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Examining the influence of project-based learning programs on the academic and non-academic development of Chinese students applying for admission to colleges in the United States

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Examining the influence of project-based learning programs on the academic and non-academic development of Chinese students applying for admission to colleges in the United States

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Content 1
Examining the Influence of Project-Based Learning Programs on the Academic and
Non-Academic Development of Chinese Students
Applying for Admission to Colleges in the United States
Haibo Wang
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2024

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© Copyright by Haibo Wang 2024
All Rights Reserved

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The Committee for Your Full Name certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Dr. Tracy Tambascia, Chair
Dr. Paula Carbone
Dr. Lawrence Picus
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California 2024

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Abstract
This dissertation explored the role of Project-Based Learning (PBL) in Chinese students'
academic performance and preparedness for college admissions in the United States.
Grounded in social constructivist learning theory, this research examines how PBL, as an
educational strategy, enhances critical thinking, problem-solving, and cultural adaptability
among students. This qualitative study found that PBL improved students' academic
competencies and equipped them with essential skills for navigating the diverse and dynamic
academic environments of U.S. colleges. The research also highlights PBL's role in fostering
global competencies, such as confidence and cultural adaptability, which are crucial for
success in multicultural settings. The findings suggest that the implementation of structured
PBL interventions that emphasize real-world problems and diverse assessment methods to
improve educational outcomes better prepare students for higher educational challenges and
professional environments. Recommendations for educators and policymakers include
enhancing student engagement and learning outcomes in similar educational contexts.
Keywords: PBL qualitative study social constructivist theory Chinese students

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Acknowledgements
The past several years have been an extraordinary chapter in my life. As I reflect on
this period, I am filled with a mix of astonishment and disbelief at how I managed to navigate
the immense pressures of work and life. Writing these acknowledgements brings back vivid
memories of the excitement and nerves I felt before attending Dr. Maddox's course—the very
first class of this doctoral program.
Over these months, I have accomplished one of the most significant milestones of my
life. This achievement is not just about completing a doctoral dissertation and earning an
Ed.D.; it is about my personal evolution, the challenges I have overcome, and the
development of a scientific mindset that now allows me to analyze and interpret problems
with clarity and precision. This journey has equipped me with the keys to discern truth from
falsehood, a skill that will continually inspire me.
I owe a debt of gratitude to several groups of people. Firstly, I would like to thank my
dissertation committee: my chair, Dr. Tracy Tambascia, and my committee members, Dr.
Lawrence Picus and Dr. Paula Carbone. Without your unwavering support, guidance, and
meticulous feedback, I would not have achieved this success. Secondly, I extend my gratitude
to all the professors in this program. Each of you, with your unique teaching styles, imparted
invaluable knowledge. Your instruction and our interactions have fundamentally enhanced
my ability to perceive and understand the world. I am also deeply grateful to my fellow
Chinese classmates—Frank, Julie, Yunkui, Stella, and Henry. Your support and camaraderie
have been indispensable on this journey. Furthermore, I wish to thank all members of

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Cohort 11. What a friendly, close-knit family we have become! Despite our diverse
backgrounds, our shared beliefs brought us together, and we forged deep friendships as we
overcame numerous challenges. I believe we will remain kindred spirits and lifelong friends.
To my parents and my twin brother, my heartfelt thanks. My parents, now nearly 70,
could not provide direct support for my academic and everyday life, but their upbringing and
education have shaped me into a person of high moral character, a guiding influence
throughout my life. My brother has always been my proud supporter, offering constant
encouragement.
I am also grateful to my colleagues at GEC Academy. Your support allowed me to
balance work and study, and your growth has been a source of motivation for me. I am
fortunate to have such a kind, hardworking, and intelligent team. A special thank you goes to
my friend Diva. During times of anxiety and frustration, your comfort and reassurance were
invaluable.
Lastly, I want to thank myself. Thank you for the perseverance and dedication over the
years. I am proud of what I have accomplished. Fight on!

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Table of Contents
Abstract......................................................................................................................................4
Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................5
Chapter One: Introduction .....................................................................................................100
Statement of the Problem.....................................................................................................12
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................13
Significance of the Study.....................................................................................................14
Definitions............................................................................................................................16
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................................17
Chapter Two: Review Of Literature ........................................................................................18
Introduction..........................................................................................................................18
The Education System in China...........................................................................................19
Compulsory Education.........................................................................................................19
Growth in Higher Education................................................................................................20
Autonomy and Decentralization ..........................................................................................21
International Education and Curriculum..............................................................................22
The Limits of the Chinese Education System......................................................................22
International Education in China .........................................................................................24
Historical Commitments to International Education ...........................................................27
Exploration Period, 1978-2000............................................................................................28
Formation Period, 2000-2012 ..............................................................................................29
Development Period, 2012 - Present ...................................................................................30
Chinese Students Abroad.....................................................................................................31
Varying Perspectives on PBL..............................................................................................35
Theoretical Foundations of Project-Based Learning ...........................................................37
Essential Elements of PBL...................................................................................................39
PBL and 21st- century Skills ...............................................................................................43
University Admissions Processes in the United States........................................................46
Development of Holistic Admission....................................................................................47
Admissions and Affirmative Action ....................................................................................48

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Current Movements, Components, and Features.................................................................50
Equity and Continuing Challenges ......................................................................................56
Social Constructivism Learning Theory ..............................................................................61
Application of Social Constructivism to the Research Questions.......................................61
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................................63
Chapter Three: Methods ..........................................................................................................64
Organization Overview........................................................................................................65
Population and Sample ........................................................................................................66
Sampling Strategy................................................................................................................66
Recruiting Strategy ..............................................................................................................68
Rationale ..............................................................................................................................68
Data Collection and Instrumentation ...................................................................................69
Data Analysis.......................................................................................................................74
Credibility and Trustworthiness...........................................................................................76
Ethics....................................................................................................................................77
Chapter Four: Findings............................................................................................................79
Overview of Participants......................................................................................................79
Emerging Themes................................................................................................................80
Summary of Findings...........................................................................................................98
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................................98
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations..................................................................100
Discussion of Findings.......................................................................................................101
Recommendations..............................................................................................................102
Limitations and Delimitations............................................................................................110
Recommendations for Future Research.............................................................................111
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................113
References..............................................................................................................................115
Appendix A............................................................................................................................134
Appendix B............................................................................................................................138

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Appendix C............................................................................................................................140

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Chapter One: Introduction
Education is a vital aspect of societal growth and development, yet several challenges
must be addressed to ensure equitable access to quality education for all students. One
significant issue is the disparities in access to quality education, which can be influenced by
factors such as socioeconomic status, geographic location, and availability of resources
(Reardon, 2011; Sirin, 2005). These disparities may lead to an equity gap between students
from different backgrounds, perpetuating social inequalities and limiting opportunities for
underprivileged students (Baker, Sciarra & Farrie, 2018). A major concern in education,
particularly in the Chinese system, is the emphasis on standardized testing and rote
memorization (Tan, 2012). This reliance on standardized testing can hinder the development
of creative and critical thinking skills, as educators may prioritize teaching to the test over
fostering a well-rounded education (Nichols & Berliner, 2007). In addition, this focus on
testing may not accurately capture the diverse strengths and abilities of all students,
particularly those from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds (Abedi, 2004).
Cultural differences play a crucial role in shaping learning outcomes and can create
challenges for education equity, especially for students studying abroad (Berry, 2005).
International students, including Chinese students studying in the United States, may face
difficulties adapting to the educational and social systems in their host countries, which can
impact their academic performance and overall well-being (Yeh & Inose, 2003; Zhang &
Goodson, 2011).
Over the past few decades, there has been a significant increase in the number of
Chinese students pursuing higher education abroad, particularly in the United States.

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According to the Institute of International Education's (IIE) Open Doors Report, the number
of Chinese students enrolled in U.S. higher education institutions rose from 62,582 in the
2005/2006 academic year to 372,532 in the 2019/2020 academic year, representing a nearly
six-fold increase (Institute of International Education, 2020). At the same time, admission to
U.S. colleges for international students is getting more difficult. According to the National
Association for College Admission Counseling (NACAC), overall international student
admission rates have been showing a declining trend, which indirectly suggests an increase in
competition (NACAC, 2019). For instance, in their 2019 report, it was noted that 23% of
institutions reported a decrease in the admission rate for international students. This growing
population of international students presents unique challenges for both the students and the
host institutions, as they navigate cultural, academic, and social differences in the pursuit of
quality education (Yeh & Inose, 2003; Zhang & Goodson, 2011). As the first step for Chinese
students to access quality education in the U.S, one major concern for Chinese students is
adapting to a different educational system that emphasizes holistic admissions and values
non-academic factors in addition to traditional academic metrics (Alon & Tienda, 2007;
Espenshade & Radford, 2009).
The competitive nature of college admissions, particularly in the United States,
highlights the need for innovative teaching methods. U.S. colleges often emphasize holistic
admissions and consider non-academic factors, making it necessary to explore alternative
approaches to education (Alon & Tienda, 2007; Espenshade & Radford, 2009). One such
approach is Project-based Learning (PBL), which has been shown to improve student
engagement and learning outcomes by encouraging collaboration, problem-solving, and real-

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world application (Strobel & van Barneveld, 2009; Thomas, 2000).
Statement of the Problem
The Chinese education system is characterized by an emphasis on standardized testing
and rote memorization, which has been criticized for limiting the development of creative and
critical thinking skills among students (Nichols & Berliner, 2007; Tan, 2012). This traditional
approach may not adequately prepare Chinese students for the expectations of the U.S.
college admissions process, which often prioritizes non-academic factors, such as leadership,
community service, and extracurricular activities, alongside academic performance (Mamlet
& VanDeVelde, 2011; Steinberg, 2002). As a result, Chinese students may find it challenging
to successfully navigate the competitive landscape of U.S. college admissions and to adapt to
the cultural and educational expectations of their host institutions (Posselt, 2016; Yang,
2014).
Furthermore, extant literature has identified the need for innovative teaching methods
that foster critical thinking, creativity, and adaptability in a diverse range of students (Hattie,
2009). One such approach is Project-based Learning (PBL), which has been shown to
promote student engagement and improve learning outcomes through collaborative problemsolving and real-world application (Strobel & van Barneveld, 2009; Thomas, 2000). While
PBL has gained increasing recognition in educational research, there is limited understanding
of its impact on the academic and non-academic factors of Chinese students within the
context of the U.S. college admissions process (Bell, 2010; Hmelo-Silver, 2004).

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In summary, the problem to be addressed in this research lies in the limited
understanding of the impact of Project-based Learning programs on the academic and nonacademic factors of Chinese students in the United States college admissions process. This
knowledge gap is particularly relevant given the increasing number of Chinese students
studying abroad and the unique challenges they face in adapting to different educational
systems and cultural contexts.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of Project-based Learning
(PBL) programs on the academic and non-academic abilities of Chinese students within the
context of the United States college admissions process. Grounded in social constructivism
learning theory (Vygotsky, 1978), this research aims to explore how PBL programs, which
emphasize collaborative problem-solving and real-world application, can address the unique
challenges faced by Chinese students as they navigate the competitive landscape of U.S.
college admissions and adapt to the educational expectations of their host institutions.
Specifically, this study seeks to answer the following research questions:
1. How does participation in PBL programs influence Chinese students’
perception of their academic abilities that are considered in the United States
college admissions process?
2. How does participation in PBL programs contribute to the development of
non-academic development considered in holistic admissions processes?

