latino students attending public 4-year universities in Southern California
from the student perspective?
Selection of Population
I interviewed and surveyed first-generation low-income Latino students attending a
public 4-year university in Southern California who were participating in an academic
scholarship program. The knowledge gained via the interviews and surveys may help educators
and administrators better understand how academic scholarship programs affect the persistence
of first-generation low-income Latino students attending a public 4-year university in Southern
California.
Participants in this study were first-generation low-income Latino students attending
public universities in Southern California and enrolled in an academic scholarship program. A
convenience sample was selected consistent with Merriam and Tisdell’s (2016) definition, in
which researchers “select a sample based on time, money, location, availability of sites or
26

respondents, and so on” (p. 98). Participants were also selected because they were available to
participate (Johnson & Christensen, 2017). I was purposeful with the sampling, specifying
criteria of the population of interest to find available participants (Johnson & Christensen, 2017).
This study focused on first-generation low-income Latino students participating in an academic
scholarship program and attending a public 4-year university in Southern California, so the
surveys and interviews were conducted with individuals who met these characteristics. For the
purposes of this study, first-generation college students are those whose parents have not
attended college, and public universities are those owned and largely funded by the state in
which they are located. Low-income was defined as “an individual whose family’s taxable
income for the preceding year did not exceed 150 percent of the poverty level amount” (U.S.
Department of Education, 2020). Academic scholarship programs are those that combine
mentorship, scholarships, and access to institutional agents.
Design Summary
I selected a mixed-methods research design, which, according to Creswell (2015), is an
approach to research in the social, behavioral, and health sciences in which the investigator
gathers both quantitative (closed-ended) and qualitative (open-ended) data, integrates the two,
and then draws interpretations based on the combined strengths of both sets of data to understand
research problems (p. 2). The qualitative interviews allowed me to understand how academic
scholarship program participants “interpret their experiences, how they construct their worlds,
and what meaning they attribute to their experience” as scholars in the program (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016, p. 6). I utilized a convergent mixed-methods design where quantitative and
qualitative data are collected simultaneously and analyzed separately and the findings are
compared to see if they confirm or disconfirm each other (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
27

Methodology
The methods utilized included quantitative data collection via a survey and qualitative
data from an open-ended semi-structured interview with first-generation low-income Latino
students attending a public 4-year university in Southern California who were enrolled in an
academic scholarship program. It was necessary to interview these students to understand how
they experience the programming offered and whether they perceive such programs to contribute
to their persistence. I used four research questions to guide the design of the interview protocol
and the survey questions.
Mixed Methods
A mixed-methods design allowed for the triangulation of data to ensure consistency in
the findings of the interviews and the survey. I used social capital theory and critical race theory
as conceptual frameworks. Critical race theory is a framework that “foregrounds race and racism
in all aspects of the research process” and views the experiences and backgrounds of students of
color as sources of strength as opposed to taking a deficit perspective (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002,
p. 25-26). In social capital theory, according to Bourdieu, the capital resides in relationships that
provide access, prestige, and other benefits not available to those outside of the relationship:
Membership in a group provides each of its members with the backing of the collectively owned
capital and “entitles them to credit, in the various senses of the word” (Bourdieu, 1986, pp. 248–
249). These theories provided the framework to develop the questions and their sequence and
aided in determining which information to pursue in greater detail.
Instrumentation and Protocols
As a mixed-method study, a qualitative and a quantitative instrument were developed.
28

Quantitative Instrument
I used a survey to gather “quantitative descriptions of trends, attitudes, and opinions”
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 147) from first-generation low-income Latino students attending
a public 4-year university in Southern California who were enrolled in an academic scholarship
program. The survey was cross-sectional with the “data collected at one time” (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018, p. 149) and administered via Qualtrics. I selected this method of administration
to minimize costs, increase convenience, and facilitate access to participants. The survey
contained eight closed-ended questions (see Appendix B) that were concrete, utilized standard
language, and were meaningful to the respondents (Fink, 2013).
Qualitative Instrument
I used a standardized open-ended interview approach. The interview protocol consisted of
10 questions (see Appendix C). Consistent with Patton (2002), the interview guide allowed me to
prepare the questions to be asked ahead of time and allowed for greater ease in analyzing data as
all participants were asked the same questions. I also created probing questions to get additional
information or clarifications when necessary (Merriam, 2009). I utilized Patton’s (2002) research
to determine the types of questions to be asked and included knowledge, feelings, opinions, and
sensory and background information to help develop rapport (p. 349). I developed the sequence
of questions to create rapport, to determine baseline knowledge and beliefs regarding when
students first arrived at their college, and then to discuss the academic program components with
the goal of determining how students perceived each piece to contribute to their persistence, if at
all.
29

Data Collection
I used a convergent mixed-methods design where quantitative and qualitative data are
collected simultaneously and analyzed separately and the findings compared to see if they
confirm or disconfirm each other (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). I conducted purposeful sampling
to ensure participants were first-generation low-income Latino students attending a public 4-year
university in Southern California. I sent a letter introducing myself and indicating the purpose of
the study with a link to the survey (see Appendix A.
To collect the quantitative data, I conducted interviews with first-generation low-income
Latino students attending a public 4-year university in Southern California who agreed to
participate. I used purposeful sampling to identify participants. I conducted the interviews face to
face and scheduled them based on the participants’ availability. I did not take notes during the
interviews but did record each session after gaining permission from the participants. This was to
increase participants’ “level of comfort, encouraging them to talk about what they normally talk
about, and eventually confide” (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992, p. 82) in the researcher. Each interview
took approximately 30 minutes to complete. Consistent with Glesne (2011), I obtained written
informed consent from participants and permission to record the interviews. They were informed
that their participation was voluntary and that they were free to stop participating at any point in
the study or to ask for the recorder to be turned off. They were also assured that their responses
would be kept confidential. I ended the interviews with an opportunity for students to share or
discuss anything else we had not talked about.
Data Analysis
I used a mixed-methods approach for this study, incorporating findings from survey data
and interviews. The survey and interview questions were devised to align with the four research
30

questions. After I collected the qualitative and quantitative data, I analyzed them to determine
patterns and themes and ultimately infer whether academic scholarship programs contribute to
the persistence of first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year
universities.
I began the qualitative data analysis of the interviews by looking for “threads that tie
together bits of data” (Miles et al., 2014, p. 86). I used my experience as a first-generation low-
income student to help make meaning of the data as well. I used analytic tools such as the flip-
flop technique “where you look at different perspectives on a phrase or word” to “bring out
significant properties,” personal experience, and looking at language to interrogate data (Corbin
& Strauss, 2015, p. 97). This enabled me to contemplate alternative meetings for findings and
consistency with other data. I created a priori codes based on theoretical frameworks and
inductive codes as I analyzed the data. I utilized first cycle coding to summarize segments of
data. Then, I used pattern coding to group data into categories, themes, or constructs. Lastly, I
created assertions to address research questions that were supported by evidence from interviews
and observations (Miles et al., 2014, p. 99). I transcribed and analyzed all interviews. I analyzed
the quantitative data by conducting a statistical analysis and using descriptive statistics (Creswell
& Creswell, 2018).
I followed Creswell and Creswell’s (2018) guidance on data analysis for a convergent
data collection design. First, qualitative data is analyzed by coding and creating broad themes,
then quantitative data in analyzed in terms of statistical results, and then a side-by-side
comparison of the data is done. I compared the results to determine if there was convergence or
divergence between the two, consistent with Creswell and Creswell (2018). I established both
“quantitative validity (i.e. construct) and qualitative validity by triangulation for each database”
31

(Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 221). I acknowledged my personal biases to ensure that they did
not affect data analysis (Miles et al., 2014).
Summary
In this study, I utilized a mixed-methods convergent data collection approach. I collected
data from surveys and interviews of first-generation low-income Latino students attending public
universities in Southern California. I used the data collected to address the four research
questions that helped guide this study:
1. What is the nature of the programming provided by academic scholarship programs to
first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year universities in
Southern California?
2. How do first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year
universities in Southern California utilize the programming offered by academic
scholarship programs?
3. What do first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year
universities in Southern California who participate in academic scholarship programs
perceive the value of the program to be?
4. How do academic scholarship programs evaluate success for first-generation low-
income Latino students attending public 4-year universities in Southern California
from the student perspective?
Chapter Four will discuss the findings from the quantitative and qualitative results.
32

Chapter Four: Data Analysis
This chapter analyzes the data collected for this study, which sought to examine the
impact of academic scholarship programs on the persistence of first-generation low-income
Latino students at public 4-year universities in Southern California. More specifically, I sought
to determine how academic scholarship programs contribute to the development of financial and
social capital and the persistence of first-generation Latino students. Research has shown that
graduation rates of Latinos would need to triple for them to be on par with those of non-Latino
Whites (Gonzalez, 2011). The questions that guided this study are the following:
1. What is the nature of the programming provided by academic scholarship programs to
first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year universities in
Southern California?
2. How do first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year
universities in Southern California utilize the programming offered by academic
scholarship programs?
3. What do first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year
universities in Southern California who participate in academic scholarship programs
perceive the value of the program to be?
4. How do academic scholarship programs evaluate success for first-generation low-
income Latino students attending public 4-year universities in Southern California
from the student perspective?
I collected the quantitative data utilizing an electronic survey that was distributed to 139 first-
generation low-income Latino students who are scholars in an academic scholarship program.
All participants were required to be attending a public 4-year university in Southern California
33

and have participated in the academic scholarship program for at least 1 year. Seventy out of the
139 surveys sent were answered, resulting in a 51% participation rate. The survey consisted of
eight multi-part questions and utilized a 10-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)
to 10 (strongly agree).
I gathered the qualitative data during one-on-one semi-structured interviews conducted via
Zoom with five scholars. Respondents to the survey were given an opportunity to express
interest in participating in an interview, and I selected and interviewed five of them. I refer to the
five scholars who participated in the interviews as scholars A–E. I ensured scholar
confidentiality throughout the data collection and analysis processes. The use of a semi-
structured interview allowed for consistency in the information asked of participants. It also
allowed me to ask probing and clarifying questions of participants. The interview consisted of 10
questions.
I utilized a mixed-methods convergent data collection approach in this study. I collected
data from surveys and interviews of first-generation low-income Latino students attending public
universities in Southern California. I triangulated the qualitative data, quantitative data, and
research from the literature review to devise findings. I observed stringent guidelines when
collecting data, storing results, and analyzing the data to ensure the confidentiality of all
participants.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of academic scholarship programs
on the persistence of first-generation low-income Latino students at public 4-year universities in
Southern California. More specifically, I sought to determine how academic scholarship
34

programs contribute to the development of financial and social capital and the persistence of
first-generation Latino students, if at all.
Participant Demographics
The criteria for participating in the study was being a first-generation low-income Latino
student attending a public four-year university in Southern California and a current scholar in an
academic scholarship program.
Gender of Scholars
Of the 71 respondents to the electronic survey, 32 (45.07%) were female and 31
(43.66%) were male. Eight of the 71 (11.27%) did not specify their gender, as shown in Table 1.
University in Attendance and Class Standing of Respondents
This study focused on first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-
year universities in Southern California. Out of the 71 participants, 10 did not indicate the
university they attend. The 61 who did indicate their university of attendance represented 12
public 4-year universities in Southern California, as displayed in Table 2. The largest
concentrations of respondents were from California State University, Los Angeles, where 21
(29.58%) scholars attend. The second highest concentration was from University of California,
Los Angeles, where nine (12.68%) scholars attend. In terms of class standing, 10 (14.08%) were
fifth-year seniors, 23 (32.39%) were seniors, 14 (19.72%) were juniors, 12 (16.90%) were
sophomores, and two (2.82%) were freshmen.
Number of Years as a Scholar
Sixty-one out of 71 scholars indicated how long they had been a scholar in an academic
scholarship program. The highest concentration of length of time as a scholar in an academic
scholarship program was 2 years, with 16 (22.54%) scholars. The mean length of time as a
35

scholar for respondents was 2.44 years as a scholar in an academic scholarship program. Table 3
provides further details about the length of time as a scholar in an academic scholarship program
for all participants.
Scholars Interviewed
Five scholars were selected to be interviewed based on their availability and willingness
to participate in the interview after completing the survey. Two male and three female students
were selected. Table 4 provides further details about these scholars.
Coding of Data
I reviewed the responses of participants to ensure that they were first-generation low-
income Latino students attending a public 4-year university in Southern California and thus
eligible to participate in this study. Then, consistent with Creswell and Creswell’s (2018)
guidance on analysis of data in a convergent data collection design, I analyzed the qualitative
data by creating themes, then analyzed the quantitative data in terms of statistical results and
ended by doing a side-by-side comparison of both.
I analyzed the qualitative data by creating a priori codes based on Bourdieu’s social
capital theory (Häuberer, 2011) and Yosso’s critical race theory (2019), which were the
theoretical frameworks for this study. I recorded and transcribed all interviews via Zoom. I then
created inductive codes as I analyzed the data. I used first cycle coding to summarize segments
of data. Then, I used pattern coding to group data into categories, themes, or constructs. Lastly, I
created assertions to address research questions that were supported by evidence from interviews
and observations, consistent with Miles et al. (2014). I utilized analytic tools to interrogate the
data, such as the flip-flop technique and looking at the language used by respondents, as
suggested by Corbin and Strauss (2015), and used Qualtrics to determine descriptive statistics for
36

the responses. I used my experiences as a first-generation low-income student to help make
meaning of the data as well. However, I acknowledged and was cognizant of my personal biases
to ensure that these did not affect the data analysis (Miles et al., 2014).
Findings for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 was “What is the nature of the programming provided by academic
scholarship programs to first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year
universities in Southern California?” The 71 scholars surveyed answered questions on a 10-point
Likert scale that asked them about the type of programming offered by the academic scholarship
program. Five scholars were interviewed and were asked about the type of programming
available and required of them through the academic scholarship program. A review of the
literature demonstrates that first-generation low-income Latino students learn about the
differences in their experiences and preparation for college quickly after beginning college, and
this results in challenges with feeling like they do not belong (Holland & Farmer-Hinton, 2009).
The types of programs students were surveyed about were selected after a review of literature
detailing commonly used practices to increase social and financial capital. Table 5 details the
findings from the survey responses around the nature of programming offered by the academic
scholarship program.
Scholarships
Of the 71 students surveyed, 61 responded to the question on the 10-point Likert scale
about scholarships. Of these, 49 (80.33%) agreed that scholarships are provided by the academic
scholarship program. These findings are also consistent with Pharris-Ciurej et al. (2012), who
found that academic scholarship programs attempt to mitigate financial capital deficits through
the provision of scholarships and grants. For survey respondents, scholarships were most highly
37

agreed upon as something provided by academic scholarship programs. For respondents, 11
(strongly agree) was the mode, with 49 respondents, and the mean was 10.34. These findings are
also consistent with those of the qualitative data collected via the five interviews.
Longerbeam et al. (2004) found that Latino students are more likely to have concerns
about financial difficulties that negatively affect their ability to persist in college as compared
with other racial groups. Hence, scholarships can play a critical role in the persistence of first-
generation low-income Latino students. The findings of this study are consistent with this, as the
scholarships provided by academic scholarships were used to cover fees and tuition that would
otherwise present a barrier for student persistence. Scholar A said,
Because I received the financial support, I did not have to worry about money. My
friends worry about it. I did not really focus on it, and I had more time to focus on my
school, my grades, and my interactions on school campus.
Scholar E said that college fees were much higher than she anticipated, highlighting the lack of
knowledge that first-generation students have as the first in their families to seek higher
education:
The financial support is a good thing. It always helps to just know that there is a little
wiggle room for you—that you do not need to worry about all the fees that college brings
on you because there are a lot.
Scholar C, a female sophomore student who had been a scholar for 2 years, brought to light the
lack of financial capital many first-generation low-income students face and their inability to
turn to family for support, as research has shown:
38

I have a huge gap and I need to find a way to cover this by myself. The financial part of
the scholarship program mostly helped pay for tuition. It really helped me to put some
weight off my shoulders to get some help to pay for my tuition.
These findings are consistent with Pharris-Ciurej’s (2012) explanation about the types of
capital that academic scholarship programs provide including financial. In addition, they serve
These findings are consistent with Pharris-Ciurej’s (2012) explanation about the types of capital
that academic scholarship programs provide including financial. In addition, they are in line
with existing research on first-generation low-income students which details that they possess
less financial capital than continuing generation students and face concerns about how to cover
the costs of education.
Professional Development
Of the 71 students surveyed, 61 responded to the question on the 10-point Likert scale
about professional development. Of these, 41 (67.21%) agreed that professional development is
provided by the academic scholarship program. The mode was 11 (strongly agree) with 41
respondents selecting this answer and the mean was 11. Notably, professional development was
a major component aside from the financial support piece provided by academic scholarships,
according to the literature, however, in the current study only 67.21% indicated that this is
provided by the academic scholarship program. Astin (1984) highlighted that many first-
generation college students are affected by challenges in acclimating and persisting in college
due to difficulties in meeting academic demands and a sense of not belonging. Academic
scholarship programs aim to address this by providing the tools and skills necessary. Those
interviewed all shared examples of various professional development programs offered to them
39

and expressed feeling supported. Topics mentioned by scholars interviewed include time
management, study skills, and active learning skills, and how to make healthy meals on a budget.
The professional development offered by the academic scholarship program centered on
skill building and goal setting. All five scholars interviewed indicated that they were able to ask
for assistance with areas not covered by existing programming such as how to create a
curriculum vitae or a workshop on LinkedIn. Scholar E said she was “asked how I liked the
program. Is there anything I would change? How can the team support you further?” Scholar B, a
sophomore female who has been a scholar for 1 year, said, “I can always send them an email and
say I have this problem and need this; can you help me? They are more than happy to reach out
to help me.” These comments exemplify what all scholars echoed, that the academic scholarship
program provided professional development programming to them around topics program
administrators felt were important areas for scholars, but that scholars also had the ability to ask
for specific topics to be covered.
Skill Building
The findings reflected the research about first-generation low-income students that details
possessing limited knowledge about careers and not being able to turn to those closest to them
for support. Scholars said they gained knowledge they previously did not possess. Scholar C said
that prior to being part of the academic scholarship program, “I didn’t know what LinkedIn was
until I went to a workshop.”
Scholar A, a fourth-year senior male student, said that he was unfamiliar with how to
create a resume and a CV. The academic scholarship program assisted with facilitating the
information he needed: “We needed resume building, LinkedIn, and CV help. They couldn’t
provide a whole workshop on it, but they looked the information up for us and sent it.”
40

Scholar B said that while she had not attended the sessions around these topics, she knew
they offered workshops on “study skills, resumes, how to pitch yourself, time management, and
active learning skills.” Scholar C said that while she needed assistance with interview skills, for
her it was also challenging to speak publicly. They supported her through that, and she was able
to grow in this area. Scholar C said, “I struggle with interviews a lot because I didn’t like talking.
I was scared of talking in a way, but they helped me kind like to overcome that this year and I
got better with time.”
Scholars also said that they turned to the academic scholarship program for other types of
skill-building workshops not necessarily professionally related. Scholars said they requested
workshops on preparing healthy meals on a budget, navigating on-campus housing options, and
time management as a new college student. These were all provided for them as a result of the
request.
While the professional education was helpful to students and enabled them to acquire
new skills and devise professional goals, what was also evident from student responses was that
they felt they needed to alter who they were. From a critical race theory lens, this is essentially
perpetuating the social capital of a White dominant educational system. There was no mention of
programming that allowed students to recognize the skills they already possess, coined
community cultural wealth by Yosso (2005).
Three out of five scholars described learning how they needed to change their behavior to
be professional. This demonstrates that although it may not be implicitly stated or intended to
perpetuate the acquisition of the dominant forms of social capital, the academic scholarship is
doing so. Scholar B said, “How you speak to people means you get racialized or puts you in a
particular status. People need to know how to speak that script. They helped me see that.”
41

Scholar C said,

Through the professional development they helped me see all the ways in which I can
tweak my personality or the way I speak to be more appropriate to the situation. They
helped to learn to read people and how to behave according to the expectations of others.
Similarly, Scholar D said,

When I’m interacting with someone that I don’t know or someone important, they know
that I can pretty much speak the same language you know. Linguistically, but I mean like
modeling which gestures and word choice I use. I think that is one of the biggest things
that I, that they helped me with professionally—to get to know how to work my way
around the system and how to manage it.
Social Support
Scholars in the academic scholarship program were surveyed about whether the academic
scholarship program provided social support. A total of 61 scholars responded to this question on
the 10-point Likert scale. Of these, 37 (60.66%) indicated that the academic scholarship provided
them social support. For respondents, 11 (strongly agree) was the mode, with 37 (60.67%)
respondents, and the mean was 10.01. The findings indicate that this support came in the form of
emotional support and trust built between the scholars and the staff of the academic scholarship
program. All five scholars mentioned that they received social support through the academic
scholarship program. Scholar A said that for him, “it wasn’t just about the grant, the scholarship
that they offered; it was more. Just the community that you were able to talk to. And trust me, I
talked to them whenever I had problems.” During interviews, scholars expressed that they trusted
academic scholarship staff and felt comfortable asking questions about things that, as first-
generation college students, they were unfamiliar with. Scholar B said,
42