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Significance of the Study
By addressing these research questions, this study aims to contribute valuable insights
into the effectiveness of PBL programs for Chinese students studying in the United States,
particularly in relation to the academic and non-academic factors valued by U.S. college
admissions processes. Additionally, this research seeks to demonstrate the relevance of social
constructivism learning theory in designing and implementing educational programs that
promote equity, creativity, and adaptability for students from diverse cultural backgrounds.
The importance of this study lies in its potential to make a substantive contribution to the
broader discourse on international education, innovative teaching methods, and the U.S.
college admissions process. Upon completion, the insights derived from this research will
provide a nuanced understanding of the impact of Project-based Learning (PBL) programs on
Chinese students' academic and non-academic preparedness for U.S. college admissions.
For Chinese students aspiring to study in the United States, this research may provide
critical insights into how participation in PBL programs can enhance their academic
performance and non-academic factors—crucial elements in the U.S. college admissions
process. By exploring the impacts of PBL programs, this study can help students make
informed decisions about their learning journey and approach towards college admissions.
International school administrators and program providers may benefit from understanding
how PBL programs can equip their students for success in the U.S. college admissions
process. This research might inform their program design and pedagogical strategies,
potentially enhancing their ability to cater to the unique needs of Chinese students seeking to
study in the United States. Teachers and counselors who guide Chinese students through the

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U.S. college admissions process could utilize the study's findings to advise students more
effectively. Understanding the potential benefits and challenges of PBL for Chinese students
may enable them to better support these students, tailor their advice, and advocate for
learning approaches that prepare students for a successful transition to U.S. higher education.
Parents of students participating in these programs also form an integral part of this study's
significance. By understanding how PBL programs can influence their children's
preparedness for U.S. college admissions, they may better support their children's educational
decisions and engage more effectively with educators and program providers. From the
perspective of university admissions teams, the study could provide a nuanced understanding
of the potential impacts of PBL on Chinese students' preparation for U.S. college admissions.
This could facilitate a more comprehensive evaluation of applicants who have participated in
such programs, enabling them to identify candidates who may thrive in their institutions'
learning environments.
Upon completion, this study aims to enrich the conversation around the U.S. college
admissions process for Chinese students, promoting a better understanding of how innovative
teaching methods like PBL can bridge cultural and educational differences. Its findings hold
the potential to influence a range of stakeholders—from students and parents to educators,
program providers, and admissions teams—contributing to a more inclusive and effective
approach to international education.
Definitions
21st-century Skills refer to a set of abilities and competencies that are considered

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essential for individuals to thrive in the modern world. These skills include critical thinking,
problem-solving, collaboration, communication, creativity, digital literacy, and global
awareness, among others (Trilling & Fadel, 2009).
Project-based learning (PBL) is an instructional approach in which students actively
engage in complex, real-world projects to gain knowledge and develop skills. In PBL,
students investigate and solve authentic problems, working collaboratively and applying
critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication skills to create meaningful outcomes
(Thomas, 2000).
Holistic Admission is an approach to college or university admissions that takes into
account various aspects of an applicant's profile beyond their academic achievements. It
considers non-academic factors such as personal qualities, life experiences, extracurricular
involvement, leadership potential, and diversity factors to assess an applicant's overall
suitability for admission (Hiss & Franks, 2014).
Non-Academic Factors (considered in holistic admission): Non-academic factors, also
referred to as contextual or non-cognitive factors, are aspects of an applicant's profile that are
considered in addition to their academic achievements during the holistic admission process.
These factors may include personal characteristics, leadership qualities, community
involvement, socio-economic background, cultural experiences, overcoming adversity, and
other attributes that provide insights into an applicant's potential for success in college or
university (Kuncel et al., 2018).

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Conclusion
Building on the preceding discussion of the study's purpose and significance, the next
chapter will delve into a comprehensive review of existing literature pertinent to this
research. Chapter Two will provide a detailed exploration of the Chinese education system
and its influence on Chinese students pursuing international education. It will further
elaborate on the concepts of Project-based Learning and their relation to 21st-century skills,
lending theoretical support to the potential benefits of PBL programs for Chinese students.
The review will also scrutinize the U.S. college admissions process, with particular attention
to the holistic admissions approach, thereby laying the groundwork for an in-depth
investigation of academic and non-academic factors considered in this process. Finally, the
literature review will underscore the theoretical underpinning of this study—social
constructivism learning theory, thereby weaving together the various strands of the study, and
setting the stage for a thorough investigation of the research questions in subsequent chapters.

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Chapter Two: Review of Literature
The increasing globalization of education has led to a surge in the number of Chinese
students seeking admission to higher education institutions in the United States (Chen, 2015;
Wang, 2020). With the Chinese education system being vastly different from the American
system, these students face unique challenges navigating the college admissions process (Kuo
& Roysircar, 2016). In response to these challenges, various educational initiatives, including
Project-Based Learning (PBL) programs, have emerged as potential avenues for Chinese
students to enhance their preparedness and competitiveness in the United States college
admissions landscape (Li et al., 2018).
This literature review will begin with an overview of the Chinese education system,
focusing on its characteristics and the impact on Chinese students pursuing international
education (Yang, 2014). This will be followed by an exploration of the development of
international education in China. Subsequently, the review will delve into the various
perspectives on PBL, its essential elements, and theoretical foundations (Hmelo-Silver, 2004;
Krajcik & Shin, 2014). The relationship between PBL and 21st-century skills will also be
discussed, providing a solid foundation for understanding the potential benefits of PBL
programs for Chinese students (Bell, 2010). The review will then turn to the U.S. college
admissions process, examining its history, evolution, and the holistic admission approach
(Mamlet & VanDeVelde, 2011; Steinberg, 2002). This will include a discussion of the
process, components, and characteristics of holistic admission, as well as potential biases and
differing perspectives on this approach (Espenshade & Radford, 2009; Posselt, 2016).
Finally, the literature review will present Social Constructivism Learning theory as the

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theoretical framework and the foundation for this research, tying together the various aspects
of the review and providing a clear basis for investigating the impact of PBL programs on
Chinese students in the United States college admissions process (Deci & Ryan, 2000).
The Education System in China
The Chinese education system has undergone significant transformations since its
founding. The system has been hailed for its emphasis on hard work and discipline. However,
common criticisms of the system include its inability to develop the 21st-century skills that
students need to succeed in the global economy. This section aims to examine the critiques
and shortcomings of the Chinese education system and its negative impacts on Chinese
students studying abroad.
Compulsory Education
Compulsory education in China has undergone significant transformation and
development since the introduction of the Compulsory Education Law in 1986, which
mandates nine years of basic education for all children (Lewin, 2007). This education system
comprises six years of primary education, followed by three years of junior secondary
education (Lewin, 2007; Tsang, 2000). The implementation of compulsory education has
contributed to the remarkable growth in enrollment rates, with near-universal coverage
achieved for both primary and junior secondary education (Hannum, 1999; Lewin, 2007).
Additionally, the expansion of compulsory education has played a crucial role in reducing
inequalities in access to education, particularly for students from rural areas and

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disadvantaged backgrounds (Hannum, 2003; Wu et al., 2014). These achievements reflect the
Chinese government's commitment to providing quality education for all citizens and
fostering a skilled and educated workforce to support the nation's continued economic
development.
Due to the expansion of compulsory education, the completion of secondary schools in
China has seen a significant increase over the past 20-30 years. In the early 1990s, the gross
enrollment rate for secondary education was around 50% (World Bank, 2020). By 2019, this
figure had risen to approximately 100%, indicating that the vast majority of Chinese students
were completing secondary education (World Bank, 2020).
Growth in Higher Education
In terms of higher education, the percentage of Chinese citizens holding bachelor's
degrees has grown considerably. In 1995, only 1.5% of the population held a bachelor's
degree, but by 2019, this number had risen to over 15% (MOE, 2019). This growth can be
attributed to the rapid expansion of higher education institutions in the country. The Chinese
education system has seen a considerable increase in the number of schools and universities
in the past few decades. In 1990, there were around 900 institutions of higher education in
China (MOE, 1990). By 2019, this number had grown to over 2,500 (MOE, 2019). Similarly,
the number of primary and secondary schools in China has also increased dramatically during
the same period (MOE, 2019). The college entrance rate has also experienced growth over
the past 30 years. In 1990, only about four % of high school graduates enrolled in higher
education (MOE, 1990). By 2019, this figure had risen to approximately 51% (MOE, 2019),

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demonstrating the accessibility of higher education for an increasing number of Chinese
students.
Autonomy and Decentralization
In recent years, the role of the Ministry of Education (MoE) and municipalities in Chinese
education curriculum and governance has experienced significant transformation in response
to the growing need for a diversified and adaptable educational system (Wang, 2019). One of
the most noteworthy trends is the decentralization of educational governance, which aims to
provide greater autonomy to local authorities in developing and implementing curricula (Li &
Wang, 2020). This shift is intended to better address regional and cultural differences,
fostering more equitable and contextually relevant educational outcomes across the nation
(Xu & Zhang, 2021).
Notwithstanding the move towards decentralization, the MoE remains instrumental in
setting overarching educational policies and guidelines (Chen & Zhou, 2020). The MoE has
actively sought to increase its influence over the education sector by exercising greater
control over curriculum development and textbook selection (Zhao, 2016). This has led to a
growing emphasis on "core socialist values" and traditional Chinese culture in educational
materials (Law, 2017; Wu & Zhang, 2018). This dual governance structure, in which the
MoE formulates broad national objectives while municipalities tailor specific curricula, is
driven by the rationale of achieving both cohesion and customization (Li & Wang, 2020).
Moreover, this approach facilitates a robust exchange of best practices among municipalities,
fostering continuous improvement in the quality and relevance of education (Zhao, 2019).

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International Education and Curriculum
Regarding international education, this trend of centralization and localization has also
been observed in the governance of international schools and foreign textbooks in China. The
MoE has tightened regulations on international schools, mandating that they integrate more
national curriculum elements into their programs (Wang & Adamson, 2018). The use of
foreign textbooks has similarly come under scrutiny, with the Chinese government
implementing strict approval processes and promoting the use of domestically produced
materials instead (Li & Yang, 2019). Although these changes have been met with criticism
from some quarters, which argue that they may impede the internationalization of Chinese
education (Li & Yang, 2019; Wang & Adamson, 2018), proponents of the reforms claim that
they help to promote a more culturally relevant and nationally focused education system
(Han, 2020; Wu & Zhang, 2018).
The Limits of the Chinese Education System
The Chinese education system is known for its rigorous and demanding academic
curriculum, which is designed to foster discipline, rote memorization, and conformity.
According to Xie and Hu (2020), the system emphasizes the importance of standardized
exams as the primary measure of academic success. The exams, known as the Gaokao,
determine a student's eligibility to enter higher education institutions. As a result, students are
under immense pressure to perform well in these exams. Another characteristic of the
Chinese education system is the emphasis on academic achievement over other aspects of a
student's development. Additionally, the curriculum is rigid and does not allow for much

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flexibility in terms of subject choices. The emphasis on academic success has also led to a
culture of competition among students, where success is measured by grades and rankings.
Because of these characteristics, the Chinese education system has been criticized for
producing students who lack the skills necessary to succeed in the 21st-century. One of the
major shortcomings of the system is the neglect of creativity and critical thinking in the
curriculum. According to a study by Guo, Yao, and Jiang (2019), the Chinese education
system focuses on rote memorization and conformity, which stifles creativity and critical
thinking. This approach does not prepare students for the challenges of the 21st-century,
which require innovative and adaptive thinking.
According to Zhang and Bray (2018), the system is focused on academic achievement
and does not prioritize the development of social and emotional skills. This approach can lead
to students who lack empathy, communication skills, and the ability to work effectively in
teams, which are essential skills in the 21st-century workplace. The emphasis on standardized
exams in the Chinese education system has also been criticized for its narrow focus on
academic achievement. According to a study by Xie and Hu (2020), the Gaokao exams do
not measure a student's ability to think critically, solve problems, or collaborate with others.
This narrow focus on academic achievement can lead to students who lack the skills
necessary to succeed in the 21st-century workplace, where creativity, adaptability, and
collaboration are essential.
The Chinese education system has also been criticized for its lack of flexibility in terms
of subject choices. According to a study by Li and Huang (2018), the curriculum is designed
to produce students who excel in math, science, and language subjects but neglect other areas

24
such as the arts, humanities, and social sciences. This approach can lead to students who lack
a well-rounded education and the skills necessary to succeed in diverse fields.
Lastly, the culture of competition in the Chinese education system has also been
identified as a major shortcoming. According to Zhang and Bray (2018), the focus on
academic success has led to a culture of competition, where success is measured by grades
and rankings. This approach can lead to students who are more concerned with achieving
high grades than developing the skills necessary to succeed in the 21st-century.
International Education in China
International education is a broad term used to describe the learning process that takes
place between individuals from different countries and cultures. While it has become a
popular concept in contemporary times, there is no universally agreed upon definition of
international education. The term has been defined differently by various scholars, educators,
and organizations, each focusing on a different aspect of international education. This section
aims to provide an overview of the different definitions and understandings of international
education, especially from Chinese scholars’ perspective and examine its significance in the
current global context.
International education can be understood in various ways, depending on the
perspective and context. It can be defined as an educational process that seeks to promote
global understanding and cultural exchange by facilitating the exchange of knowledge and
ideas between individuals and institutions from different parts of the world (Breit & Riddle,
2018). For example, Zhou Nanzhao (2007) emphasized that we must dialectically understand
the dynamic meaning of educational internationalization from the perspective of the

25
interaction between globalization and localization. In his article “Comparison of Several
National Policies for Education Internationalization and Reflections on the World Situation,”
Zhou Nanzhao (2007) deeply explored the essence of education internationalization from
multiple perspectives and fields. Theoretically, the essence of education internationalization
is the “process of integrating the international, cross-cultural or global dimension into the
purpose, function, and implementation of education” (Sun, 2022, p, 22).
International education can also refer to programs that aim to prepare students for an
interconnected world by providing them with opportunities to learn about other cultures,
languages, and global issues (Leask, 2018). Sun (2022）stated that “
From a practical point of view, education internationalization refers to effective
integration of elements of other countries or cultures in curriculum content, teacher
development, school-based management, educational technology, and development of
core competencies and values for student, cultivating talents with broad international
perspectives” (p 8).
Other perspectives of international education include the idea that it serves multiple
purposes, including enhancing economic and social development through international
collaboration and communication, promoting global economic growth and sustainable
development by cultivating human capital, and addressing contemporary challenges (Altbach
& Knight, 2007). It also fosters intercultural competence, emphasizing cultural awareness,
empathy, and respect for diversity as essential components for global citizenship and peaceful
coexistence (Deardorff, 2009; Wang & Chen, 2020). International education encompasses a
wide array of activities, such as study abroad programs, international student recruitment,

26
faculty exchange programs, research collaboration, and curriculum development, both at
home and abroad (Beelen & Jones, 2015). As Ma Yifei (2016) noted, it entails transnational
mobility of educational resources, information, and people, facilitated by international
schools and exchange institutions. International education transcends physical mobility and
extends to virtual exchange programs and other cross-cultural collaborative efforts.
International education has become increasingly significant in the current global context,
which is characterized by rapid technological advancement, economic globalization, and
cultural diversity. The growing interconnectedness of the world has created a need for
individuals who can communicate effectively across cultural and linguistic barriers,
understand global issues, and work collaboratively with people from diverse backgrounds.
International education plays a crucial role in meeting this need by providing individuals with
the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for global engagement. It also helps to promote
mutual understanding and respect among people from different cultures and nations, which is
essential for fostering peaceful coexistence and promoting global citizenship. In conclusion,
international education is a complex and multifaceted concept that has been defined in
various ways by different scholars and organizations. It encompasses a wide range of
activities, from study abroad programs to research collaboration, and plays a crucial role in
promoting global understanding, cultural exchange, and economic and social development.
As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, the significance of international education
is likely to grow, and its role in shaping the global future cannot be overstated (Pyvis &
Chapman, 2007).

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Historical Commitments to International Education
China's international education policy has undergone significant changes since the early
days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Initially, to speed up the development
of a socialist country and fight against the capitalist Western Bloc, the central government
proposed sending students and scholars to the former Soviet Union and other socialist
countries in a planned manner. At the same time, students from some socialist countries were
accepted to study in China. From 1950 to the beginning of 1966, a total of 10,698 students
studied abroad, including visiting students, university students, postgraduates, interns, and
translators. However, during the ten years of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976),
international education, mainly studying abroad, stagnated. After smashing the "Gang of
Four," the government gradually recovered international education, with studying abroad
education as the main body with the deepening of the reform and opening-up policy. The
government adjusted its study abroad policy in response to the changing international
situation, sending fewer students to the Soviet Union and Eastern European socialist
countries while opening up channels for studying in Western-developed countries, and
sending students to Asian, African, and Latin American countries through cultural exchange
programs. According to Deng (2021), the history of international education since reform and
open-up in China can be divided into three historical phases: the exploration period (1978-
2000), the formation period (2000-2012), and the development period (2012-present). The
following section reviews the changes and initiatives that have shaped China's international
education landscape.

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Exploration Period, 1978-2000
The period from 1978 to 2000 was characterized by China's re-engagement with the
world after decades of isolationism (Xu, 2016). The Chinese government initiated a series of
economic and social reforms, including the opening-up policy, that aimed to modernize the
country and catch up with other developed nations. In the field of international education,
China's primary focus was on attracting foreign students to study in the country. In 1978,
China began to enroll international students in its universities and colleges, primarily from
developing countries such as Pakistan and other African countries. (Liu & Dearden, 2017).
The number of foreign students increased rapidly from a few hundred in the early 1980s to
over 100,000 in 2000. However, the quality of education and living conditions for foreign
students were often subpar, and the programs were not well organized. The Chinese
government recognized the need to improve the quality of education and living conditions for
foreign students and began to implement policies to address these issues. Overall, as Deng
noted, at that time the Western countries, headed by the United States, were also willing to
strengthen educational cooperation and exchanges with China (Deng & Gao, 2021). Bilateral
exchange and cooperation in education between China and Western countries has been
gradually carried out.
Formation Period, 2000-2012
Between 2000 and 2012, China experienced a significant increase in its engagement with
the world, and the country became more proactive in promoting its education system overseas
(Jia, 2014). This effort was fueled by the Chinese government's investment in improving the

29
quality of education and facilities for international students, and universities were encouraged
to establish international programs and partnerships (Jia, 2014). To attract more international
students, the Chinese government launched the "Study in China" program in 2000, offering
scholarships, reduced tuition fees, and streamlined visa procedures (Li, 2016). As a result, the
number of international students studying in China increased dramatically to over 300,000 in
2011. Additionally, China established over 300 Confucius Institutes in more than 100
countries, which promoted Chinese language and culture and provided opportunities for
foreign students to study in China (Hao, 2015). China's focus on international education was
further reinforced after its accession to the World Trade Organization in 2001. The
government formulated a series of documents related to international education, promoted
multilateral exchanges and cooperation in education, and conducted Chinese-foreign
cooperative education programs in senior high schools and kindergartens (Jia, 2014). They
introduced textbooks, courses, teachers, and management models from overseas, absorbed
high-quality educational resources, and constantly improved the mechanism for opening up
education (Jia, 2014). This approach helped convey a friendly image of China to the world
and led to new progress in studying abroad, studying in China, promoting the Chinese
language, and Chinese foreign cooperative education. Through these efforts, bilateral and
multilateral cooperation platforms for education expanded, and the concept of harmonious
society spread around the world by presenting traditional Chinese history, culture, and art
(Hao, 2015). These efforts demonstrated China's soft power and helped shape its international
education during this period.

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Development Period, 2012 - Present
The period from 2012 to the present has seen a continued focus on improving the quality
of education and facilities for international students, as well as promoting China's education
system overseas. The Chinese government has implemented a series of policies and
initiatives to support the development of international education in the country. In 2012, the
Chinese government launched the "Internationalization of Education in China" initiative,
which aimed to promote the internationalization of Chinese higher education institutions (Xu,
2017). The initiative encouraged universities to establish international partnerships and
collaborate with foreign institutions in research and academic programs. The number of
international partnerships and collaborations increased rapidly, with over 5,000 partnerships
established by 2020 (Yang & Guo, 2019). China has also continued to promote its education
system overseas, with the establishment of more Confucius Institutes and the introduction of
the "Belt and Road" initiative. The "Belt and Road" initiative aims to promote economic and
cultural exchanges between China and countries along the ancient Silk Road and has led to
increased cooperation in education and research (Yan & Liu, 2019). In addition, China
launched the "Study in China" scholarship program, which provides full scholarships to
international students to study in China (Wang, 2020). The number of international students
in China has continued to rise, reaching over 500,000 in 2020.
Since 2012, the number of Chinese students studying abroad has been consistently
increasing, and it is now estimated that Chinese students constitute the largest international
student body globally (Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, 2021).
According to a report by the Institute of International Education (IIE), there were 372,532

31
Chinese students studying in the United States in 2019-2020, representing 34.6% of all
international students (Institute of International Education, 2020). Additionally, Chinese
students study in other countries such as Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom (Wang,
2020). Chinese students are motivated to study abroad by various factors, including the
pursuit of better educational opportunities, exposure to international cultures, and improved
career prospects (Wang, 2020). Additionally, many Chinese students are interested in gaining
language proficiency, which they believe will increase their competitiveness in the global job
market (Wang, 2020). The Chinese government also plays a significant role in promoting
study abroad, offering scholarships, and encouraging students to study in high-demand fields
such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM; Ministry of Education of
the People's Republic of China, 2021).
Chinese Students Abroad
China has become a major source of international students, with over 2.69 million
Chinese students studying abroad in 2021 (Explore Data, n.d). Studying abroad can provide
Chinese students with various benefits. However, the shortcomings of the Chinese education
system in preparing them for study abroad led to serious challenges for them. The Chinese
education system's lack of emphasis on 21st-century skills is particularly relevant to Chinese
students studying abroad.
The lack of emphasis on 21st-century skills in the Chinese education system can impact
Chinese students studying abroad in several ways. Firstly, it can hinder their academic
performance (Yan, 2022). As noted by Bao and Li (2017), Chinese students studying abroad

32
often struggle with the academic and social expectations of their host country. In many
Western universities, the emphasis is on independent learning, critical thinking, and
collaborative teamwork, which may be unfamiliar to Chinese students who are accustomed to
a more structured and teacher-centered learning environment (Jing & Maguire, 2019). Wang
and Chen (2020) also stated that Chinese students studying abroad often struggle with critical
thinking, research skills, and academic writing, which are essential components of higher
education in Western countries. The focus on rote memorization and standardized exams in
the Chinese education system may not adequately prepare Chinese students for the academic
expectations of their host country. Research suggests that Chinese students may lack the
necessary skills and competencies to succeed in international academic settings. For example,
a study by Li and Bray (2007) found that Chinese students in Australian universities had
difficulty with critical thinking, independent learning, and academic writing. Similarly, a
study by Guo and Jamieson-Drake (2018) found that Chinese students in American
universities had difficulty with critical thinking, creativity, and communication skills.
Secondly, the lack of 21st century skills training in the Chinese education system can also
impact Chinese students' employability after graduation. As noted by Jing and Maguire
(2019), Chinese students studying abroad may struggle with the job application process and
workplace culture due to their lack of practical skills. In a globalized economy, employers
increasingly value candidates with cross-cultural competencies, communication skills, and
problem-solving abilities (Smith, 2021), which may be lacking in Chinese students who have
been educated in a more rigid and traditional education system (Li & Zhang, 2020).

33
Thirdly, the lack of 21st-century skills training in the Chinese education system can
impact Chinese students' ability to adapt to the cultural and social norms of their host
country. As noted by Bao and Li (2017), Chinese students studying abroad may struggle with
language barriers, cultural differences, and social isolation, which can impact their overall
well-being and academic performance. The lack of emphasis on these skills in the Chinese
education system may limit Chinese students' ability to adapt to new and unfamiliar
environments.
In conclusion, the Chinese education system's lack of emphasis on 21st-century skills
may be a significant challenge for Chinese students studying abroad. The emphasis on rote
memorization and standardized exams may not adequately prepare Chinese students for the
academic and social expectations of their host country. As a result, Chinese students studying
abroad may struggle with academic performance, employability, and adaptation to new and
unfamiliar environments. To address these challenges, the Chinese education system may
benefit from a shift its focus towards developing practical skills such as critical thinking,
collaboration, creativity, citizenship, characteristics, and communication.
Project-based Learning
Project-based learning (PBL) is a pedagogical approach that aligns with the principles of
the progressive education movement, which advocates for student-centered and experiential
learning to support deep understanding through active exploration of real-world problems and
challenges (Pellegrino & Hilton, 2012; Peterson, 2012). The project method, which is cited as
the first formalization of a PBL model, was developed by William Heard Kilpatrick and
inspired by the philosophies of John Dewey (Peterson, 2012). Kilpatrick believed that the key

34
to the project method lay in its being an activity undertaken by students that truly interested
them (Ravitch, 2000). Although Kilpatrick’s ideas were widely disseminated among teachers
and administrators during the progressive education movement, they have since been
significantly revised.
According to Bell and Cowie (2001), PBL is "a process of engaging learners in complex,
purposeful tasks that require sustained inquiry and the production of high-quality products or
performances" (p. 2). This definition highlights the importance of engaging learners in
meaningful, authentic tasks that require them to use higher-order thinking skills. Markham
(2003) defined PBL as "a systematic teaching method that engages students in learning
knowledge and skills through an extended inquiry process structured around complex,
authentic questions and carefully designed products and tasks" (p. 7). This definition
emphasizes the importance of structuring PBL around carefully designed, authentic questions
and products that promote deep learning.
The Buck Institute for Education (2018) defines PBL as "a teaching method in which
students gain knowledge and skills by working for an extended period of time to investigate
and respond to a complex question, problem, or challenge" (p. 1). This definition emphasizes
the importance of extended, in-depth engagement with complex problems or challenges.
Helle et al. (2006) defined PBL as "a learning method based on the construction of projects
that require active involvement of students in knowledge acquisition and problem-solving,
reflection and communication" (p. #). This definition highlights the importance of active
student involvement in knowledge construction, problem-solving, and communication.
Krajcik and Shin (2014) defined PBL as "an instructional approach that promotes learning

35
through the development of a solution to a complex, open-ended problem or task" (p. #). This
definition highlights the importance of open-ended, complex problems or tasks as the basis
for learning. Overall, these definitions highlight the key features of PBL as an approach that
involves students in authentic, real-world projects or tasks that promote critical thinking,
problem-solving, collaboration, and reflection.
Varying Perspectives on PBL
Student-centered and inquiry-based approaches, including PBL, have historically
encountered resistance and criticism from those who emphasize the importance of students’
developing specific content knowledge in traditional subject areas (Ravitch, 2000). Despite
this, PBL and other instructional approaches that emphasize deeper learning and the
development of skills needed for success in college, career, and civic life have become
increasingly popular (Huberman, Bitter, Anthony & O’day, 2014). Originally, one reason for
the appeal of PBL and other deeper learning strategies among education reform advocates
and practitioners is the persistence of poor postsecondary outcomes for high school
graduates, particularly for low-income students (Bailey & Dynarski, 2011). In the U.S., large
numbers of students who graduate from high school and enroll in college fail to pass the
mathematics and English/language arts placement tests, requiring them to enroll in remedial
classes before being deemed college ready. Approximately 60% of community college
students enroll in remedial courses, contributing to a low completion rate in postsecondary
education for academically underprepared and low-income students (Bailey, Jeong & Cho,
2010). PBL is theorized to be an approach that could address these problems by enhancing