To also have the advisor support like I do with them. They’re always there for whatever I
need them. So, it wouldn’t be awkward to go, “Hey, can I ask you this?” You would
know that they’re always there for you.
Scholars also discussed feeling that academic scholarship staff cared about helping students be
successful. They also shared that some academic scholarship staff were first-generation college
students themselves and understood the challenges they were facing. Scholar D said, “People
working in this program took the time to know me personally, to have that relationship with me,
to know that if I need anything, they’ll be there for me.” Scholar E also referenced the respect
that is built between scholars and staff at the academic scholarship program: “That’s one of the
nice things that they did everyone—they talk to us at the same level. As if we were their friends,
but in their professional setting.” The social support scholars shared they received from academic
scholarship staff centered on trust and a clear understanding that there was a desire on the part of
the staff to help.
Scholars expressed being able to turn to the academic scholarship staff for support. They
detailed receiving necessary support in a respectful manner. They also discussed academic
support as something else that they could turn to the academic scholarship program and its staff
for.
Academic Resources
To better understand what is provided by the academic scholarship program, the
researcher surveyed scholars about the provision of academic resources. A total of 59 scholars
responded to this question on a 10-point Likert scale. For respondents, 11 (strongly agree) was
the mode, with 44 (74.58%) respondents, and the mean was 10.37. A review of literature on first-
generation students indicates that they tend to be less prepared academically than continuing-
43

generation students (Adelman, 1999). The findings of this study indicate that the academic
resources that students are able to access through the academic scholarship program help with
their academic skills.
Scholar D shared the following in reference to the types of academic resources he could
access: “Knowing how to understand text, especially if you go to a high-level research institution
such as UCLA. Before, I didn’t quite understand how to read research papers.” Scholar A
indicated he benefited from “information on intensive academics and knowing how to read
efficiently.” What was not mentioned by any scholar during the interviews was a referral for
them to identify and utilize academic skill-building resources within their university as had been
done about other areas. These can include tutoring or writing centers and can support the
integration of students into their respective campuses.
Another area, mentioned by four out of five scholars, was the encouragement they
received to participate in what Pascarella et al. (2004) identified as things first-generation
students do not often participate in, including non-course or class time–related interactions with
professors. Ward et al. (2012) called these activities “high impact” and found that they allow for
better integration in college and contribute to student persistence and success (p. 49). Interacting
with professors outside of class was one of these activities. Scholar C said,
They really did encourage me to talk to my professors and it really did help. I even talked
to him today about my papers that I’m writing. I now know it’s important to talk to
professors about helping with classes or notes.
Scholar E, a fifth-year senior female student who has been a scholar in the academic scholarship
program for 4 years agreed and said,
44

They encourage me to just get to know them more on a personal level, like they know
that they want students to come to you and ask them for more than just like help on their
class, like they’re there for you to support you.
Another aspect mentioned by one of the interviewees was discussing study abroad
opportunities and an encouragement to research this further at their university. Scholar A said,
I told her I had not, but that I pass through their office all the time when I was on campus.
I had never really thought about it because I’m an introvert, so she advised me to go and
to talk and once I’m back on campus but to check out if they have a website online. I did
and saw that they have different opportunities, and you can even filter it to have like
standards that you would prefer.
Scholars’ comments demonstrate that their participation in such activities was often at the behest
of academic scholarship programming and staff. The provision of academic resources is critical
to the persistence of first-generation low-income students given that they have been found to be
less prepared academically (Chen & Carroll, 2005). In addition, they are unaware of the
importance of participating in high impact activities such as speaking to professors outside of
class (Ward et al., 2012) and participating in the academic scholarship professional development
programming allowed to gain this knowledge and implement it. Scholars also shared that they
had an opportunity to connect with other first-generation students and find comfort that there
were others persisting while facing the same barriers.
Opportunities to Meet Other First-Generation Students
When asked about whether the academic scholarship program provided opportunities to
meet other first-generation students, 60 scholars responded to this question on a 10-point Likert
scale. For respondents, 11 (strongly agree) was the mode, with 47 (78.33%) respondents, and the
45

mean was 10.21. In the interviews, four out of five scholars indicated that the academic
scholarship program facilitated their meeting other first-generation students.
Scholars said that they were able to meet other first-generation students at the orientation
provided to new scholars and during the professional development activities. This was found to
be valuable because it helped them realize that there were others striving to complete their
education as first-generation college students as well. Scholar A indicated that for him, “the best
thing that I will say is seeing other people from my background, with my same goal.” Scholar B
said that meeting other first-generation college students helped alleviate the shame she felt
around being a first-generation student and the challenges faced as a result:
Definitely being around other students because being around other first-generation
students makes you feel more comfortable. I thought I was like the first, the only student,
going through this. I’m the middle child and my older brother didn’t go to college and I
was kind of feeling embarrassed about that and unprepared. But like, knowing that other
students also have family struggles. To be able to say, hey, I am also a first-generation
student and struggle to pay for college makes me more at ease because I’m not the only
one.
Scholars also discussed finding comfort in meeting others who were facing similar challenges as
first-generation college students but were persisting. Scholar D shared similar sentiments:
Seeing that there’s other people like me makes me feel more comfortable just being in
that environment where like we all had a common goal. It was pretty good and a nice
experience to keep pushing forward against the odds and, you know, since I felt really
good it helped me so much throughout.
46

The findings of this study are in line with the literature on academic scholarship programs. The
survey and interviews indicated that the professional development programming offered focused
on skill building and goal setting. From the interviews, one can glean that scholars found such
programming helpful and that this was not something available to them within their families or
networks as first-generation college students.
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 was “How do first-generation low-income Latino students attending
public 4-year universities in Southern California utilize the programming offered by academic
scholarship programs?” This study examined how first-generation low-income students utilized
the programming available to them. The survey questions in this area focused on student
experiences while in college, factors that contribute to sense of belonging, and persistence. Table
6 details the mean and mode for each of these questions.
Transitioning to the University
When surveyed about whether participating in the academic scholarship allowed for
students to transition to the university more easily, 62 students responded to this question. While
the mode was 11, with 25 (40.32%) scholars selecting this answer, the mean was lower at 8.91.
During the interviews, students said that because the academic scholarship program was not
connected to their university, it did not provide much in the way of school spirit or assistance in
integrating into the student body at their respective schools. Scholar B said,
That’s one of the things that I think the program doesn’t really embrace. It’s the school
spirit because you know there’s no office at my school. I have another program called
AAP, which is similar because you get a scholarship and support. It is directly connected
at my school, so I think it helps more with getting acclimated to campus.
47

However, Scholar C said that the program did facilitate integration into the university:
My first year in college, I had no idea what’s going on right. So, I needed, like, a program
that like, what, how we can transition into it. They helped me transition into school by
always offering someone to talk to. A lot of colleges have advisors, but they are always
busy with other students so they kind of, kind of like cut you off really quick.
Scholar D said, “I guess partly they helped me feel more like a college student. Definitely being
around other students because being around other first-generation students makes you feel more
comfortable.”
Students were also asked if the academic scholarship program assisted in their learning of
the expectations and demands of being a college student. All five scholars surveyed indicated
that this was the case, and the survey respondents also agreed. Sixty-two students responded to
this question on the survey, with the mean response being 9.6. The mode was 11, with 27
(43.55%) scholars selecting this answer. Scholar C confirmed that this was the case for her
transition into becoming a college student:
Even like my freshman year, I had a struggle because I wasn’t used to like being
independent and living on my own. I wanted to learn about like new skills, how to adapt
to like the new life, and they helped me with that.
Scholar D, a male sophomore student who has been a part of the academic scholarship program
for 2 years, agreed that the academic scholarship assisted him in learning about the demands of
being a college student and how to manage them:
They taught me how to make connections, how to balance your school life. I can always
send them an email and say, hey, I’m having this problem and how can you help me, and
48

they’re more than happy to reach out to me like, help me out. I learned how to survive on
our own and stuff.
In the interviews, scholars shared that the program assisted them in acclimating to their
college by being available to them to answer any questions and expose them to other first-
generation college students. They also learned about the expectations and demands of being a
college student. Given that the academic scholarship program is not connected to a particular
university, there was nothing related to pride about one’s school offered.
Staying in School
Scholars in the academic scholarship program shared that it did contribute to their staying
in school by improving their self-confidence, being motivated to persist, and validating their
experiences as first-generation low-income students. Of the 71 students who responded to the
survey, 60 answered this question. The mean was 9.33 and the mode was 11, with 32 (53.33%)
respondents selecting this answer. Three scholars discussed the improved self-confidence that
resulted because of the skills they acquired in the academic scholarship program and other
programming offered. Scholar B said, “I definitely get the skills and motivation from them
because I feel more competent in completing them.” Scholar D agreed: “I just get motivation to
do more. To do more than I am capable of because I have more experience. I feel like I can take
on more skills. So, it just motivates me to keep on going.”
This motivation and improved self-confidence are critical to these students, as all five
scholars expressed feelings of not belonging or microaggressions at their university that could
affect their persistence. Scholar A said, “I felt like a lot of my teachers wouldn’t even look me in
the eyes, and in many cases, they carry the stereotypes with them. Then they realize, ‘Oh, I
49

thought you were this way. No, it’s not like that.’” Scholar D described feeling a sense of not
belonging and of not being able to meet the demands of college:
There is more that I felt like I didn’t belong than I did belong. I can really see that that
school was not made for people like me. Now I got the hang of it, but the first couple
years I struggled a lot because no matter how much I studied, no matter how much effort
I put into my work, I wouldn’t meet the requirements. You know, I wouldn’t get a high-
performing grade as those people.
Scholars also shared that as a result of their participation in the academic scholarship
program, their experiences as first-generation low-income students were validated. Their
concerns, questions, and challenges were understood. Scholar B said,
I’m not alone in the struggle of going through higher education. I know that they’re there
with me and they are also struggling and that they are also trying their best.
Scholar D said that his challenges and experiences were validated. He commented, “It has helped
me so much throughout. The best thing that I will say is seeing other people from my
background, with my same goal.” Scholar E felt understood:
I think that’s one of the most important things—having people understand what you’re
going through. And it shouldn’t be like that, you know, but they might not have the
support of the parents, but they have a program to help. They put themselves into our
shoes to know what’s going on.
Another component mentioned by all five scholars was the ability to meet other first-
generation college students as a result of being in the academic scholarship program. However,
the students they met were others who were part of the academic scholarship program and not at
their university. This area is similar to that of school spirit; because the academic scholarship
50

program is not affiliated with or located at a university, the on-campus ability to meet other first-
generation students was not strongly affected by it. Of the 60 students who responded to the
survey question about the scholarships’ impact on their ability to develop relationships with
other first-generation college students at their university, 26 (43.33%) selected 11 (strongly
agree), making this the mode. The mean, however, was 8.76, which corroborated the interview
findings; while the academic scholarship program enabled the development of relationships with
other first-generation college students, these were not students at the same university.
Nonetheless, these relationships were beneficial to students and enabled them to see that they
were not alone in the challenges and experiences they faced as first-generation college students.
This helped them validate their own experiences and find renewed strength to persevere, as
detailed in Question 1.
During the interviews, the participants shared that the support provided by the academic
scholarship program allowed them to improve their self-confidence, gave them the motivation to
persist, and validated their experiences as first-generation students.
Maintaining Full-Time Student Status
When interviewed and surveyed about the impact the academic scholarship had on their
ability to remain a full-time student, scholars indicated that the academic scholarship enabled
them to attend full time and focus on being a student. Sixty scholars answered these questions.
The mode was 11 (strongly agree), with 37 (61.67%) selecting this answer. The mean was 9.60.
Scholars indicated that the scholarship enabled them to focus on school and not have to
seek employment or work many hours in order to cover costs of their education. Scholar A said,
“I did not have to work as many hours at some point, yes, I did have to have two jobs and, you
51

know, go to school.” Scholar D also indicated that not having to worry about finances allowed
him to focus on school:
I know most of my friends are worried about money. However, because of the financial
support I didn’t really have to focus on it, and I had more time to focus on my school and
my grades and more of my interaction on the school campus.
These scholar accounts were further corroborated by the responses to the question that asked
whether being part of the academic scholarship program resulted in their not worrying about
finances to cover the costs of their education. Sixty-one scholars responded to this question. The
mode was 11 (strongly agree), with 27 (44.26%) selecting this answer. The mean was 9.13.
The scholar interviews and the responses to the survey questions indicate that the
financial support offered by the academic scholarship allowed for students to remain in school
full time because they could focus on academics and being a student. It allowed them the time
and ability to focus on being a student. Mehta et al. (2011) found that first-generation students
were more likely to work 20 or more hours per week and rely on grants and loans to pay for
tuition than continuing-generation students. This is consistent with what the scholars interviewed
shared. Balancing work responsibilities distracts from academics and creates an additional
barrier for students, one that was removed by the academic scholarship program.
Career Exploration
While the academic scholarship program’s workshops support the development of the
dominant culture’s forms of social capital, they also provide students with institutional agents to
assist them as they negotiate their identities between the values and beliefs they hold as part of
their culture and what is being asked of them. These institutional agents also assist with career
exploration.
52