36
students’ motivation, conceptual knowledge, and problem-solving skills (Blumenfeld et al.,
1991). One study by Blumenfeld et al. (1991) investigated the effects of PBL on middle
school students' learning outcomes and found that students engaged in PBL demonstrated
higher levels of intrinsic motivation, deeper conceptual understanding, and improved
problem-solving abilities compared to students in traditional instruction. Furthermore, a
meta-analysis conducted by Hmelo-Silver et al. (2007) examined the effectiveness of PBL
across various educational settings. The analysis revealed that PBL positively influenced
student learning outcomes, including improved problem-solving skills, critical thinking
abilities, and knowledge acquisition. Recent shifts in the education reform movement may
also be contributing to the popularity of PBL. Education reformers and policymakers
increasingly support a more expansive and holistic vision for public education that aligns
with the deeper learning goals of PBL. For example, the emphasis in the United States of
both the Common Core State Standards and the Next Generation Science Standards on
students’ developing conceptual knowledge and deeper learning skills aligns well with the
goals of PBL. Additionally, advocates and researchers of PBL have long argued that
technology can support successful PBL implementation and enhance its effectiveness
(Blumenfeld et al., 1991; Ravitz & Blazevski, 2014). Recent innovations in educational
technology have been shown to enhance the implementation and effectiveness of Projectbased Learning (PBL) (Hung & Chen, 2018). By integrating technology tools such as virtual
simulations and online collaboration platforms, PBL becomes a more interactive and
engaging learning experience, fostering critical thinking and problem-solving skills. This
evidence suggests that the use of educational technology in PBL can contribute to its appeal

37
and improve learning outcomes (Hung & Chen, 2018).
Theoretical Foundations of Project-Based Learning
The origins of Project-based Learning can be traced back over a century to the work of
John Dewey, an educator and philosopher whose Laboratory School at the University of
Chicago was based on the process of inquiry. According to Dewey, students become
personally invested in the material when they engage in meaningful tasks and problems that
emulate what experts do in real-world situations. In the past two decades, research in the
learning sciences has elaborated on Dewey's insight that active inquiry results in deeper
understanding. Four major learning sciences ideas have been developed and refined to
understand how people learn: active construction, situated learning, social interaction, and
cognitive tools (Bransford, Brown & Cocking, 1999).
Active construction involves learners actively constructing meaning based on their
experiences and interactions in the world, rather than passively taking in information from
teachers, computers, or books (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). The development of understanding is a
continuous process that requires students to construct and reconstruct what they know from
new experiences and ideas, as well as prior knowledge and experiences (Vygotsky, 1978). In
Project-based Learning, students actively construct their knowledge by participating in realworld activities to solve problems and develop artifacts (Blumenfeld et al., 1991).
Situated learning is another concept in the learning sciences that emphasizes the
importance of learning in an authentic, real-world context (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Situated
learning in science involves students experiencing phenomena as they take part in various

38
scientific practices, such as designing investigations, making explanations, modeling, and
presenting their ideas to others (Bell et al., 2003). One of the benefits of situated learning is
that students can more easily see the value and meaning of the tasks and activities they
perform (Blumenfeld et al., 1991). They can also generalize their understanding to a wider
range of situations and develop better conceptual understanding by forming connections
between new information and prior knowledge.
Social interaction plays a vital role in learning, and the most effective learning results
from a particular kind of social interaction in which teachers, students, and community
members work together in a situated activity to construct shared understanding (Blumenfeld
et al., 1996). Learners develop understanding of principles and ideas through sharing, using,
and debating ideas with others. This back-and-forth sharing, using, and debating of ideas
helps to create a community of learners.
Cognitive tools are also essential in learning, as they can amplify and expand what
students can learn (Salomon, Perkins & Globerson, 1991). A graph, for example, is a
cognitive tool that helps learners see patterns in data. Various forms of computer software
can also be considered cognitive tools because they allow learners to carry out tasks that are
not possible without the software's assistance and support. Learning technologies can support
students in accessing and collecting a range of scientific data and information, providing
visualization and data analysis tools similar to those used by scientists, allowing for
collaboration and sharing of information across sites, planning, building, and testing models,
and developing multimedia documents that illustrate student understanding. These features

39
expand the range of questions that students can investigate, and the multitude and type of
phenomena students can experience.
To summarize, Project-based Learning draws on a range of theoretical concepts in the
learning sciences to provide an approach to education that engages students in real-world
activities, emphasizes active construction and situated learning, supports social interaction
and the use of cognitive tools, and ultimately results in deeper understanding.
Essential Elements of PBL
According to the Buck Institute for Education (2018), a project is considered meaningful
if it meets two criteria: 1) students perceive it as personally significant and want to perform
well; and 2) it fulfills an educational purpose. Previous studies revealed several elements that
are deemed essential in creating and implementing meaningful projects.
The first element is a "Need to Know." To activate students' interest and promote
questioning, teachers should launch projects with an "entry event." This event can be a video,
discussion, guest speaker, or field trip that sets up a scenario. Students often struggle to find
meaning in schoolwork when they do not perceive a need to know the content they are being
taught. However, with a compelling project, they can understand the reason for learning
relevant material and how it will help them meet the challenge they have accepted.
The second element is a "Driving Question." Scholars argued that PBL is a teaching
approach that is based on a driving question that guides instruction and engages learners in a
real-world context (Blumenfeld et al., 1991; Krajcik et al., 2002). The driving question serves
as a focal point for organizing and driving project activities, while providing a context for

40
students to use and explore learning goals and scientific practices (Edelson, 2001). A driving
question is a hallmark of PBL, and it should be feasible, worthwhile, contextualized,
meaningful, and ethical. (Krajcik et al., 2002).
The third element is "Student Voice and Choice." This element is crucial in making PBL
meaningful to students. The more voice and choice students have, the better. Educators
should design projects with the extent of student choice that fits their style. For example, in
PBL, the teacher or curriculum designer usually leads the selection of the driving question.
However, it is difficult for them to develop a driving question that possesses all the features
of a good driving question. Thus, the authors suggest designing curriculum around a driving
question that is selected in collaboration with teachers and allows students to explore related
questions or engage in a design project (Rivet & Krajcik, 2004).
The fourth element is " 21st century Skills." The project should give students
opportunities to build essential skills such as collaboration, communication, critical thinking,
and the use of technology. These skills will serve them well in the workplace and life. The
teacher should explicitly teach and assess these skills and provide frequent opportunities for
students to assess themselves. Take collaboration as an example, some scholars argued that
one of the most essential characteristics of PBL is that it fosters collaboration among
students, teachers, and members of society to explore questions and ideas, creating a
community of learners (Brown & Campione, 1994). Through collaboration, students work
together with their peers and teachers to ask questions, provide feedback, form conclusions,
make sense of information, discuss data, and present findings. For instance, critiquing and
providing peer feedback helps students build shared understandings of scientific concepts and

41
the nature of the discipline as they engage in discourse with their peers and adults outside the
classroom. Also, integrating technology tools in the classroom creates an environment where
learners actively construct knowledge. Edelson (2001) offered three reasons for using
technology tools in PBL: (1) they align with the scientific practices; (2) they present
information in dynamic and interactive formats; and (3) they provide unprecedented
opportunities to move teaching away from a transmission-and-acquisition model of
instruction. Learning technologies allow students to access real-world data, collaborate with
others online, gather and analyze data, create models, and produce multimedia artifacts. By
leveraging technology, teachers can foster inquiry-based learning and student-centered
approaches that enhance student learning.
The fifth element is "Inquiry and Innovation." Students find project work more
meaningful when they conduct real inquiry. They generate their questions, search for
resources, and discover answers. Real inquiry leads to innovation, a new answer to a driving
question, a new product, or an individually generated solution to a problem. Teachers should
guide students in real inquiry by referring to the list of questions they generated after the
entry event and coaching them to add new insights to the list.
The sixth element is "Feedback and Revision." Formalizing a process for feedback and
revision during a project makes learning meaningful. It emphasizes that creating high-quality
products and performances is the purpose of the endeavor. Students need to learn that most
people's first attempts do not result in high quality, and revision is a frequent feature of realworld work . The teacher should coach students in using rubrics or other sets of criteria to

42
critique one another's work. Teachers can arrange for experts or adult mentors to provide
feedback.
The seventh element is a "Publicly Presented Product." Learning sciences research has
shown that students learn more effectively when they develop artifacts—external
representations of their constructed knowledge. In Project-based Learning, artifacts result
from students' investigations into the driving question and can take various forms. These
artifacts need to address the driving question, show the emerging understanding of students,
and support students in developing understanding associated with the learning goals of the
project. PBL focuses on artifact development for several reasons. Firstly, through the
development of artifacts, students construct and reconstruct their understanding, generating
deeper levels of understanding. Secondly, because learning does not occur in linear, discrete
steps (Pellegrion, Chudowsky and Glaser,2001), assessments should not be constructed
around small, discrete bits of information. Artifact development allows teachers to assess for
higher-level cognitive outcomes such as designing investigations and creating scientific
explanations. Thirdly, when students publish what they create, it enhances their
understanding, making their understandings visible to others, and allowing them to reflect on
and revise their work. Schoolwork is more meaningful when students present their work to a
real audience. It could be a poster, a presentation, a performance, or a product. When students
present their work to a real audience, they care more about its quality.
In conclusion, these seven elements of PBL provide a framework for creating meaningful
projects. Educators can improve student learning by implementing these elements in
designing and implementing PBL programs.

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PBL and 21st-century Skills
According to Dede (2010), 21st century skills refer to a set of competencies
encompassing cognitive, interpersonal, and intrapersonal domains. It is often associated with
the 6Cs framework and encompasses essential competencies required for individuals to
effectively navigate and succeed in today's complex and dynamic world (Fullan &
Langworthy, 2014). The 6Cs include critical thinking, creativity, communication,
collaboration, citizenship, and character, which together form a holistic approach to skill
development in the modern era.
According to Binkley et al. (2012), PBL can develop creativity, critical thinking, and
problem-solving skills. Through PBL, students engage in complex problem-solving activities
that require them to identify problems, generate ideas, and implement solutions. This
approach encourages students to think outside the box, come up with innovative solutions,
and work collaboratively to solve real-world problems.
PBL is widely recognized as an effective pedagogy for cultivating 21st-century skills due
to its emphasis on active, student-centered learning, real-world problem-solving, and
collaboration (Bell, 2010; Helle, Tynjälä & Olkinuora, 2006). Firstly, PBL is known for its
student-centered approach, fostering active learning, and promoting student engagement
(Savery & Duffy, 1995). In PBL, students take ownership of their learning process, becoming
active participants rather than passive recipients of information. This active involvement
leads to increased motivation and a deeper understanding of the subject matter. Secondly,
PBL is inquiry-based, encouraging students to ask questions, explore answers, and engage in
critical thinking (Hung, 2009). By posing authentic problems and challenges, PBL stimulates

44
students' curiosity and prompts them to seek solutions through investigation and analysis.
This inquiry-driven approach enhances students' cognitive abilities, promotes deep learning,
and improves their understanding of the subject matter. Thirdly, PBL promotes relevance and
authenticity by designing projects that address real-world problems (Thomas, 2000). By
engaging with authentic tasks and scenarios, students understand the practical applications of
the knowledge and skills they are acquiring. This connection to real-life situations enhances
their understanding of the subject matter and its significance in the world beyond the
classroom. Fourthly, collaboration and communication skills are fostered through PBL
(Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007). Working in groups and engaging in discussions during the
problem-solving process allow students to develop effective communication and
collaboration skills. These skills are crucial in professional settings, as they enable students to
work effectively in teams, share ideas, and articulate their thoughts clearly.
According to Kim et al. (2017), PBL can develop teamwork and communication
skills, which are essential for success in the 21st century job market. PBL provides
opportunities for students to work collaboratively on projects, which requires them to
communicate effectively, listen actively, and collaborate with their peers. Fifthly, character
education and citizenship skills can also be developed through PBL. According to Yoon et al.
(2015), PBL can develop empathy, social responsibility, and ethical reasoning skills. PBL
provides opportunities for students to engage in projects that address real-world problems,
which require them to consider the impact of their actions on the community and the
environment. This approach promotes social responsibility and ethical reasoning skills, which
are essential for becoming responsible citizens in the 21st-century. Finally, PBL promotes

45
creativity and innovation in various ways. It provides a conducive environment for students
to engage in collaborative problem-solving, which stimulates creativity and the exchange of
ideas (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). By working in groups, students are exposed to a diverse range of
perspectives, which can help them generate multiple solutions to complex problems.
Moreover, the open-ended nature of PBL challenges students to think divergently and explore
unconventional solutions (Jonassen & Hung, 2008). This process fosters innovation by
encouraging students to take risks and experiment with new ideas. PBL also facilitates the
application of knowledge and skills to real-world problems, thereby promoting innovation.
According to Hmelo-Silver (2004), the process of applying knowledge to new situations
encourages students to transfer their learning to novel contexts, which is a key aspect of
innovation. By engaging in PBL, students are also exposed to complex problems that require
innovative solutions, thereby developing their ability to think creatively.
University Admissions Processes in the United States
The evolution of college admission policies is a reflection of the political priorities,
the societal role of higher education, the public demand for higher education, and the core
values of institutions (Bastedo & Jaquette, 2011; Posselt & Grodsky, 2017). This evolution is
rooted in a long history that dates back to the 17th and 18th centuries, when college admission
was largely a private affair and was based on mastery of Greek, Latin, Mathematics, personal
recommendations, and connections. As noted by Maude and Kirby (2022), during the "long
reign of the individual entrance exam in the old-time college," admission decisions were
centered on performance in Greek, Latin, and Mathematics (p. 2). However, the development
of private academies in the early nineteenth century marked a shift towards a more practical