Scholars were surveyed about the impact the academic scholarship program has had on
their ability to develop relationships with potential mentors. Of the 71 students who responded to
the survey, 62 responded to this question, with the mean being 8.9. The mode was 11 (strongly
agree), with 29 (46.77%) respondents selecting this answer. In the interviews, the staff of the
academic scholarship program were described repeatedly as those who could be turned to for
guidance. These individuals serve as institutional agents, whom Stanton-Salazar and Dornbusch
(1995) defined as individuals who can share information about campus resources. Institutional
agents have been found to positively influence academic outcomes. While the individuals in the
academic scholarship programs are not affiliated with a particular university, they provide
resources, information, and guidance to scholars. They served as mentors for scholars. Scholar E
said that she felt like
they really tried to support me and whatever I have called them and am like, hey, I want
to do this, they always say okay, let’s make it happen. My advisors are there for me in the
same way my mom too and my sister would be.
Scholar D described the staff from the academic scholarship program as mentors:
They have this system where they assign you mentors based on our area of study, and
that was really helpful. I just like I got really close to my mentor. We liked to talk about
things. She would look through my records and see that I had not done this, so they kind
of like check in with you throughout the year to make sure that you are completing their
requirements.
Scholars also discussed being introduced to workshop facilitators and other alumni of the
academic scholarship program, who served to inform and inspire them. Scholar B mentioned
that, for her, meeting alumni whom she considers successful was inspirational:
53

It made me very excited to be a part of the program because I saw myself as being one of
them later on. Seeing them inspired me to become an alumnus, become successful and
talking at one of those seminars and share with other first-generation or low-income
families that, you know, if I was able to do it, then you can do so.
Scholars repeatedly indicated that they found mentorship through the program. This
mentorship allowed them to discuss their progress academically and identify individuals who
could serve as their role models. The academic scholarship staff were seen as mentors and
assisted with goal setting.
All five scholars interviewed referenced the value they found in being asked what their
goals were and creating a plan to achieve them. For many first-generation college students,
friends and family are unable to assist in this area. Scholar A said, “The biggest thing that
they’ve helped is with listening about my goals and just providing input about how I could reach
them.” Scholar C shared similar feelings:
I realized during a 3-year plan activity that there were things I wanted to do, but I had
never thought about it. I had never sat down to write about them. So, when I sat down, I
was like, wow, I didn’t know I wanted to do that!
Scholar E said that as she discussed goals and aspirations, she felt supported in achieving them.
During meetings with advisors from the academic scholarship program, they discussed
how are we going to get there and what they need to do to help me get there? What am I
going to do to get there? Basically, we are just figuring out together and planning how
my goals and aspirations are going to come true through this program.
The findings from the interviews were also consistent with the survey question responses
related to identifying future career goals. Sixty of the 71 students responded to this question on
54

the survey. The mean was 9.48 and the mode was 11 (strongly agree), with 29 (48.33%) of
respondents selecting this answer. Scholars were able to identify future career goals. After
completing the goal-setting workshop and a conversation with her mentor, Scholar C said,
I guess the biggest thing that they’ve helped is with listening about my goals and just
providing them for the input of how I could reach my goal. I decided to just go with
broadcasting, because it’s something that I aspired to like to do for the rest of my life. My
goal is to gradually and be able to like to have an internship at a radio station and learn
from them. I didn’t know I wanted to do this until I got to doing this activity.
Scholars were able to learn about various careers and chart their professional path. They were
able to look past the challenges they were currently experiencing as first-generation low-income
students such as being less prepared academically and devise professional goals. Scholar D said,
I started wanting to be a doctor. Then I also wanted to be a teacher. Then I also wanted to
be a researcher, and now I want to be a politician. I do want to go to medical school still.
So, the way it’s going to work out is I’m going to finish undergrad. Then, I’m going to
teach for a couple years and in the meantime, finish any medical school requirements.
Then I will apply to medical school. I want to work in health policy, so I guess I will be a
politician too. I want to help people and give back.
Scholars utilize the programming offered by the academic scholarship program to
transition to their university, to remain a full-time student as a result of the scholarship
assistance, and in meeting with mentors and institutional agents to assist with goal setting and
career exploration.
55

Findings for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 was “What do first-generation low-income Latino students attending
public 4-year universities in Southern California who participate in academic scholarship
programs perceive the value of the program to be?” I surveyed scholars on what they were
looking to obtain from the program in order to understand their motivation for becoming a
scholar. Table 7 details their responses.
While the mode for all responses was 11 (strongly agree), financial support and academic
resources had the highest mean and hence were what students sought most to obtain from the
academic scholarship program. The ability to meet other students, with a mean of 8.33, was not
as significant for students. This provides an overview of what motivated students to seek to
become a part of an academic scholarship program. While students perceived that the academic
scholarship program provided them value in all the areas surveyed, they indicated that they
received the most significant value in learning about the expectations and demands of being a
college student, remaining in school full time, and identifying future career goals (see Table 7).
In terms of learning about the expectations and demands of being a college student,
students shared during interviews that they felt unable to perform academically at different times,
had challenges transitioning to managing their time, and were unfamiliar with the types of
experiences they needed to seek out. Scholars also said that the academic scholarship program
provided them with the information to learn about these areas and programming to acquire new
skills in these areas. Scholars indicated programming on study skills, time management, and
encouragement to connect with professors and university organizations was provided. Research
on first-generation college students has shown that they are often unaware of the importance of
participating in activities outside of class or can be less prepared academically than continuing-
56

generation students. While universities providing culturally relevant pedagogy would best serve
students, the programming offered by the academic scholarship program supports the persistence
of students in its absence. Scholar D said that the academic scholarship program has allowed her
to have a growth mindset:
I know I will get there eventually, and this helped me to stay in school and get to the
point that I am right now where like I can get straight A’s in a quarter, if I want to, but I
still have to put in the work. I had to be a college student first, though. They had
programs that helped me learn the things I needed to know.
The findings indicate that the scholarship assistance contributes to students staying in
school full time. It covers the costs of educational expenses, relieving stress, anxiety, and the
need to work. Students described an ability to focus on school and not on how they were going to
make ends meet. This ability to focus on school is particularly valuable to first-generation low-
income students, who have been found to be less academically prepared than continuing-
generation students (Adelman, 1999). The students interviewed shared that they faced challenges
in meeting the academic demands of college, despite studying long hours, and were unfamiliar
with how to read research papers. The additional time they gained from the scholarship was
devoted to studying and required for their academic success or simply to rest. Scholar A said that
he had had to work two jobs prior to obtaining the scholarship. He expressed gratitude and a
sense of relief: “You know, it was just having a little bit extra time just to study or at least to
sleep was pretty nice.”
The third area where students said they felt the most value from the academic scholarship
program was in identifying future career goals. All scholars interviewed indicated that the
academic scholarship program facilitated the process of goal setting for them. For two of the
57

scholars, this was the first time they had engaged in a career-planning activity. The academic
scholarship staff serve as mentors and institutional agents for students and also bring other
potential mentors in to teach workshops for scholars. These interactions with professionals, who
were also first-generation low-income college students, provide counternarratives for scholars
who have at times faced discrimination. They serve to inspire and motivate. They help to ease
feelings of not belonging, such as those described by Scholar A:
I didn’t feel comfortable going to a library because, you know, I felt intimidated by
looking at all these people studying. I’m like, more just wasting my time by trying really
hard and doing this. I could just not do anything to perform as well as others.
Scholar E also shared feelings of not belonging:
My first couple years was really hard because almost every single day I would feel like I
didn’t belong. Even though I was surrounded by brown people too, you know, it was still
that sense of you don’t belong here.
The role models and institutional agents were critical in students overcoming these feelings.
Seeing individuals who came from similar backgrounds and had been able to persevere and
become successful allowed them to push forward. Scholar C said, “They basically show you,
hey, here is what you can become if you stay with us.” The academic scholarship program helps
students acclimate to college, provides financial support and programming to acquire skills
needed for their persistence, and prepares them with career exploration.
Findings for Research Question 4
Research Question 4 was “How do academic scholarship programs evaluate success for
first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year universities in Southern
California from the student perspective?” Students were surveyed and interviewed about how
58

their success was evaluated in the academic scholarship program from their perception. They
were asked about student status, grade point average, and requirements for participating in
academic and professional development activities. Table 8 details the findings and shows that
while 11 (strongly agree) was the most common response for each question, there were slight
variances in the means. Overall, scholars expressed that in order for them to be in good standing
in the academic scholarship program, they needed to maintain full-time student status and a
minimum grade point average. They were also required to participate in academic and
professional development workshops and utilize the career services at their university.
However, the students who agreed to be interviewed provided a better picture of their
understanding of what success means in the program. It became apparent that they were unclear
about what is considered success for them as scholars. When asked about grade point average,
there was not consensus on their requirements. Scholar A said, “I think I have to have a 2.5 GPA,
maybe it’s a 3.0. I am not really sure.” Students also were unclear about the rationale of the
requirements for the program and felt that they at times were challenging to complete. They did
not view them as complementary and in support of their academic and professional success but
rather as a requirement that needed to be met. Scholar B said,
The programming that they’re providing does help. But if they would just, I guess less
restraint on it because we have to do five sessions. It’s just like, you know, on the back of
your mind, because you have to work through college. And it’s just like college takes up
most of your time. So, by the time you’re ending the year, it’s like, oh my God. I forgot
about this. You have to stress about that. It doesn’t really take a lot of time, but it would
just be better if they could not have as many sessions or they could just like outline what
was required more.
59

Scholars did not seem to connect the academic scholarship requirement as something they could
use during the year to address knowledge gaps. Scholar D shared similar sentiments to Scholar
B:
I have classes September to December, January to March, March to June. I’m just like,
oh my God, I have class all this time, I don’t really have time to do this, but I have to
make the time to participate.
There is a disconnect between the requirements and their intended purpose. Scholars perceived
the requirements as things they needed to participate in on top of balancing their academic life
and not as part of it. However, they clearly articulated the value they derived from participating
in such programming, including the acquisition of skills, identifying role models, and improved
self-confidence.
Conclusion
The findings indicate that the academic scholarship program contributes to the
persistence of first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year institutions in
Southern California. It does so by helping them understand the demands and expectations of a
college student, acquiring skills such as time management to support their persistence,
connecting them to mentors and institutional agents so they can access resources, and career goal
setting. I also surveyed scholars about what the academic scholarship program asks them. Table
9 summarizes their responses.
The survey findings on the information that the academic scholarship solicits from
scholars coincide with what scholars shared during interviews. In essence, the academic
scholarship program provides tailored support to first-generation low-income students. While the
mode was 11 for all questions, the areas with the highest means were those where students can
60

tailor the support they receive: topics scholars are interested in learning about, the support they
personally need, and their motivation for pursuing higher education.
Research has shown that the needs of first-generation low-income students are different
from those of continuing-generation students, which is why such support is of value. One of this
study’s findings previously discussed was the validation of the scholars’ experiences as first-
generation low-income college students. This coupled with individualized support, results in
improved self-confidence, the acquisition of necessary skills, and hence improved persistence.
This is further supported by the provision of financial support via the scholarship, which enables
students to focus on school and not on working or on how they will cover the costs of higher
education.
Academic scholarship programs support the acquisition of the dominant forms of social
capital; they will continue to play a critical role in this area until progress is made in the
educational system and further attention is given to academic programs that support students
once they are admitted into college, consistent with Eaton (1995). No mention was made of the
academic scholarship program empowering students to advocate for their needs at their
universities. Dowd et al. (2012) pointed to the importance of this and the need for a culture of
inquiry for equity.
Chapter Five includes a discussion of the findings, further conclusions, and implications
for future research.