46
and diverse approach to college admission. Instead of focusing solely on Greek, Latin, and
Mathematics, colleges began to develop their own admission requirements, leading to greater
freedom of preparation course choice. The absence of uniform college admission
requirements soon became a source of annoyance and confusion for secondary schools as
they tried to prepare students to meet the college entrance requirements (Beale, 2012), and
this conflict led to a national movement towards uniformity in college admissions. The
milestones of this movement included the 1900 report (Beale, 2012) presented by the
Committee of College Entrance Requirements, which covered a four-year investigation of
admission requirements. The report identified a lack of uniformity in admission requirements
as a major issue, with each institution having its own set of standards and criteria for
evaluating applicants. The committee recommended that colleges and universities adopt a
common set of admission requirements, including standardized tests and academic
prerequisites. The report also emphasized the importance of evaluating applicants based on
their overall academic record, rather than relying solely on standardized test scores. The
committee recommended that institutions consider a range of factors, such as high school
grades, class rank, in addition to test scores. This reinforced the trend towards a more
standardized and comprehensive admission approach nationwide.
Development of Holistic Admission
While today holistic admission is considered commonplace as a comprehensive
approach to select students, its origins reflect a biased way to recruit students. From about a
decade after 1900 until the end of World War II, during which time university admissions

47
took an overtly racist approach to avoid admitting Catholic and Jewish students. This was a
conscious effort to reduce the number of Jewish students. To support this discriminatory and
antisemitic agenda, institutions intentionally blurred the admission standards and began
considering alternate admission criteria, such as “character” and “fitness,” which favored
white students from elite backgrounds. This admission strategy was referred to as “Holistic
Admission” (Madue & Kirby, 2022) Ironically, holistic admission, instead of promoting more
equitable access to colleges, has been criticized for being rooted in religious and ethnic
discrimination (Bastedo, 2018).
The evolution of holistic admission in American universities has undergone several
shifts since the 1940s, with standardized tests playing a major role in the process. At the end
of World War II, when antisemitism was no longer tolerated, along with the development of
standardized tests, prestigious universities began evaluating students based solely on their
intellectual abilities, largely using standardized tests like the Standardized Aptitude Test
(SAT) and the American College Testing (ACT).
Admissions and Affirmative Action
During this period, drawing on Synnott’s work, Veysey described admissions began
“in explicit atonement for earlier historical sins, academic administrators sought to raise the
number of minority entrants by outright discrimination in their favor” (Veysey, 1980, p. 119).
This included compliance with affirmative action laws starting in 1961. Higher education
administrators developed a set of policies that sought to promote diversity and overcome past
discrimination by giving preferential treatment to individuals from groups that have

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historically been underrepresented in higher education. In the 1970s, affirmative action
became a more common practice in higher education as colleges and universities sought to
increase the representation of minority students on their campuses. This was seen as a way to
address the legacy of discrimination and provide opportunities for those who had been
historically excluded from higher education. However, as Beale (2012) noted, the use of
affirmative action in the late 1940s to increase the number of minority students led to a rise in
lawsuits where White applicants who were denied admission argued that admission based
solely on race was illegal. The landmark 1978 case of the University of California v. Bakke
challenged the use of race-based quotas in admissions, and the Supreme Court ruled that
institutions could consider race/ethnicity in the admission process, but only as one of several
factors and not in isolation. As a result, institutions in the United States turned back to a
“holistic approach” to admissions, taking into account a combination of academic and
nonacademic factors (NAFs), such as extracurricular activities, leadership experiences,
community service, work experience, personal essays, letters of recommendation, and
demonstrated commitment to diversity and inclusion, among others. This additional
information provides a holistic view of applicants and help admissions committees assess
their character, personal qualities, and potential contributions to the campus community.
While standardized tests remained an important component, they were no longer the sole
determining factor. Institutions began considering a range of factors such as extracurricular
activities, leadership experience, and personal qualities, resulting in the modern conception of
holistic admission (Crossley et al., 2007).

49
The principle of equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) is gaining prominence as a
guiding principle in education policy, with the goal of building a fair society that provides
equal opportunities (OECD, date). To this end, many higher education institutions have
implemented EDI-focused action plans, incorporating practices such as training, hiring,
pedagogy, support, and recruitment strategies (Fradella, 2018). Among these efforts,
providing equal access opportunities for talented students regardless of their background is a
central policy objective for colleges and universities, including those of elite status (Chetty et
al., 2017; Hoxby & Avery, 2013). Against this backdrop, the concept of "Holistic
Admission” a both old and new admission approach, continues to dominate college
admission practices and sparks ongoing public attention and heated debate because of the
nature of its objective decision-making and implicit standards (Bastedo, 2018). Nowadays,
holistic admission is widely recognized as a more equitable and fair evaluation method,
allowing institutions to consider the full range of an applicant's experiences, abilities, and
potential.
Current Movements, Components, and Features
The role of standardized tests in college admissions remains a topic of debate, with
arguments for their objective measure of academic ability and concerns about their
unreliability and cultural bias. The test-optional movement, which de-emphasizes or
eliminates standardized tests as admission requirements, is based on the belief that these tests
do not accurately reflect a student's potential for success in college. Instead, factors such as
extracurricular activities, personal qualities, and the student's background are seen as more

50
important indicators of their potential for success (Lucido, 2018; Nicola, 2022). Despite this
ongoing debate, there is evidence that holistic admission can lead to greater equity and
diversity in the admission process. For example, a study by Hossler et al. (2019) found that
colleges that use holistic admission are more likely to admit students from underrepresented
groups and that these students are more likely to persist and graduate from college. Other
research has found that holistic admission can help to reduce the impact of socioeconomic
factors on admission outcomes and promote upward mobility for students from
disadvantaged backgrounds (Stahl, 2017).
Highly selective institutions have utilized the holistic review process for many years
to shape their student body (Hossler & Bontrager, 2015). While the various components of
the review process are evaluated individually, it is important to keep in mind that they all
play a part in the overall admission decision (Scott & Zerwic, 2015; Tam & Sukhatme, 2004).
To fully comprehend holistic admission, it is essential to have a solid understanding of the
components of the holistic review process and their role in the application review. According
to Hossler and Bontrager (2015), admission criteria can be divided into two categories: those
based solely on objective criteria that evaluate a student's academic performance and those
based on both objective and subjective criteria that assess the student's life skills and potential
for success at the institution. The National Association for College Admission Counseling
(NACAC) also releases a yearly list of factors that admissions professionals consider. These
include:

51
1. Academic Record
The academic record, or transcript, is considered the most important component in the
college admissions process (Clinedinst, Koranteng & Nicola, 2016). The transcript provides
information about the applicant's grades, GPA, and course schedule, and is seen as a
representative of the student's comprehensive high school academic history. However,
transcripts can be complex, inconsistent, and difficult to understand (Dix, 2016), with issues
such as grade inflation and varying grading policies complicating the task of evaluating
achievements.
2. Strength of High School Curriculum
Admissions professionals consider the strength of the high school attended by an
applicant as a factor in the admissions process, alongside GPA and individual grades. Nearly
90% of admissions professionals consider high school curricula a major factor in admissions
decisions (Clinedinst, Koranteng & Nicola, 2016). The strength of a high school is
determined by variables such as the academic performance of its students, the percentage of
students going to college, teacher qualifications, availability of advanced courses, and the
variety of courses offered (Tam & Sukhatme, 2004). However, determining the quality of the
high school is subjective and lacks standardization. Using high school curricula as part of the
admissions process may create inequity, as affluent students have more opportunities for
rigorous courses than their less affluent peers. The rigor of a student's high school curriculum
is linked to their chances of getting into selective institutions and persisting, but the

52
availability of rigorous courses varies by community and is related to socio-economic status
(Adelman, 2006).
3. Test Scores
Standardized tests, such as the SAT and ACT, have been an important factor in
college admissions since the mid-20th century, providing a measure of an applicant’s
academic ability that is objective and consistent across different high school curricula.
According to the NACAC Admission Trends Survey, 56% of admissions officers consider
test scores to be of considerable importance, while 33% consider them to be of moderate
importance (Clinedinst, Koranteng & Nicola, 2016). Despite criticism that standardized tests
disproportionately affect underrepresented students, they remain widely used in college
admissions and have been found to be useful in predicting student success, particularly when
combined with high school GPAs.
4. Essays or Personal Statement
The college essay is a crucial aspect of the admission process to selective colleges and
universities. While opinions on the significance of the essay vary among admissions officers,
a study by McGinty (2002) indicated that 22% consider it of considerable importance and
39% of moderate importance, and the majority of high school students surveyed (90%)
believe it to be important. The purpose of the essay is also a matter of debate, with some
viewing it as a platform for self-expression (Kasher, 1999), while others see it as a highstakes writing task (Warren 2013). Despite these differing perspectives, it is widely
acknowledged that colleges use essays to gain a deeper understanding of the student.

53
Additionally, research has not shown that the essay has any predictive power for future
student success (Murphy, Klieger, Borneman & Kuncel 2009).
5. Letters of Recommendation
According to the MIT Admissions website, a well-written letter of recommendation
from a teacher, counselor, coach, or other important figures in an applicant's life can provide
valuable context for the application, highlighting impressive characteristics beyond what the
applicant self-advocates. However, only 17% of colleges see the counselor recommendation
as considerably important and a smaller segment sees the teacher recommendation as
important (Clinedinst, Koranteng & Nicola, 2016). Despite this, letters of recommendation
can offer insights into a student's motivation, persistence, and academic outcomes (Kuncel,
Kochevar & Ones, 2014). There has been public debate over the usefulness of letters of
recommendation, the debate centers around the fact that letters of recommendation may not
always provide useful information, especially for students from overcrowded and
underfunded schools where counselors barely know the students (Bryan, Holcomb-McCoy,
Moore-Thomas & Day-Vines, 2009; Gordon, 2015).
6. Demonstrated Interest
Demonstrated interest is a lesser-known component in the admissions process,
favored by selective colleges, where clear signs of interest can indicate the likelihood of a
student enrolling (Young, 2004). Nearly half of the institutions rated demonstrated interest to
be either considerably or moderately important, making it more important than teacher
recommendations (Hossler & Bontrager, 2015). Demonstrated interest represents a student's

54
interest in a particular institution, not necessarily their academic ability or likelihood of
success in college.
7. Extracurricular Activities
Colleges aim to assess student well-roundedness by examining their extracurricular
activities (Steinberg, 2014). This includes club and athletic involvement, employment, and
volunteer work, which demonstrate the student's interests and community involvement
(Steinberg, 2014). However, admissions officers place more weight on the quality of the
activities than on their quantity or level of involvement (Clinedinst, Koranteng & Nicola,
2016).
8. Contextual Factors
Colleges may consider a student's race/ethnicity and first-generation status as part of
their holistic review process (Clinedinst, Koranteng & Nicola, 2016). Although only 14% of
colleges consider race/ethnicity and 16% consider first-generation status important, they are
pushing to diversify their student body and may be considering these factors unconsciously
(Clinedinst, Koranteng & Nicola, 2016; Espinosa, Gaertner & Orfield, 2015).
9. Financial Need
In recent years, a growing number of colleges have considered financial need in their
admissions process, especially after the 2008 recession (Jaschik, 2016). However, data
suggests that only 18% of colleges consider this factor (Clinedinst, Koranteng & Nicola,
2016).

55
Holistic admission, as viewed by scholars, encompasses several key characteristics. It
involves considering a broad range of applicant experiences and achievements and
acknowledging that academic qualifications alone do not fully represent their potential.
Factors such as leadership, community service, and extracurricular activities are taken into
account (Wambuguh et al., 2016). Holistic admission also aims to enhance diversity within
the student body by considering factors beyond traditional metrics like test scores and grades.
This approach recognizes that diversity brings a richness of perspectives and fosters a more
inclusive and representative campus environment. Moreover, holistic admission enables a
more comprehensive evaluation of applicants by evaluating various aspects beyond academic
qualifications. By looking at a broader set of criteria, institutions can gain a more nuanced
understanding of an applicant's potential and fit for the institution. Furthermore, holistic
admission has been associated with positive student outcomes in higher education. For
instance, a study focusing on Doctor of Nursing Practice students found that the quality of
application materials, such as letters of recommendation and essays, were significantly
correlated with first-semester success (Hunker & Robb, 2022). This suggests that holistic
evaluation methods can help identify individuals who are likely to thrive in their academic
pursuits.
In conclusion, holistic admission considers a wide range of experiences and
achievements, promotes diversity, provides a comprehensive evaluation of applicants, and
has been linked to positive student success outcomes in higher education (Hunker & Robb,
2022; Wambuguh et al., 2016). These characteristics highlight the importance of taking a
holistic approach to admissions to ensure a fair and effective evaluation of applicants.

56
Equity and Continuing Challenges
Holistic admission is a comprehensive and inclusive process used in higher education
institutions to select students for admission. The process aims to evaluate applicants based on
a wide range of factors beyond academic performance, including non-academic experiences,
personal qualities, and potential for success in the program. There is abundant literature that
analyzes the condition of holistic admission practice.
In a study by Lancaster et al. (2020), the authors conducted a quality improvement
project to define and operationalize a holistic admission selection policy. They found that the
most critical components of the policy included ensuring that all applicants were evaluated in
a fair and consistent manner, taking into consideration their experiences, strengths, and
weaknesses. The study also highlighted the importance of involving multiple stakeholders in
the process, including faculty, staff, and students, to ensure that the policy reflected the needs
and expectations of the institution. Chaviano-Moran et al. (2019) examined the potential for
unintended demographic bias in GPA/DAT-based pre-admission screening. They argued that
holistic admissions are necessary in dental schools to avoid such bias and to provide a more
comprehensive evaluation of applicants. The authors also emphasized the importance of
considering non-academic factors, such as cultural background, experiences, and life
challenges, in the admission process. Orlando (2021) examined the inequality of holistic
graduate enrollment management and found that while the holistic approach has the potential
to promote diversity and inclusion, there are still barriers to achieving these goals. The author
emphasized the importance of addressing these barriers and ensuring that the admission
process is equitable and accessible to all applicants. A synthesis of multiple studies reveals

57
that holistic admissions processes consider both academic and non-academic factors when
evaluating applicants. Non-academic factors, such as motivation and interpersonal skills, are
particularly important predictors of success (Wambuguh et al., 2016). Incorporating multiple
mini interviews can provide a more comprehensive evaluation, allowing applicants to
showcase their non-academic experiences and qualities (Clark et al., 2020). However,
achieving diversity through holistic admissions poses challenges due to implicit biases and
limited diversity in the applicant pool (Zimnicki et al., 2022). While non-academic factors are
considered in the admissions process, there is room for improvement in their evaluation and
integration (Hossler et al., 2019). Therefore, a holistic approach that considers diverse criteria
can lead to more informed and inclusive admissions decisions, but ongoing efforts are needed
to address biases and promote diversity in the admissions process.
As the use of holistic admissions becomes more widespread, so does criticism of the
approach. This has become particularly pronounced in recent times due to several highprofile admission scandals that have come to light. The use of vague standards and an opaque
evaluation process are often cited as contributing factors to these scandals, as Bastedo (2018)
stated:
A lack of transparency only served to feed the admissions consulting industry among
wealthy families, the arms race of extracurricular activities, and the influence of
college rankings. It also exacerbated information asymmetries in admissions
knowledge between wealthy and poor students. These forms of gaming and
manipulation, not to mention opportunity, hoarding all facilitated by the ambiguity

58
and seeming arbitrariness in college admissions decisions, with demonstrably
negative effects on the well-being of students and families. (p. 22)
The holistic admissions process, while intending to provide a comprehensive
assessment of applicants, can face challenges that may lead to inconsistencies and unequal
outcomes. One such issue arises from the subjective decision-making process employed by
admissions officers, which could result in varied evaluations of applicants from different
backgrounds (Hossler et al., 2019). Additionally, the standards for evaluating non-academic
factors are often vague and ill-defined, due to their subjective nature and the challenge of
quantifying or standardizing them. These factors encompass a wide range of qualities,
experiences, and personal attributes that can be difficult to precisely define or measure using
objective criteria. This ambiguity in defining and evaluating non-academic factors can lead to
inconsistencies and variations in their assessment during the admissions process; therefore,
making it difficult for applicants to understand the criteria being considered in the admissions
process (Talkad Sukumar et al., 2018). This lack of clarity, along with unconscious biases,
can further contribute to unequal outcomes for applicants from diverse backgrounds (Bastedo
et al., 2018; Kelly Ochs Rosinger et al., 2021). Moreover, the evaluation of non-academic
factors can vary significantly among institutions, leading to inconsistencies and a lack of
standardization in the admissions process (Orlando, 2021). This variation makes it even more
challenging for applicants to understand what factors are being considered and can exacerbate
unequal outcomes. Holistic admissions may lead to an underemphasis on academic merit as
non-academic factors, such as personal characteristics, experiences, and extracurricular
activities, gain more importance (Murray, 2021). Consequently, highly qualified candidates

59
might be overlooked in favor of those with stronger non-academic strengths. Another
challenge faced by colleges and universities is the potential lack of adequate resources to
properly evaluate non-academic factors, which can result in hasty or superficial evaluations
of applicants and undermine fairness in the admissions process (Zimnicki et al., 2022).
Finally, despite the aim of promoting diversity and inclusivity, holistic admissions processes
might not adequately consider applicants' diverse backgrounds and experiences, which can
perpetuate systemic inequalities and limit representation within the student body (Kelly Ochs
Rosinger et al., 2021).
In the United States, the educational landscape is deeply interwoven with issues of
race and equity. People of color, representing a rich tapestry of diverse cultures, experiences,
and perspectives, have historically encountered challenges in accessing higher education due
to systemic disparities. These disparities have been the impetus for affirmative action
policies, aimed at fostering a more equitable balance in university admissions. However,
these policies have been a point of contention, sparking debates over their execution and
potential implications on admissions fairness. The latest Supreme Court ruling on affirmative
action, which significantly impacts the holistic admissions process, is a testament to this
ongoing discussion and seeks to address these concerns. In a groundbreaking decision, the
U.S. Supreme Court recently ruled on affirmative action, significantly altering the landscape
of the holistic admissions process in higher education (Supreme Court of the United States,
2023). The Court’s ruling addresses affirmative action in a novel way, mandating a more
nuanced implementation in higher education admission processes. Rather than allowing
universities to factor race as a predominant criterion in the admissions process, the Court now

60
requires institutions to use it as one of many diverse factors, reiterating the importance of
individual assessment over race-based quotas. This decision echoes the sentiments expressed
in Fisher v. University of Texas (2016), emphasizing the ongoing necessity of achieving
educational diversity without relying on racial categorizations. Consequently, this new ruling
obliges institutions to develop intricate, multifaceted assessment strategies that also consider
attributes such as socio-economic status, family education history, and personal experiences.
Higher education institutions must reevaluate their admissions strategies to comply with this
new interpretation of the law, which could significantly impact student body composition in
the upcoming years (American Council on Education, 2023).
Social Constructivism Learning Theory
Social constructivism learning theory, developed by Vygotsky (1978), is a central pillar
in educational psychology, with roots in classical antiquity. This pedagogical approach
emerged from a broader paradigm shift that began in the early twentieth century, moving
away from behaviorism and toward cognitive and constructivist learning theories. These
theories emphasize the importance of the learner's role in constructing knowledge based on
their experiences and interactions (Kim, 2001). Social constructivism specifically posits that
learning is a social process, with knowledge being constructed through interaction with others
and the environment (Vygotsky, 1978). It underscores the notion that students actively
construct their own knowledge and understanding through social interactions and experiences
(Palincsar, 1998). As such, it appreciates the context in which learning takes place,
considering cultural, social, and historical factors. Social constructivism emphasizes that: (1)

61
learning is an active and constructive process; (2) learning is a social process and thus, best
accomplished through collaboration; (3) dialogue and language play a critical role in
learning; and (4) learning is context-dependent (Palincsar, 1998).
Application of Social Constructivism to the Research Questions
Social constructivism learning theory can provide valuable insights into the research
questions posed in this dissertation. Firstly, in regard to the question of how participation in
Project-based Learning (PBL) programs influences the academic performance of Chinese
students and their preparedness for the United States college admissions process, social
constructivism presents a compelling framework. PBL, as an approach, echoes the principles
of social constructivism, providing an environment where students actively engage in their
learning, collaborate with peers, and construct new knowledge through solving real-world
problems (Thomas, 2000). It is, therefore, logical to posit that such an environment would
enhance academic performance and preparedness for college admissions, as it encourages
critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration, which are skills highly valued in higher
education institutions (Buck Institute for Education, 2018). Secondly, concerning the impact
of PBL programs on the development of non-academic factors considered in holistic
admissions processes, social constructivism offers meaningful insights. By nature, PBL
requires students to engage in team-based work, problem-solving, and active discussions -
activities that stimulate the development of interpersonal skills, leadership qualities, and
cultural competency (Bell, 2010). These non-academic factors are often considered in the
holistic admissions process of many American universities (Buck Institute for Education,

62
2018). The social constructivist perspective, therefore, helps to explain how PBL programs
contribute to the development of these essential non-academic qualities. Lastly, the theory of
social constructivism can help to understand Chinese students’ motivations and barriers to
participating in PBL programs. According to the theory, students are motivated by active,
contextual, engaging, and student-owned learning experiences (Vygotsky, 1978). Therefore,
if PBL programs can offer these experiences, Chinese students would be motivated to
participate. Conversely, potential barriers might arise from cultural or educational
backgrounds that emphasize passive learning and rote memorization (Zhao & Kuh, 2004).
Understanding these motivational factors and barriers through the lens of social
constructivism can help to optimize PBL programs to better engage Chinese students.
Social constructivism, through its emphasis on active, social, and contextual learning,
provides a robust framework for understanding the potential impacts of PBL programs on
Chinese students' academic performance, non-academic factors, and motivations or barriers
to participation. By drawing on the principles of social constructivism, educators can harness
the strengths of PBL to foster a learning environment that benefits students in their quest for
higher education and beyond. This framework serves as a critical lens through which the
specific impacts of PBL on Chinese students in the United States college admissions process
can be more thoroughly understood and addressed.
Conclusion
This literature review offers a comprehensive overview of the context that underlies this
research, specifically the Chinese education system. It delves into the development of

63
international education in China and its impact on students seeking to study abroad.
Additionally, it provides a succinct narrative of Project-based Learning and introduces its
fundamental components, followed by a discussion of its association with 21st-century
competencies. Further, this literature review scrutinizes the history of college admission in
the United States and the concept of holistic admission. Finally, it presents a theoretical
framework that underpins this study.

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Chapter Three: Methods
The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of PBL programs on the
development of academic and non-academic skills of Chinese students as they prepare for
college admissions in the United States. The research questions guiding this study are: (1)
How does participation in PBL programs influence the academic performance of Chinese
students and their preparedness for the United States college admissions process? (2) How
does participation in PBL programs contribute to the development of non-academic
characteristics considered in holistic admissions processes?
This study employs a combination of surveys and interviews as data collection
methods, which aligns with the research questions, and this study will use the social
constructivist learning theory to guide the development of data collection protocol and as part
of data analysis. (Creswell, 2013). This approach enables the researcher to obtain a
comprehensive understanding of the perceived influences of PBL programs on Chinese
students.
In this chapter, the research design and methods for data collection and analysis will
be presented in detail. The chapter will begin with an overview of the organization, followed
by a discussion of the population and sampling strategy. Subsequently, the data collection
and instrumentation section will outline the procedures for implementing surveys and
interviews. The data analysis section will provide an in-depth explanation of the techniques
used to analyze the data collected. Next, the credibility and trustworthiness section will
discuss the measures taken to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings. The ethics
section will highlight the ethical considerations and steps taken to protect the rights and

65
confidentiality of the research participants. Finally, the limitations and delimitations section
will address the potential constraints and boundaries of the study. Through the use of a
qualitative research design and a combination of surveys and interviews, this study aims to
provide a rich, in-depth understanding of the experiences of Chinese students participating in
PBL programs and the potential influence on their U.S. college admissions process. By
employing appropriate research methods and ensuring the credibility and trustworthiness of
the findings, this study will contribute valuable insights to the literature on PBL and its role
in the college admissions process for Chinese students.
Organization Overview
Future Academy is an international education company founded by Chinese graduates
from Harvard University, Columbia University, and the University of Southern California. Its
mission is to cultivate future-oriented, globally competent, and versatile international talents.
It was established at Columbia University in 2014 and initially provided basic research
guidance to Chinese students there, leveraging the university's academic resources. In 2016,
Future Academy returned to China, setting up its headquarters in Beijing and began offering
systematic Project-based Learning opportunities for Chinese students.
The company collaborates with professors from top Western universities to design
online project-based courses tailored for Chinese students. They also partner with Chinese
study abroad agencies, universities, and international schools to promote their courses to
potential student groups. After six years of growth, Future Academy has become China's
leading provider of Project-based Learning courses.
In 2022, Future Academy collaborated with hundreds of professors from top

66
universities, such as Harvard, Yale, Stanford, MIT, Oxford, and Cambridge, providing online
project-based courses and services to tens of thousands of students. The courses cover a wide
range of disciplines, including arts, sciences, engineering, business, law, and medicine.
Currently, Future Academy has branches in over a dozen Chinese cities, including Beijing,
Shanghai, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Wuhan, and Chengdu. It employed more than 500 full-time
staff and worked with nearly 1,000 professors and scholars from around the world, offering
almost 2,000 project-based courses annually. Additionally, Future Academy collaborates with
top Chinese universities like Shanghai Jiao Tong University and Lanzhou University to
explore interdisciplinary teaching methods. As an institution that provides PBL programs to
more than 20,000 students annually, Future Academy is an ideal pool to recruit a sample for
this study.
Population and Sample
This study explored the influence of participation in Project-Based Learning (PBL)
programs on Chinese students' academic and non-academic skills as they prepare for U.S.
college admissions. To achieve these objectives, a non-random, purposeful sampling strategy
was employed to select participants from the population of focus. This section details the
sampling and recruiting procedures for the study.
Sampling Strategy
The population of focus for this study was comprised of Chinese students who
participated in PBL programs offered by Future Academy. To ensure a comprehensive
understanding of the PBL programs' impact, the study included participants from various

67
academic disciplines, such as arts, sciences, engineering, business, law, and medicine, and
different educational backgrounds, including those attending international schools and public
schools. The study collected 158 survey responses and 15 participants for an in-depth
interview. These samples were purposefully selected based on their completion of a PBL
course, the diversity of their academic disciplines, and their educational backgrounds
(Creswell, 2013; Palinkas et al., 2015).
Inclusion criteria for selecting participants included:
1. Chinese students who have completed at least one PBL course offered by Future
Academy.
2. Students representing diverse academic disciplines.
3. Students from different educational backgrounds (international schools and public
schools).
4. Students with prior PBL experience before they join the program provided by Future
Academy.
5. Willingness to participate in the study by providing consent.
To account for the different sampling approaches required for surveys and interviews,
the study employed a qualitative methods design. The first phase involved administering
surveys to participants and collected 158 responses. Based on the survey responses, a
subsample of 15 participants were purposefully selected for one round of in-depth interviews
to further explore the perceived influences of PBL programs on their academic performance
and preparedness for U.S. college admissions, as well as their motivations and barriers to
participating in PBL programs.