61

Chapter Five: Conclusions and Implications
First-generation low-income Latino students continue to face challenges in pursuing and
persisting in higher education. Research on this population has shown that they are less likely to
enroll in institutions of higher education (Toutkoushian et al., 2015). They are also less prepared
than their continuing-generation counterparts and hence may need to take remedial courses, may
not perform well academically, and may repeat classes (Chen & Carroll, 2005). They are more
likely to face financial difficulties in paying for college. Additionally, according to Covarrubias
et al. (2018), Latino students are at a disadvantage when the beliefs and values instilled at home
do not match with independent norms; they called this cultural mismatch. Students experiencing
cultural mismatch tend to struggle academically as a result.
Existing literature on first-generation students also has shown that they persist less and
complete college at a lower rate compared with continuing-generation students (Ishitani, 2003).
In fact, according to the U.S. Department of Education (2017), fewer first-generation college
students were on track toward earning a degree after 3 years compared with their continuing-
generation peers. The graduation rates of Latinos would need to triple to be on par with those of
non-Latino Whites (Gonzalez, 2011). This study adds to the body of literature on first-generation
low-income Latino students and further explores the experiences of first-generation low-income
Latino students pursuing higher education.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of academic scholarship programs
on the persistence of first-generation low-income Latino students at public 4-year universities in
Southern California. More specifically, this study sought to determine how academic scholarship
62

programs contribute to the development of financial and social capital and the persistence of
first-generation Latino students.
Research Questions
The research questions that guided this study were the following:
1. What is the nature of the programming provided by academic scholarship programs to
first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year universities in
Southern California?
2. How do first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year
universities in Southern California utilize the programming offered by academic
scholarship programs?
3. What do first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year
universities in Southern California who participate in academic scholarship programs
perceive the value of the program to be?
4. How do academic scholarship programs evaluate success for first-generation low-
income Latino students attending public 4-year universities in Southern California
from the student perspective?
Methodology
I used a convergent mixed method design for this study. I collected the quantitative data
using a survey sent to 139 first-generation low-income Latino students attending a public 4-year
university in Southern California who were scholars in an academic scholarship program. A total
of 71 surveys were completed. I collected the qualitative data via interviews with five of the
respondents to the survey who agreed to be interviewed. I used a standardized open-ended
63

interview approach, with a protocol consisting of 10 questions. I analyzed and triangulated all
data with existing research to support the findings.
Results and Findings
The findings of this study were devised based on the survey and interview data collected
and analyzed. This section will connect the findings back to the literature on Latino first-
generation low-income students.
Discussion of Research Question 1 Results
Research Question 1 was “What is the nature of the programming provided by academic
scholarship programs to first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year
universities in Southern California?” The themes that emerged around the nature of the
programming provided by the academic scholarship program were in alignment with existing
research on academic scholarship programs. Pharris-Ciurej et al. (2012) found that academic
scholarship programs
attempt to mitigate the financial, human, social, or cultural capital deficits in isolation or
in combination. The most widespread programs have addressed financial capital deficits
through the provision of scholarships, grants, and loans. There are also programs
designed to compensate for the lack of human, social, and cultural capital resources by
using teachers, counselors, and mentors to encourage students’ educational ambitions, to
improve study skills, and to provide knowledge about the college application process. (p.
921)
Themes identified demonstrated that programming focused on professional development,
scholarships, social support, academic resources, and connecting students to others who are also
64

first-generation college students. These activities helped to validate scholars’ experiences as
first-generation college students.
While academic scholarship programs are designed to help students be academically and
professionally successful, starting from a deficit cognitive framework that focuses on the
stereotypical characteristics of the scholars to devise programming that is designed to fix the
student is problematic (Bensimon, 2005). Bensimon called this single loop learning:
“compensatory strategies as the treatment for problems that are perceived as dysfunctions”
(2005, p. 104). In the case of this academic scholarship program, the workshops are designed to
facilitate skill building and goal setting for students, but they place the onus entirely on students
to change or adapt so they can be effective in the existing academic and professional world.
Utilizing an equity cognitive frame would shift some of the responsibility to institutions for the
educational outcomes of students (Bensimon, 2005). Double loop learning, as Bauman (2002)
has mentioned, would focus on the root causes of the problem and aim to change attitudes and
beliefs that bring about more enduring results. This would mean advocacy so that 4-year
institutions, in this case, provide such services and address the attitudes and beliefs that result in
students feeling like they are the ones who need to change and do not recognize the values and
strengths that they possess. This would also mean disaggregating student outcomes data by
ethnicity to determine if existing structures are effective in supporting minoritized students to
succeed.
Students continue to face financial difficulties to cover costs of their education. As Mehta
et al. (2011) indicated, they are forced to work while in college and rely on scholarships to cover
tuition. Consistent with Stanton-Salazar (1997), scholars expressed a lack of familial and
nonfamilial social capital. The academic scholarship program allowed scholars to gain
65

knowledge about the demands and expectations of college, and staff served as mentors and
institutional agents, which resulted in improved self-confidence. In addition, the scholarship
allowed them to focus on studies and seeking out opportunities that supported their sense of
belonging and hence persistence, such as speaking to professors outside of class time.
Discussion of Research Question 2 Results
Research Question 2 was “How do first-generation low-income Latino students attending
public 4-year universities in Southern California utilize the programming offered by academic
scholarship programs?” The primary ways the students utilized the programming offered were to
transition to their university, to remain a full-time student as a result of the scholarship
assistance, and to meet with mentors and institutional agents to assist with goal setting and career
exploration.
Qualitative and quantitative findings indicated that the academic scholarship program
facilitated scholars’ transition to their university by academic scholarship staff serving as
institutional agents and mentors. The role academic scholarship staff play is consistent with how
Stanton-Salazar and Dornbusch (1995) defined institutional agents: These individuals share
information and resources, which has been found to positively influence academic outcomes.
Scholars were able to access information about expectations and housing and meet other
potential mentors and first-generation college students. They also learned about the expectations
and demands of being a college student and of participating in “high impact” activities that
allow for better integration in college and contribute to student persistence and success (Ward et
al., 2012, p. 49), such as speaking to professors, exploring study abroad opportunities, and
meeting with potential mentors.
66

In terms of remaining full-time students, scholars utilized and benefited from the
scholarship portion of the academic scholarship program to cover costs of their education. In
place of working, they were able to devote more time to their studies and participate in campus
opportunities. According to the literature on first-generation students, such as Horn and Nuñez
(2000), half of first-generation college students come from low-income families. In this study, all
students came from low-income backgrounds, where parents are unable to assist financially.
Scholars in this study also indicated that cost is a major obstacle for them in pursuing higher
education (St. John, 2003). The scholarship provided financial and emotional relief. The ability
to cover educational expenses allowed them to concentrate on being a student and not on how to
make ends meet.
Discussion of Research Question 3 Results
Research Question 3 was “What do first-generation low-income Latino students attending
public 4-year universities in Southern California who participate in academic scholarship
programs perceive the value of the program to be?” The major themes identified in terms of the
value first-generation low-income Latino students perceive the academic scholarship program to
have were learning about the expectations and demands of being a college student, remaining in
school full time, and identifying future career goals. Consistent with Chen and Carroll (2005),
scholars expressed feeling unprepared to perform academically, manage their time effectively,
and identify the types of experiences they needed to seek. In essence, the academic scholarship
program established a culture where students felt heard and supported, the lack of which could
affect their sense of belonging and put them at risk of dropping out of college (Schlossberg,
1989). The scholarship support allowed scholars to focus on school full time and overcome the
additional challenges they faced as first-generation low-income students.
67

The final theme that emerged was the critical role the academic scholarship program
played in assisting students in exploring and identifying career goals. For many, this was the first
time they had engaged in an activity to plan out the next 3 to 5 years. Academic scholarship staff
served as mentors and institutional agents for students to help in these activities and support
them in their progress toward their goals. In addition, academic scholarship alumni facilitated
workshops and served as role models for students. These individuals inspired students and
provided counternarratives for scholars who had at times faced discrimination at their
institutions. These mentors helped ease the feelings of not belonging at their university and
encouraged the scholars to believe that they too could persist.
Discussion of Research Question 4 Results
Research Question 4 was “How do academic scholarship programs evaluate success for
first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year universities in Southern
California from the student perspective?” The major theme that emerged in how students
perceived the academic scholarship evaluated their success was the disconnect between the
rationale behind the program requirements and how students viewed them. Scholars were unable
to verbalize clearly what the expectations of them were and referred to them as additional
responsibilities and not as something complementary to their academic and professional
development. This is consistent with first-generation low-income Latino students not possessing
the knowledge to understand these activities as complementary to their development and points
to what Berry et al. (1998) called acculturation, as students are undergoing a bargaining between
their personal attitudes and behaviors that conform to the dominant culture. It points to the need
for academic scholarship staff to clearly articulate what success in the program means for
students and the rationale behind each of the requirements. This would require the academic
68

scholarship program to assess how and why such interventions are necessary and provide an
opportunity for program improvement if they are found to be outdated or delivered in a different
format.
Implications of This Study
The goal of this study was to examine the impact of academic scholarship programs in
the persistence of first-generation low-income Latino students. The researcher sought to analyze
how Bourdieu’s social capital theory (Häuberer, 2011) was used to frame the types of
knowledge students were provided access to via the professional development programming.
The study revealed that Bourdieu’s definition of social capital which frames those who possess
less resources, access to relationships and knowledge, or a strong social network as “culturally
poor” (Yosso, 2005, p. 76) was utilized. Individuals are measured against what is considered the
norm without regard to other forms of capital they possess. Yosso’s critical race theory (2005)
challenges these notions and highlights the other forms of wealth that Latino students and bring
with them to college. Yosso (2005) points to “an array of knowledge, skills, abilities, and
contacts possessed and utilized” (p. 77) by communities of color. This study revealed that
academic scholarship programs do not help students recognize the wealth they possess and take
a deficit perspective instead. Utilizing Yosso’s critical race theory (2005), academic
scholarship programs can help students recognize the capital they possess in the following
ways:
1. Aspirational capital can be highlighted during conversations about career planning.
This is an opportune situation to highlight students’ ability to devise goals despite any
barriers they face.
69