68
Recruiting Strategy
As all students participating in Future Academy's PBL courses have their contact
information and personal details recorded during registration and each PBL course organizes
a WeChat group managed by teaching assistants, with the help of teaching assistants, the
researcher sends out a general invitation to the WeChat groups. After receiving their intention
to participate in this research, the researcher contacted them and sent the surveys via email.
The recruiting process involved the following steps:
1. Sending general invitations via WeChat, providing them with information about the
study, its objectives, and the participation requirements.
2. Requesingt participants' consent to participate in the study, sharing information sheet and
ensuring they understand their rights and the study's confidentiality measures.
3. Administering the survey to consenting participants.
4. Selecting a subsample of 15 participants for one round of in-depth interviews based on
their survey responses and the inclusion criteria.
Rationale
The non-random, purposeful sampling strategy, with its revised inclusion criteria, is
more suitable for this study as it allows the researcher to select participants based on specific
criteria, ensuring that the sample represents the diverse population of interest (Teddlie & Yu,
2007). Furthermore, this sampling strategy allows for the exploration of diverse perspectives
and experiences related to PBL programs, contributing to a deeper understanding of their
impact on Chinese students' self-reported academic performance and preparedness for U.S.

69
college admissions.
The research design is appropriate for this study as it enables the collection and
analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data, providing a more comprehensive
understanding of the research questions (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2017). The survey data
provided insights into the overall impact of PBL programs on academic performance and
preparedness for U.S. college admissions, while the in-depth interviews offered a richer
understanding of individual experiences, motivations, and barriers related to participation in
PBL programs.
By incorporating additional criteria, such as students' educational backgrounds and
prior PBL experience, the study provided a more nuanced understanding of the perceived
influences of PBL programs on Chinese students. Furthermore, the recruiting strategy,
leveraging the existing contact information and WeChat groups, ensured an efficient and
effective recruitment process, maximizing participation and data collection.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
The data collection and instrumentation for this qualitative research utilized a twopronged approach: surveys and interviews. The choice of these methods reflected the
theoretical framework of the study, social constructivism, which emphasizes the importance
of social interactions in knowledge construction (Vygotsky, 1978). These methods provide a
platform for capturing the complex, subjective experiences, motivations, and barriers Chinese
students encountered in Project-Based Learning (PBL) programs and their influence on their
United States college admissions process.

70
Opting for surveys as a data collection tool in this study is a strategic choice,
underpinned by several compelling reasons. The advantage of surveys stems from their
capacity to cast a wide net, capturing diverse experiences across a significant sample size
(Creswell, 2013). This expansive reach becomes an indispensable asset, given the objective
of this research—to comprehend the varied experiences of Chinese students participating in
PBL programs. The geographical dispersion of this demographic, coupled with their
substantial numbers, makes surveys, particularly online versions, a pragmatic and costeffective approach for data collection (Creswell, 2013). The inclusion of open-ended
questions within the survey design serves a dual purpose. First, it enabled the extraction of
rich, nuanced information on the motivations driving Chinese students to engage in PBL
programs. Second, it shed light on their perceptions of how these programs shape their
academic and non-academic readiness for college applications (Fowler, 2013; Creswell,
2013). The freedom to articulate thoughts and feelings in their own words offered by openended questions paints a more comprehensive picture of the students' experiences (Creswell,
2013). This approach aligned with the social constructivist framework of the study, which
values and encourages the exploration of subjective experiences and interpretations of each
participant. The utility of surveys extends beyond capturing a broad range of experiences and
detailed insights. They also served as a conduit for participants to share their self-perceptions
and self-reported behaviors (Creswell, 2013). Thus, in the context of this study, surveys
offered a window into how Chinese students perceive their motivations, challenges, and the
impacts of PBL on their readiness for college applications. This self-reporting mechanism
can unearth valuable insights into students' internal thought processes, attitudes, and

71
perceptions, all of which are critical components in understanding the influence of PBL
programs on the college admissions process.
An online survey was employed for my study. To ensure that the survey was
accessible and culturally appropriate for the target population, the instrument was translated
into Chinese using forward and backward translation. This approach involved translating the
survey from the source language (English) to the target language (Chinese) and then
translating it back to the source language by a different translator to check for accuracy and
consistency (Brislin, 1970). The survey consisted of 16 questions, designed to be completed
in approximately 10 minutes. The survey included a mix of open-ended, Likert scale, and
multiple-choice questions. Open-ended questions provided rich, nuanced data that captures
the complexity of participants' experiences (Fowler, 2013), while Likert scale and multiplechoice questions facilitated data analysis and comparison across participants (Dillman, Smyth
& Christian, 2014). The choice of question types was informed by the social constructivist
theoretical framework of the study, which emphasizes the importance of capturing subjective
experiences while also recognizing the need for standardized, quantifiable data for
understanding the sample groups. The questions were designed to address the research
questions, focusing on the influence of PBL programs on academic performance, the
development of non-academic factors, and students' motivations and barriers to participation.
Ensuring the validity and reliability of the survey items is crucial for accurately measuring
the concepts under investigation. Content validity was established through a thorough review
of the literature, consultation with experts, and pilot testing with a small sample of Chinese
students (Creswell, 2013). To achieve a high response rate, various strategies were employed,

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including a clear and concise survey invitation, the use of personalized emails, reminders, and
a user-friendly survey interface (Dillman et al., 2014). Incentives were also used to encourage
participation (Bryman, 2012).
Interviews, on the other hand, offered a unique lens to delve into the intricacies of
individual experiences, further enriching the understanding of the impact and perceptions of
PBL programs on students' college application process (Seidman, 2013). The choice of
employing interviews was not arbitrary but stems from the need to delve beneath the surface,
to extract rich, detailed data that surveys may not sufficiently capture (Kvale & Brinkmann,
2009). This in-depth approach is akin to navigating uncharted waters, charting the course for
unexpected discoveries that contribute to a greater understanding of the research questions.
The flexibility inherent in this method aligned harmoniously with the social constructivist
perspective, which placed great emphasis on dialogue and interaction between the researcher
and the participant (Seidman, 2013).
The interviews took the form of semi-structured conversations, provided a flexible yet
guided framework to explore the research questions in greater depth (DiCicco-Bloom &
Crabtree, 2006). This flexibility allowed the study to follow unexpected, yet insightful, paths
that might emerge during the conversation. Therefore, while the interview questions were
designed to explore students' experiences with PBL programs, the perceived impact on their
academic and non-academic readiness for college applications, and their motivations and
barriers to participation, the conversation was not limited to these topics alone. Again, to
ensure cultural appropriateness and linguistic accessibility for Chinese students, the interview
protocol was translated into Chinese using forward and backward translation (Brislin, 1970).

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This approach ensured the accurate conveyance of meaning and minimizes the risk of
misinterpretation. A one-round, in-depth, semi-structured interview was conducted with 15
participants. Each interview took about 30-45 minutes. This approach allowed for a deeper
exploration of their experiences and perception of the development of their academic and
non-academic skills during the participation. The semi-structured interview protocol,
comprised of eight questions, was employed in the in-depth interviews (DiCicco-Bloom &
Crabtree, 2006). This approach provided a balance between structured questions that address
the research objectives and open-ended questions that offer participants the opportunity to
share their unique experiences and insights. The semi-structured approach aligned with the
study's social constructivist theoretical framework, which emphasizes the co-construction of
knowledge through dialogue and interaction between the researcher and the participant
(Vygotsky, 1978).
The beauty of this approach lies in its ability to reveal the layers beneath the students'
experiences, their underlying motivations, the perceived benefits, and the challenges they
face. Each conversation becomes a piece of the puzzle, contributing to the rich tapestry of
understanding the role of PBL programs in the context of the college admissions process for
Chinese students in the United States. Thus, the narrative of this research was shaped not
only by the broad insights gained from surveys but also by the depth and richness of
individual stories unearthed through interviews.
The use of both surveys and interviews allowed for the triangulation of data, enhanced
the credibility and depth of the findings (Creswell, 2013). This triangulation is particularly
valuable in a social constructivist framework, where multiple perspectives and interpretations

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are recognized and valued. Furthermore, both these data collection methods provided
important context and depth for understanding the complex ways in which PBL programs
may influence Chinese students' experiences with the college admissions process. The design
of the survey and interview instruments was an iterative process, informed by the research
questions and existing literature on PBL programs and college admissions. The instruments
were piloted and refined to ensure they accurately capture the desired data and were
interpreted consistently by participants (Bryman, 2012). Care was also be taken to ensure the
instruments are culturally sensitive and appropriate for the Chinese student population being
studied.
In conclusion, the choice of using surveys and interviews for data collection in this
research aligned with the nature of the study and the social constructivist theoretical
framework. These methods allowed for a comprehensive exploration of the research
questions, capturing a breadth of experiences across the Chinese student population and depth
in individual experiences with PBL programs and college admissions.
Data Analysis
This research utilized two data collection methods: surveys and interviews, and the data
analysis approach for each was different to address the nature of the data collected
appropriately. The survey data, with its structured nature, was processed using descriptive
statistics. Frequencies were calculated for each response, which provided an overview of the
data.
As for the qualitative data gathered from the interviews, the analysis began during
data collection. Analytic memos were written after each interview, documenting thoughts,

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concerns, and initial conclusions about the data in relation to the study's social constructivist
learning theory framework and research questions. This aligned with Saldaña's (2015)
suggestion of coding and theme development as an ongoing process that starts from the very
first encounter with the data. Following data collection, interviews were transcribed verbatim
and subjected to a three-phased coding process. The first phase involved open coding, where
data are examined to identify distinct concepts and categories. This process sought empirical
codes that emerged from the data and applying a priori codes derived from the social
constructivist learning theory framework. The second phase was axial coding, where
connections between categories are identified, and data were reassembled in new ways after
open coding to create a more precise and complete explanation of the phenomena. Finally, in
the third phase, pattern codes, and themes were identified in relation to the theoretical
framework and study questions (Saldaña, 2015). The analysis process was iterative, involving
repeated rounds of coding, theme development, and refinement. The objective was to
generate rich, detailed, and trustworthy findings that reflect the participants' experiences and
perspectives on the impact of PBL programs on their U.S. college application process. Openended questions within the survey also contributed to the qualitative data pool, and their
responses underwent a similar process to the interview data. The open-ended responses thus
provided rich qualitative data that complemented the numerical survey data, and they were
integrated into the overall data interpretation and analysis, contributing to a comprehensive
understanding of the phenomena under study.

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Credibility and Trustworthiness
Establishing credibility and trustworthiness is a vital aspect of scientific research. This
study employed several strategies in the design, data collection, and data analysis phases to
ensure the validity and accuracy of findings. One approach was triangulation, using multiple
methods of data collection to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research
questions. In this study, both surveys and interviews were utilized, providing diverse
perspectives on the experiences of Chinese students in PBL programs. While the survey
captured a breadth of experiences across a large sample, the interviews allowed for an indepth exploration of individual experiences, thus corroborating the findings and
strengthening the study's validity (Creswell & Miller, 2000). Member checking was also
employed, which involves sharing the findings with the participants to verify their accuracy
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985). This process ensured that the participants' views and experiences
were accurately represented and enhanced the study's credibility. In this study, preliminary
findings from the surveys and interviews were shared with participants for validation,
allowing them to confirm or refine the researchers' interpretations. Reflexivity, the process of
reflecting on one's role and influence on the research process, was incorporated throughout
the study (Berger, 2015). As a researcher, I maintained a reflexive journal to record personal
reflections, biases, and assumptions. This strategy was particularly relevant to this study as
it allows for critical self-reflection and awareness of potential biases that may arise when
examining the experiences of Chinese students in PBL programs. By actively acknowledging
and documenting these biases, the researcher can ensure do not unduly influence the
interpretation of the findings, thus increasing the overall credibility of the study.

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Ethics
Research involving human participants entails a responsibility to protect their rights,
welfare, and dignity. In this study, informed consent will be obtained from all participants
before their involvement in surveys and interviews (Creswell, 2013). The consent form
clearly explained the purpose of the research, potential risks and benefits, the voluntary
nature of participation, and the procedures for ensuring confidentiality. Participants were
informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without any repercussions. To
minimize this, transparency was maintained throughout the research process.
As the Chief Operating Officer (COO) of the organization and the researcher, there is a
potential for conflicts of interest and confusion regarding my dual roles. There might be a
subconscious inclination to select students who have had notably positive experiences with
the program for the study. This selection bias could lead to the overrepresentation of positive
outcomes and underrate the challenges or negative experiences of other students, thereby
skewing the results of the study. Similarly, there may be unintentional bias in interpreting the
data, with a tendency to emphasize positive impacts of the PBL programs while downplaying
negative feedback. This could potentially lead to a skewed understanding of the impact of
PBL programs on the academic and non-academic factors of Chinese students in the United
States college admissions process. Given my position within the organization, students might
feel compelled to participate in the study or provide overly positive responses due to
perceived power dynamics. They may feel that their responses could impact their current or
future participation in the PBL programs or their relationship with the organization. This
perceived pressure could result in inaccurate data, as students might not feel comfortable

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sharing negative experiences or criticisms of the PBL programs. To mitigate these potential
conflicts of interest, this study maintained transparency throughout the research process and
reassured participants about the confidentiality of their responses and the voluntary nature of
their participation (Bryman, 2016). In the invitation, the instruction for the survey, and the
consent forms, I remained anonymous, and just refer myself as a researcher. I communicated
openly with employees and students about my role as a researcher, emphasizing that
participation in the study will not impact their relationship with the organization (Coghlan &
Brannick, 2014). Additionally, measures were taken to ensure data confidentiality and
anonymity, including the use of pseudonyms and secure data storage procedures (Bryman,
2016).

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Chapter Four: Findings
This chapter is focused on how PBL influences the academic and non-academic
development of Chinese students as they prepare for U.S. college admissions. Reflecting on
the backdrop of an education system heavily focused on rote memorization and the
significant increase in Chinese students seeking education in the United States, this study
examines how PBL programs might influence these students in the holistic admissions
process. It delves into how PBL, as a contrast to traditional rote learning, facilitates their
development in both academic competencies and essential soft skills. Detailed analysis of
data collected from surveys and interviews will reveal the distinct ways in which PBL
enriches these students' learning experiences, preparing them for the holistic evaluation
processes employed by U.S. colleges.
Overview of Participants
The study initially aimed to collect 100 survey responses, but successfully gathered 158,
offering a broader view of Chinese high school students’ experiences with Project-based
Learning (PBL). The participants varied in their stages of the college application process:
four had not started their applications (2.38%), 76 were in the process (45.24%), 20 had
completed their applications (11.9%), and 68 had completed applications and received
admissions offers (40.48%).
Geographically, the participant distribution was as follows: 89 students hailed from firsttier cities (Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Shenzhen), accounting for 52.98% of the sample.
Another 34 came from provincial capitals and municipalities (20.24%), 16 from separately

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planned cities (9.52%), and 29 from other cities (17.26%). Regarding their educational
backgrounds, 68 participants attended public schools (40.48%), 76 were from private
international schools (45.24%), seven were from schools for children of foreign personnel
(4.17%), and 17 from other types of schools (10.12%).
The gender distribution among participants was 96 males (57.14%) and 72 females
(42.66%). Additionally, 15 students were deeply engaged through interviews, providing
further qualitative insights into their PBL experiences.
Emerging Themes
The study's comprehensive analysis, drawing from interviews and survey responses, was
methodically aimed to identify prevailing themes that resonate with the overarching research
questions. This thorough examination of participants' inputs culminated in the emergence of
four primary themes: enhanced academic competencies; a broader perspective on learning;
the evolution of soft skills through PBL; and cultivating confident engagement and global
competence. Accompanying these primary themes, a series of sub-themes surfaced, offering
deeper granularity into the PBL impact. Under enhanced academic competencies, the subthemes included critical thinking and problem-solving, adaptability to new learning
environments, and applying academic knowledge with real-world impact. A broader
perspective on learning uncovered sub-themes of a shift from rote learning to active inquiry
for academic depth, cultivation of a lifelong learning mindset, and interdisciplinary
exploration. The evolution of soft skills through PBL revealed communication beyond
language proficiency, enhanced teamwork dynamics, and leadership development as critical

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sub-themes. The confidence and global competence illuminated sub-themes such as
interpersonal confidence and cultural adaptability on a global scale. Each sub-theme adds
layers of understanding to the transformative educational experiences of Chinese students
engaged in PBL, offering nuanced insights into their journey toward academic and personal
growth.
Research Question 1: Academic Performance and College Admissions Preparedness
Theme 1: Enhanced Academic Competencies
Data from the study found that 91.8% of respondents reported positive outcomes from
their engagement with Project-based Learning (PBL), highlighting its influence on the
educational experiences of those students. This substantial majority underscored the
widespread and multifaceted influence of PBL, spanning across various domains of academic
and practical skill development. These responses illustrate PBL's role not just as an
educational strategy, but as a catalyst for comprehensive academic enhancement, reflecting a
broad consensus among these students on its positive contribution to their educational
experience.
Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving. The survey responses indicated that critical
thinking and problem-solving have been notably amplified by PBL, with 35.12% of student
survey participants reporting significant improvements. This sub-theme is reflected in the
intricacies of their analytical processes and their adept application of logic to complex
scenarios. One student participant, Student 13, said,
In our PBL project, we dissected the socio-economic effects of trade tariffs. We
were engrossed in statistical analysis, weighing historical precedents against current

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data. It was a challenging but enlightening process. Crafting an argument was no
longer about regurgitating information but about building a case with layered
evidence.
Another student interviewed, Student 11, said,
Our PBL curriculum turned the tables on the traditional 'teacher says, student echoes'
model. In a project exploring renewable energy, our teacher presented us with
conflicting viewpoints on solar versus wind power. Instead of simply digesting the
information, we were encouraged to critically dissect each argument, to look at the
data skeptically, and to question every source. This was critical thinking in action—
actively engaging with material, challenging the status quo, and debating fiercely
with peers. The project culminated in a comprehensive review where my group and I
not only delivered a presentation but also defended our approach against a panel of
skeptics, an exercise that honed our reasoning skills more than any textbook exercise
ever could.
Study participants said that PBL significantly amplified critical thinking and problemsolving capabilities among students, and that this method promoted their deep engagement
with complex problems, enhancing their ability to analyze, question, and construct logical
arguments effectively. As a result, students said they were equipped with these skills and
better prepared for the demands of higher education and professional challenges.
Adaptability to New Learning Environments. 93.45% of survey respondents in this
study acknowledged an enhancement in their ability to conduct independent research,
indicating an adaptability to new learning environments. The development of independent

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research skills is pivotal as it mirrors the transition from the structured, teacher-led
classrooms prevalent in China to the inquiry-driven, self-directed learning environments
often found in U.S. higher education. Students in the study reported that through PBL they
learned to navigate academic challenges autonomously, preparing them for the diverse and
dynamic educational landscapes they will encounter abroad. This adaptability is essential for
them to thrive in the globally varied academic cultures that students aspire to be part of.
Student 3 said,
Transitioning from a traditional Chinese classroom to a PBL framework meant
learning to be both student and teacher. The PBL model prompted me to step out of
the passive learning mold. I became more proactive in seeking knowledge,
understanding that the onus was on me to direct my learning journey.
Through PBL, the student in this study began to see their learning not just as a path to
knowledge, but as a journey of developing the skills to seek it actively and independently,
like another student, Student 1, described,
PBL introduced me to a learning dynamic that was starkly different from my prior
experiences in China, where the teacher's role evolved from lecturer to guide. This
shift was initially daunting but became liberating, compelling me to embrace selfdirection—a cornerstone of American academic culture. The PBL framework
simulated the active learning and critical engagement I would later find paramount in
U.S. universities. This early exposure to a style of learning centered on discussion
and inquiry not only prepared me for the academic rigor ahead but also instilled a

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confidence in navigating the diverse intellectual landscapes I would encounter in the
United States.
Applying Academic Knowledge with Real-world Impact. On the survey, in which 1
represented 'strongly disagree' and 5 represented 'strongly agree', the statement "Participating
in a PBL project has helped me understand how to apply academic knowledge in practice"
received a score of 4.28, the highest among all statements. This signals PBL's pivotal role in
fostering practical application skills. This rating underscores the strides made by student
participants in this study in bridging theoretical understanding with practical execution. Also,
during the interview, student participants described how PBL prepared them for the
challenges of real-world problem-solving, underscoring its effectiveness in cultivating these
critical competencies essential for academic and life success. Student 7 said,
PBL significantly altered my approach to applying nutritional science in daily life.
Tasked with monitoring dietary intake, calories, and weight, I undertook a seemingly
simple project that became a profound learning experience. By documenting and
analyzing my diet and activities, I discerned patterns in my health and energy,
connecting nutritional theory to practical impacts. This project went beyond
academic learning, transforming into a personal quest for healthier living. It
underscored the value of resilience and self-management in achieving health goals,
empowering me to practically apply nutritional knowledge for personal well-being.
Student participants reported that the transition from understanding to applying these
concepts marked a journey of tangible, personal transformation. Another participant, Student
2, said,

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Our PBL project demanded not just understanding concepts but applying them to
devise a tangible product. This transition from theoretical learning to actual creation
was demanding yet exhilarating. It required a resilient mindset to navigate the
iterative process of design, feedback, and refinement.
These narratives, supported by quantitative data, illustrate the substantial role of PBL in
helping shape the academic identity of the Chinese students who participated in this study,
equipping them with the competencies essential for success in university studies abroad and
beyond.
Theme 2: Broader Perspective on Learning
The findings from my research indicated that Project-based Learning has significantly
reshaped the educational approaches of students involved in the study and guided them from
traditional learning methods to a broader, inquiry-based academic experience. This shift, as
observed in the data, is not just a change in teaching strategy; it reflected a change in the
student participants’ outlook on education, fostering a newfound appreciation for its practical
relevance and inherent value.
Curiosity as a Catalyst for Academic Depth. In addition to the survey data, interviews
underscored how PBL helped foster a culture of curiosity and exploration among these
students. This shift away from traditional rote learning towards an inquiry-based approach
significantly deepened students' engagement with their subjects, prompting them to
investigate beyond the confines of the curriculum. For example, one participant, Student 1,
said,

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PBL transformed my approach to learning. In a venture into the complexities of
water conservation techniques, my curiosity was not just piqued—it was set ablaze.
The quest to understand led me to study various filtration methods, the socioeconomic impact of water scarcity, and even the policies governing water rights.
This journey was fueled by an insatiable curiosity to uncover every facet of the
issue, pushing me far beyond the initial project scope.
The transformation in this student’s learning process was a microcosm of a larger evolution,
where the traditional boundaries of subjects were crossed, and a multifaceted understanding
was pursued. In another interview, Student 15 shared,
Originally, my grasp of biology was basic, geared only towards exams. However, PBL
transformed learning into an adventure. I delved into a genetic disorders project, exploring
both the science and the human narratives behind these conditions. My curiosity drove me to
interview medical professionals, research treatments, and attend extra genetics lectures. This
journey expanded my academic views and fostered a deep appreciation for the role of
curiosity in profound learning. The focus shifted from grades to a genuine passion for
knowledge and discovery.
These narratives illustrate how PBL catalyzed a shift in students' learning paradigm,
from passive absorption of information to active exploration driven by curiosity. This deeper
engagement not only enhanced academic depth but also cultivates a lifelong passion for
discovery, critical analysis, and a broader understanding of complex topics.
Interdisciplinary Exploration. Among the 15 students interviewed, seven highlighted
the integration of multidisciplinary knowledge as a pivotal element of their PBL experience.

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This emphasis on interdisciplinary skills is further substantiated by survey data, where a
notable score of 4.22 out of 5 from participants signified strong agreement on the
improvement of these skills. The influence of PBL in fostering interdisciplinary exploration
and cognitive flexibility among these surveyed and interviewed students is clear. This method
encouraged not only the breakdown of traditional barriers between disciplines but also
promotes the formation of connections across various fields, thereby enhancing their
problem-solving abilities and creative thinking. Specifically, within a health and wellness
project that intertwined nutrition, psychology, and physical education, one student's journey
exemplified the rich, interdisciplinary fabric of PBL as experienced by the participants.
During the interview, students demonstrated the depth of their interdisciplinary exploration
through PBL. Student 14 said,
Embarking on this project required me to bridge gaps between what I knew
separately about food's nutritional value, psychological factors affecting eating
habits, and the physical benefits of exercise. It was a profound exercise in cognitive
flexibility, challenging me to synthesize these distinct areas into a unified health
strategy. This wasn't just academic learning; it was preparing for real-life
application.
This quote showcased the depth of interdisciplinary exploration. Student 8 detailed his
experience, which further highlights the integrative learning approach characteristic of PBL.
Student 8 shared,
In our quest to design an eco-friendly housing model, the project transcended mere
architectural planning. We found ourselves at the intersection of physics,

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environmental science, and even economics, striving to create a sustainable yet
feasible living solution. This endeavor was not