2. Linguistic capital can be celebrated by highlighting student’s ability to speak two or
more languages or ability to recount oral histories.
3. Familial capital can be highlighted as an asset to students by helping them understand
that through a broader cultural definition of family, they have developed an ease for
relationship building.
4. Social capital possessed by first-generation low-income students comes from the
extended family and network from whom they turn to and access resources and
information. While they cannot provide information about the expectations of college
students due to their unfamiliarity with the educational system in the United States,
they can provide other knowledge.
5. Navigational capital refers to “skills of maneuvering through social institutions”
(Yosso, 2005, p. 80). Academic scholarship can provide exercises to help students
realize their academic success and achievements despite the challenges they face as
first-generation low-income students.
6. Resistant capital is defined as “those knowledges and skills fostered through
oppositional behavior that challenges inequality” by Yosso (2005, p. 80). Academic
scholar programs can highlight scholars’ ability to utilize this form of capital as they
navigate experiences that lead to question their identity when they are measured
against dominant forms of capital. A scholars’ ability to challenge this is a form of
resistant capital.
The study demonstrated an opportunity for academic scholarship programs to develop
programming to help students understand the forms of capital they do possess, versus just
70

focusing on the social capital they do not. In their current form, this is absent from the academic
scholarship program professional development offerings.
This study contributes to the body of literature on first-generation low-income Latino
students and examines the extent to which academic scholarship programs affect their
persistence. The findings were consistent with the existing literature and helped identify
implications for practice. The study confirmed that academic scholarship programs can support
the persistence of first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year
universities in Southern California. The study highlighted that first-generation low-income
Latino students possess less social and financial capital than continuing-generation students do.
It also demonstrated that such social and financial capital could be supplemented through the
academic scholarship program. Lastly, it indicated that, while the academic scholarship program
does emphasize the acquisition of the dominant forms of social capital that can result in
experiences that challenge existing beliefs or cultural mismatch, it plays an important role in
supporting a sense of belonging, learning new skills, and career planning. Until more culturally
relevant pedagogy is offered at universities, academic scholarship programs assist with students
being able to navigate the educational system. While each scholar’s interests were different,
they all expressed sentiments of not belonging, not knowing about the academic demands and
expectations of college students and feeling supported by the program to overcome these
challenges.
This study also adds to the limited body of research on academic scholarship programs
and their various components. This study helped to show that components offered by the
academic scholarship program include financial support, educational support, and professional
71

development. It points to the need for more work in this area to explore how, when provided in
combination, various strategies work together to support student persistence.
Recommendations for Future Research
In this study, the researcher surveyed 71 scholars in an academic scholarship program
and interviewed five. The findings contribute to the body of knowledge concerning first-
generation low-income students who attend public 4-year universities and are part of an
academic scholarship program. They also can be used to identify future areas of research.
Recommended areas for additional research include the following:
1. Further research on different combinations of support strategies such as mentorship,
scholarships, and professional development to help devise best practices for academic
scholarship programs
2. Further research to determine if academic scholarship programs employ culturally
relevant pedagogy as they support the development of social capital
3. Examining the effect of cultural capital combined with support from an academic
scholarship program to determine its impact on persistence
4. Additional investigation on the financial deficits of students due to recent changes in
the global economy
5. Examining support programs for parents who are unfamiliar with the educational
system in the United States and how these can be coupled with academic scholarship
programs
6. Examining if there are gender differences in persistence with the support of academic
scholarship programs in the context of cultural gender norms
72

Concluding Remarks
This study demonstrated that first-generation low-income Latino students continue to
face barriers to persisting in college due to a lack of social and financial capital. Utilizing a
critical race theory lens, this study showed that academic scholarship programs support the
acquisition of the dominant forms of social capital. While employing culturally relevant
pedagogy in the development of students via academic scholarship programs would be ideal,
academic scholarship programs play a critical role in supporting students to persevere in the
educational system as it currently exists.
All scholars interviewed discussed the importance of meeting other first-generation
students and having the support of institutional agents. They all felt validated by realizing that
there were others who came from similar backgrounds as they did and have persevered. They
were also very willing to share their stories with others, which points to the need to continue
providing opportunities for these examples of perseverance and counternarratives to be told.
This study also demonstrated the perseverance of first-generation low-income Latino
students, who, despite facing additional barriers, persist in higher education.

73

References
Adelman, C. (1999). Answers in the toolbox: Academic intensity, attendance patterns and
bachelor’s degree attainment. U.S. Department of Education.
Anderson-Rowland, M. (2010). An evaluation of academic scholarship programs by program
and ethnicity. Association for Engineering Education - Engineering Library Division
Papers, 15.147.1–15.147.17. http://search.proquest.com/docview/2318138299/
Astin, A. W. (1984). Student involvement: A development theory for higher education. Journal
of College Student Personnel, 25(4), 297–308.
Astin, A. W. (1999). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal
of College Student Development, 40(5), 518–529.
Bauman, G. L. (2002). Developing a culture of evidence: Using institutional data to identify
inequitable educational outcomes. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of
Southern California.
Bensimon, E. M. (2005). Closing the achievement gap in higher education: An organizational
learning perspective. New Directions for Higher Education, 131, 99–111.
Berry, J., Kazarian, S., Evans, D., Kazarian, S., & Evans, D. (1998). Cultural clinical
psychology: Theory, research, and practice. Oxford University Press.
Bogdan, R., & Biklen, S. (1992). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory
and methods (2nd ed.). Allyn and Bacon.
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and
research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). Greenwood.
74

Chen, X., & Carroll, C. D. (2005). First-generation students in postsecondary education: A look
at their college transcripts: Postsecondary education descriptive analysis report (NCES
2005-171). National Center for Education Statistics.
https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2005/2005171.pdf
Choy, S. P. (2001). Students whose parents did not go to college: Postsecondary access,
persistence, and attainment (NCES 2001-126). National Center for Education Statistics.
https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2001/2001126.pdf
Coleman, J. (1990). Foundations of social theory. Harvard University Press.
College Board. (2017). Students and families pay more out of pocket as grant aid fails to keep up
with moderate increases in tuition and fees.
https://www.collegeboard.org/releases/2017/students-families-pay-more-out-of-pocket
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. L. (2015). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures
for developing grounded theory (3rd ed.). Sage.
Covarrubias, R., Valle, I., Laiduc, G., & Azmitia, M. (2018). “You never become fully
independent”: family roles and independence in first-generation college students. Journal
of Adolescent Research, 34(4), 381–410. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558418788402
Creswell, J. D., & Creswell, J. W. (2018). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches (5th ed.). Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2015). A concise introduction to mixed methods research. Sage.
Crisp, G., & Cruz, I. (2009). Mentoring college students: A critical review of the literature
between 1990 and 2007. Research in Higher Education, 50, 525–545.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-009-9130-2
75

Docherty, M., & Phillips, R. (2018). Confirming the factor structure of a mentorship measure for
college students. Journal of College Student Development, 59(3), 372–376.
https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2018.0034
Dowd, A. C., Malcom, L., Nakamoto, J., & Bensimon, E. M. (2012). Institution researchers as
teachers and equity advocates: Facilitating organizational learning and change. In E. M.
Bensimon & L. Malcom (Eds.), Confronting equity issues on campus: Implementing the
Equity Scorecard in theory and practice (pp. 191–212). Stylus.
Dynarski, S. M. (2003). Does aid matter? Measuring the effect of student aid on college
attendance and completion. American Economic Review, 93(1), 279–288.
Eaton, J. S. (1995). Investing in American higher education: An argument for restructuring.
Council for Aid to Education.
Enstrom, C., & Tinto, V. (2008). Access without support is not an opportunity. Change, 40, 46–
50.
Fink, A. (2013). How to conduct surveys: A step-by-step guide. (5th ed.). Sage.
Furquim, F., Glasener, K., Oster, M., Mccall, B., Desjardins, S., Perna, L., & Hillman, N. (2017).
Navigating the financial aid process: Borrowing outcomes among first-generation and
non-first-generation students. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and
Social Science, 671(1), 69–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716217698119
Gandara, P., & Contreras, F. (2009). The Latino education crisis: The consequences of failed
school policies. Harvard University Press.
Glesne, C. (2011). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction (4th ed.). Pearson.
76

Goldrick-Rab, S., Kelchen, R., Harris, D. N., & Benson, J. (2016). Reducing income inequality
in educational attainment: Experimental evidence on the impact of financial aid on
college completion. American Journal of Sociology, 121(6), 1762–1817.
Gonzalez, A. (2011). Is there a link between Hispanics and first-generation college students? The
importance of exposure to a college-going tradition. In D. Leal & S. Trejo (Eds.), Latinos
and the economy: Immigrants and minorities, politics and policy (pp. 95–110). Springer.
Häuberer, J. (2011). Social capital theory: Towards a methodological foundation. VS Research.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-531-92646-9
Herbert, T. (2018). An examination of high-achieving first-generation college students from low-
income backgrounds. Gifted Child Quarterly, 62(1), 96–110.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986217738051
Hillman, N. W., Gast, M. J., & George-Jackson, C. (2015). When to begin? Socioeconomic and
racial/ethnic differences in financial planning, preparing, and saving for college.
Teachers College Record, 117, 1–28.
Hinsdale, M. J. (2015). Mutuality, mystery, and mentorship in higher education (Mobility
Studies and Education, Vol. 4). Sense Publishers.
Hoffman, H. (2005). Social capital, knowledge management, and sustained superior
performance. Journal of Knowledge Management, 9(3), 93–100.
https://doi.org/10.1108/13673270510602791
Holland, N. E., & Farmer-Hinton, R. L. (2009). Leave no schools behind: The importance of a
college culture in urban public high schools. The High School Journal, 92, 24–43.
77

Horn, L., & Nuñez, A. (2000). Mapping the road to college first-generation students’ math
track, planning strategies, and context of support. National Center for Education
Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2000/2000153.pdf
Ishitani, T. T. (2003). A longitudinal approach to assessing attrition behavior among first-
generation students: Time-varying effects of pre-college characteristics. Research in
Higher Education, 44(4), 433–449.
Jacobi, M. (1991). Mentoring and undergraduate academic success: A literature review. Review
of Educational Research, 61(4), 505–532. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543061004505
Jang, S. (2018). Outcomes of an academic scholarship program at the City University of New
York – New York City College of Technology. Journal of STEM Education: Innovations
and Research, 19(2), 32–41. http://search.proquest.com/docview/2057938553/
Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. (2017). Educational research: quantitative, qualitative, and
mixed approaches (6th ed.). Sage.
Kao, G. (2004). Social capital and its relevance to minority and immigrant populations.
Sociology of Education, 77, 172–175.
Kent, A. M., Kochan, F., & Green, A. M. (2013). Cultural influences on mentoring programs and
relationships: A critical review of research. International Journal of Mentoring and
Coaching in Education, 2(3), 204–217. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMCE-08-2013-0047
King, J. E. (2004). Missed opportunities: Students who do not apply for financial aid. American
Council on Education.
Lohfink, M., & Paulsen, M. (2005). Comparing the determinants of persistence for first-
generation and continuing-generation students. Journal of College Student Development,
46(4), 409–428. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2005.0040
78

Longerbeam, S. L., Sedlacek, W. E., & Alatorre, H. M. (2004). In their own voices: Latino
student retention. National Association of Student Personnel Administrators Journal,
41(3), 538–550.
Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1969). Werke. Dietz.
Massey, D., Charles, C., Lundy, G., & Fischer, M. (2003). The source of the river: The origins,
aspirations, and values of freshmen at America’s elite colleges and universities. Russell
Sage Foundation.
Mayorga, N., Jardin, C., Bakhshaie, J., Garey, L., Viana, A., Cardoso, J., & Zvolensky, M.
(2018). Acculturative stress, emotion regulation, and affective symptomology among
Latino/a college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 65(2), 247–258.
https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000263
McDonough, P. M. (1997). Choosing colleges: How social class and schools structure
opportunity. State University of New York Press.
Mehta, S., Newbold, J., & O’Rourke, M. (2011). Why do first-generation students fail? College
Student Journal, 45(1), 20–35.
Melguizo, T., & Chung, A. (2012). College aid policy and competition for diversity. The Review
of Higher Education, 35(3), 403–430.
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
implementation (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass.
Merriam, S. M. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (2nd ed).
Jossey-Bass.
Miles, M., Huberman, M., & Saldaña, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods
sourcebook (3rd ed.). Sage.
79

Mitchell, A., & Jaeger, A. (2018). Parental influences on low-income, first-generation students’
motivation on the path to college. The Journal of Higher Education, 89(4), 582–609.
doi:10.1080/00221546.2018.1437664
National Center for Education Statistics. (2010). Digest of education statistics, 2009. U.S.
Department of Education.
Nunez, A. M., & Cuccaro-Alamin, S. (1998). First-generation students: Undergraduates whose
parents never enrolled in postsecondary education. U.S. Department of Education,
National Center for Education Statistics.
Pascarella, E. T., Pierson, C. T., & Wolniak, G. C. (2004). First-generation college students:
Additional evidence on college experiences and outcomes. Journal of Higher Education,
75(3), 249–284. https://doi.org/10.1353/jhe.2004.0016
Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Sage.
Pew Research Center. (2009, October 7). Latinos and education: Explaining the achievement
gap. Hispanic Trends. https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2009/10/07/latinos-and-
education-explaining-the-attainment-gap/
Pharris-Ciurej, N., Herting, J., & Hirschman, C. (2012). The impact of the promise of
scholarships and altering school structure on college plans, preparation, and enrollment.
Social Science Research, 41(4), 920–935.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.03.007
Portes, A. (1998). Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern society. Annual Review
of Sociology, 24, 124.
80

Rios-Aguilar, C., Kiyama, J., Gravitt, M., & Moll, L. (2011). Funds of knowledge for the poor
and forms of capital for the rich? A capital approach to examining funds of knowledge.
Theory and Research in Education, 9(2), 163–184.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1477878511409776
Rios-Ellis, B., Rascón, M., Galvez, G., Inzunza-Franco, G., Bellamy, L., & Torres, A. (2015).
Creating a model of Latino peer education: Weaving cultural capital into the fabric of
academic services in an urban university setting. Education and Urban Society, 47(1),
33–55. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124512468006
Saenz, V. B., Hurtado, S., Barrera, D., Wolf, D., & Yeung, F. (2007). First in my family: A
profile of first-generation college students at four-year institutions since 1971. Higher
Education Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles.
Schlossberg, N. K. (1989). Marginality and mattering: Key issues in building community. New
Directions for Student Services, 48, 5–15.
Solórzano, D. G., & Yosso, T. J. (2002). Critical race methodology: Counter-storytelling as an
analytical framework for education research. Qualitative Inquiry, 8(1), 23–44.
https://doi.org/10.1177/107780040200800103
Stanton-Salazar, R. (1997). A social capital framework for understanding the socialization of
racial minority children and youths. Harvard Educational Review, 67, 1–40.
Stanton-Salazar, R. D. (2011). A social capital framework for the study of institutional agents
and their role in the empowerment of low-status students and youth. Youth & Society,
43(3), 1066–1109.
81

Stanton-Salazar, R. D., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1995). Social capital and the reproduction of
inequality: Information networks among Mexican-origin high school students. Sociology
of Education, 68, 116–135.
Stephens, N., Townsend, S., Markus, H., & Phillips, L. (2012). A cultural mismatch:
Independent cultural norms produce greater increases in cortisol and more negative
emotions among first-generation college students. Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 48(6), 1389–1393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.07.008
St. John, E. P. (2003). Refinancing the college dream: Access, equal opportunity, and justice for
taxpayers. Johns Hopkins University Press.
St. John, E., Paulsen, M., & Starkey, J. (1996). The nexus between college choice and
persistence. Research in Higher Education, 37(2), 175–220.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01730115
Tichavakunda, A. A. (2019). An overdue theoretical discourse: Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of
practice and critical race theory in education. Educational Studies, 55(6), 651–666.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00131946.2019.1666395
Toutkoushian, R. K., Stolberg, R. S., & Slaton, K. A. (2015, November). Talking ’bout my
generation: Defining “first-generation students” in higher education research [Paper
presentation]. Association for the Study of Higher Education, Denver, CO, United States.
Tovar, E., Simon, M. A., & Lee, H. B. (2009). Development and validation of the college
mattering inventory with diverse urban college students. Measurement and Evaluation in
Counseling and Development, 42, 154–178.
82

Trevino, N. N., & DeFreitas, S. C. (2014). The relationship between intrinsic motivation and
academic achievement for first-generation Latino college students. Social Psychology of
Education, 17(2), 293–306.
Urbina, M. G. (2015). Latino access to higher education: Ethnic realities and new directions for
the twenty-first century. Charles C Thomas.
U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). Overview of race and Hispanic origin: 2010.
https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-02.pdf
U.S. Department of Education. (2015). Web tables- profile of Undergraduate Students: 2011-
2012 (NCES 2015-167). https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2015167
U.S. Department of Education. (2017). First generation and continuing generation college
students: A comparison of high school and postsecondary experiences (NCES 2018009).
https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2018009
U.S. Department of Education. (2018). First-generation students: College access, persistence,
and postbachelor’s outcomes (NCES 2018421).
https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2018421
U.S. Department of Education. (2020). Federal TRIO programs current-year low-income levels.
https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/trio/incomelevels.html
Valenzuela, A. (1999). Subtractive schooling: US-Mexican youth and the politics of caring. State
University of New York Press.
Vélez-Ibáñez, C. G., & Greenberg, J. B. (1992). Formation and transformation of funds of
knowledge among U.S.-Mexican households. Anthropology and Education Quarterly,
23, 313–335.
83

Ward, L., Siegel, M. J., Davenport, Z., Ward, W., Siegel, H. J., & Davenport, U. (2012). First-
generation college students: Understanding and improving the experience from
recruitment to commencement. Jossey-Bass.
Wohn, D., Ellison, N., Khan, M., Fewins-Bliss, R., & Gray, R. (2012). The role of social media
in shaping first-generation high school students’ college aspirations: A social capital lens.
Computers & Education, 63(C), 424–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2013.01.004
Ybarra, R. E., & Lopez, N. (2004). Creating alternative discourses in the education of Latinos
and Latinas. Peter Lang.
York-Anderson, D., & Bowman, S. (1991). Assessing the college knowledge of first-generation
and second-generation students. Journal of College Student Development, 32, 116–122.
Yosso, T. J. (2005). Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community
cultural wealth. Race and Education, 8(1), 69–91.
Ziemniak, A. (2010). The contribution of family members to first-generation college student
success: a narrative approach (Publication No. 3403772) [Doctoral dissertation,
University of Southern California]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

84

Tables

Table 1
Gender of Participants
Gender Frequency %
Female 32 45.07
Male 31 43.66
Did not specify 8 11.27
Note. n = 71.

85

Table 2
University Attended and Class Standing

University
Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior
Fifth
year
senior

n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
California State
University, Long
Beach
0
0
1
.01
0
0
2
.03
2
.03
California State
University, Los
Angeles
1
.01
1
.00
6
.08
9
.13
4
.06
California State
Polytechnic
University, Pomona
0
0
1
.01
1
.01
1
.01
2
.03
California State
University, Fullerton
0
0
1
.01
0
0
3
.04
1
.01
California State
University,
Dominguez Hills
0
0
1
.01
1
.01
1
.01
0
0
California State
University,
Northridge
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
.01
1
.01
University of
California, San
Diego
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
.01
0
0
University of
California, Los
Angeles
0
0
3
.04
4
.06
2
.03
0
0
University of
California, Irvine
1
.01
1
.01
0
0
0
0
0
0
University of
California, Riverside
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
.01
0
0
University of
California, San
Diego
0
0
2
.03
0
0
0
0
0
0
University of
California, Santa
Barbara
0
0
1
.01
2
.03
2
.03
0
0

86

Table 3
Number of Years as a Scholar in Academic Scholarship Program
Number of years Frequency %
One 13 18.31
Two 16 22.54
Three 14 19.72
Four 11 15.49
Five 7 9.86
Did not specify 10 14.08
Note. n = 71.

87
Table 4
Demographics of Scholars Interviewed
Scholar Gender School in attendance Year in school
Number of
years as a
scholar
A

Male University of California,
Los Angeles
Senior 4
B Female University of California,
Santa Barbara
Sophomore 1
C Female University of California,
Los Angeles
Sophomore 2
D

D
Male

Female
California State
Polytechnic University,
Pomona
California State
University, Northridge
Sophomore

5
th
Year Senior
2

4

Note. n = 5.

88
Table 5
Programs Offered by Academic Scholarship Program

Strongly
agree
Strongly
disagree
Type of
program
n
%
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Professional
development
61
41
(67.21%)
5
(8.20%)
8
(13.11%)
2
(3.28%)
1
(1.64%)
4
(6.56%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
Scholarships

61
49
(80.33%)
2
(3.28%)
4
(6.56%)
3
(4.29%)
2
(3.28%)
1
(1.64%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
Social
support
60
37
(60.67%)
8
(13.33%)
7
(11.67%)
2
(3.33%)
2
(3.33%)
3
(5.00%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
1
(1.67%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
Academic
resources
59
44
(74.58%)
6
(10.17%)
4
(74.58%)
1
(1.69%)
0
(0%)
4
(6.78%)
2
(3.33%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
Connect to
other first-
generation
students
60 47
(78.33%)
2
(3.33%)
3
(5.00%)
1
(1.67%)
2
(3.33%)
4
(6.67%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
1
(1.67%)
0
(0%)
0
(0%)
89

Table 6
Impact of Academic Scholarship Program on Student Experience
Being part of the academic scholarship program has
contributed to my
Total
responses
Mean Mode
transitioning to the university more easily 62 8.91 11
remaining in school 60 9.33 11
remaining a full-time student 60 9.60 11
developing relationships with other students at my
university
60 8.76 11
identifying future career goals 60 9.48 11
not worrying about finances to cover costs of my
education
61 9.13 11
developing relationships with potential mentors 62 8.90 11
learning about the expectations and demands of being a
college student
60 9.60 11
Note. n = 71.

90

Table 7
Benefits Students Sought in an Academic Scholarship Program
I became part of the academic scholarship program
because I was looking for
Total
responses
Mean Mode
financial support 61 10.20 11
help transitioning to college 61 9.45 11
ability to meet other students 61 8.33 11
learning about careers 62 9.39 11
academic support 60 9.57 11
potential mentors 60 9.87 11
academic resources 60 10.05 11
Note. n = 71.

91

Table 8
How Students Perceive Their Success Is Evaluated in the Academic Scholarship Program
The academic scholarship program requires me to
Total
responses
Mean Mode
be a full-time student 61 10.41 11
participate in professional development 61 9.85 11
maintain a minimum grade point average 60 10.30 11
utilize academic resources at my university 61 9.00 11
participate in career exploration resources 60 9.40 11
utilize career services at my university 59 9.03 11
Note. n = 71.

92

Table 9
Information Academic Scholarship Program Solicits From Scholars
As a scholar, I am asked about
Total
responses
Mean Mode
my background 61 9.39 11
topics I am interested in learning about 59 10.32 11
my preferred format for programming 59 9.08 11
how satisfied I am with programming offered 59 9.86 11
the support I personally need 59 10.12 11
my culture 59 9.37 11
my values 59 9.37 11
my motivation for pursuing higher education 58 10.29 11
Note. n = 71.

93

Appendix A: Participation Letter
Dear ____________,
You are invited to participate in a graduate research study conducted by Mercy Willard,
Doctoral Student at USC Rossier School of Education’s Ed.D. Program. This study is focused on
designed to learn about the nature of programming provided by academic scholarship programs
to first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year universities in Southern
California, how students utilize such programs, the perceived value of such programming, and
how academic scholarship programs evaluate success for students. The findings will assist in
devising best practices for academic scholarship programs for Latino first-generation low-
income students.
If you agree to participate in this research study, you will be asked to complete a 15-
minute survey. If you agree, you will also be asked to participate in a face-to-face interview that
will take approximately 30 minutes to complete. The interview will be recorded to ensure that
what you say is captured accurately.
Your participation is voluntary, and you have the right to withdraw at any time from the
survey without penalty. All data collected will be confidential and pseudonyms will be utilized in
the final report. There are no anticipated risks to participants.
If you have any questions or concerns regarding participation in this study, please contact
me, Mercy Willard or Dr. Rudy Castruita at the University of Southern California. Thank you
very much for consideration.
Sincerely,
Mercy Willard, Principal Investigator Dr. Rudy Castruita, Faculty Supervisor
USC Ed.D Student Professor, USC Rossier School of Education
mercywil@usc.edu rcastrui@usc.edu

94

Appendix B: Scholar Survey
This survey is designed to determine that nature of the programming provided by academic
scholarship programs to first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year
universities in Southern California, how students utilize such programs, the perceived value of
such programming, and how academic scholarship programs evaluate success for students.

1. What year in college are you currently in?
Freshmen Sophomore Junior Senior 5
th
Year Senior
2. How many years have you been a scholar in the academic scholarship program?
1 2 3 4 5

3. I became part of
the academic
scholarship
program because I
was looking for:
Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
Agree
a. Financial Support 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
b. Help Transitioning
to College
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
c. Ability to Meet
Other Students
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
d. Assistance in
Learning about Careers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
e. Academic Support 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
f. To meet Potential
Mentors
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
g. Academic resources 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
95

4. The academic
scholarship I am a
part of provides
me with:
Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
Agree
a. Scholarships 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
b. Ability to meet other
first- generation low-
income students
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
c. Professional
Development
Programming
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
d. Social Support 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
e. Assistance in finding
academic resources
and support
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

5. Being a scholar in
the academic
scholarship
program has
contributed to my:
Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
Agree
a. Transitioning to the
university easily
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
b. Remain in school 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
c. Remain a full-time
student
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
d. Develop
relationships with
other students at my
university
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
e. Identify future career
goals
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
f. Not worrying about
finances to cover
costs of my
education
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
g. Develop
relationships with
potential mentors
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
b. Learn about the
expectation and
demands of being a
college student
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
96

6. The academic
scholarship
requires me to:
Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
Agree
a. Be a full-time
student
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
b. Participate in
professional
development
programming
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
c. Maintain a minimum
G.P.A.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
d. Utilize academic
resources at my
University
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
e. Participate in career
exploration activities
(i.e. internships)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
f. Utilize career
services at my
University
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
7. As a scholar, I am
asked about:
Strongly
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
a. My background 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
b. The topics I are
interested in learning
about
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
c. My preferred format
for the professional
development
programming
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
d. How satisfied I am
with the
programming
offered
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
e. The support I
personally need
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
f. My culture 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
g. My values 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
h. My motivation for
pursuing higher
education
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
8. I would be interested in participating in a 45-minute interview about my
97

Thank you for participating in this survey!

Mercy Willard, Ed.D. Candidate
Rudy Castruita, Ed.D., Faculty Advisor
University of Southern California

experience as a first-generation low-income student participating in an
academic scholarship program.
__________Yes __________ No

You may contact me to schedule an interview at:
_____________________________________________

98

Appendix C: Interview Protocol
I. Introduction
Hello. Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. My name is Mercy Willard
and I am a doctoral student at the USC Rossier School of Education pursuing a degree in
Educational Leadership. The purpose of this study is to learn about the experiences of first-
generation low-income Latino college student attending a public 4-year university in Southern
California who are participating in an academic scholarship program. I am interested in hearing
from students like you to learn how, if at all, academic scholarship programs contribute to their
persistence when coupled with the cultural wealth that you bring with you.
Your participation is in this study is completely voluntary and you can stop the interview
at any time. The interview should take approximately 30 minutes to complete. You do not have
to answer any question that you do not want to address. The information you share with me
today will be kept strictly confidential with pseudonyms utilized in the final report. I would like
to record the conversation to ensure that I capture what you say accurately. I will be the only
listening to the recordings and your responses will remain confidential at all times. I can stop
recording at any time if you prefer that I do so.
Do you have any questions? If not, I would like your permission to begin the interview
and start the recording device. Does this sound good?
II. Building Rapport
Let’s start by how you became a part of the academic scholarship program.
1. What aspects of the academic scholarship program, if any, were you interested in?
III. Interview Questions
99

All scholars are required to participate in programming offered by the academic scholarship
program.
2. What programming is offered to you as part of the academic scholarship program that
you have chosen to participate in?
• What, if anything, do you get out of this activity?
3. Tell me what programming you have chosen not to participate in?
• What, if anything, made that activity seem less interesting to you?
4. How are students able to ask for the type of programming they are interested in, if at
all?
I’d like to learn about how you feel about school.
5. How, if at all, has participating in the academic scholarship program helped you to
feel like a part of the campus?
• Tell me about a time when you felt like you did not belong?
Another component of the academic scholarship program is the financial support or scholarship.
6. How, if at all, did the scholarship play a role in your decision to apply for the
academic scholarship?
• What, if anything, were you able to do as a result of the financial support?
Now think of your goals and aspirations.
7. What are your goals and aspirations in school?
• What, if anything, would you say about the program has been the most helpful
to you?
• What, if anything would you say about the program has been the least
helpful to you?
100

Now, I would like to discuss the goals that expectation of students in academic scholarship
programs.
8. What requirements if any, do scholars need to fulfill in order to continue being part of
the academic scholarship program?
• What would determine if a scholar is in good standing in the academic
scholarship program?
9. To conclude, let’s discuss what an ideal academic scholarship program for first-
generation students looks like. What components do you think it would include?
• What would it not include?
• What is would include more of?
IV. Closing Question
10. Is there anything we have not talked about together that we should have that would
help me understand your experience in this program?
V. Closing
I really appreciate your time today. Your responses will help us better understand the
experiences of first-generation low- income Latino students attending public 4-year universities
in Southern California that are college students participating in an academic scholarship
program. I want to reiterate that all that was shared with me will remain confidential and
particular individuals will not be referenced when the final report is compiled.
Would it be ok if I reach out to you if I have any additional questions or to ensure that I
have understood what you have shared correctly? Thank you again for taking part in my study.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study utilized Yosso’s critical race theory and Bourdieu’s social capital theory to examine the impact of academic scholarship programs on the persistence of first-generation low-income Latino students at public 4-year universities in Southern California. It sought to determine how academic scholarship programs contribute to the development of financial and social capital and the persistence of first-generation Latino students. Data were gathered by surveying first-generation low-income Latino students attending public 4-year universities in Southern California who were scholars in an academic scholarship program. Additionally, interviews were conducted with five survey respondents to further understand the nature of the programming offered by the academic scholarship program, the value they perceive such programming to have, and how they perceive their success in the academic scholarship program to be evaluated. Findings demonstrated that academic scholarship programs do contribute to the acquisition of financial and social capital for first-generation low-income Latino students and hence their persistence. They also demonstrated that while academic scholarship programs support the acquisition of dominant forms of social capital, they play a pivotal role in the persistence of low-income Latino students in the absence of culturally relevant pedagogy at universities.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Developing a sense of belonging and persistence through mentoring for first-generation students

PDF

Building mentoring relationships: the experiences of first-generation Latinx scholars

PDF

An examination of the role of high school counselors in assisting college-bound first-generation Latino/a Students in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles

PDF

The impact of college success program on first generation college students in their preparation for college

PDF

Impact of mentoring on former pre-college program participants: gaining while giving back

PDF

The lived experience of first-generation latino students in remedial education and navigating the transfer pathway

PDF

A case study on readmitted students: the impact of social and academic involvement on degree completion

PDF

Staff members’ transfer of social capital to first-generation, low-income Latino/a students of Mexican descent

PDF

Designing college transition programs for low-income, first-generation commuter students

PDF

Support service representatives impact on first-generation low-income community college students

PDF

The Class of 2015: where we lose them & where they go

PDF

A pathway to persistence: perspectives of academic advising and first-generation undergraduate students

PDF

Exploring faculty-student interactions in a comprehensive college transition program for low-income and first-generation college students

PDF

Assessing persistence for low-income students at community colleges: the impact of student-parent relationships

PDF

Cultivating motivation and persistence for urban, high achieving, low-SES African American students

PDF

Institutional support of FGLI undergraduates’ sense of belonging and persistence

PDF

Program customization in a comprehensive college transition program for low-income students

PDF

The impact of learning communities on the retention and academic integration of Latino students at a highly selective private four-year institution

PDF

The use of students funds of knowledge to increase college success among low-income and first-generation students

PDF

Factors influencing the academic persistence of college students with ADHD

Asset Metadata

Creator Willard, Mercy Arlyn (author)

Core Title Impact of academic scholarships on persistence of first-generation low-income students

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 02/17/2021

Defense Date 01/04/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag academic scholarships,first-generation,Latino,low-income,OAI-PMH Harvest,persistence

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Castruita, Rudy (committee chair), Cash, David (committee member), Venegas, Kristan (committee member)

Creator Email mercywil@usc.edu,mercywill2017@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-420274

Unique identifier UC11668663

Identifier etd-WillardMer-9275.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-420274 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-WillardMer-9275.pdf

Dmrecord 420274

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Willard, Mercy Arlyn

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA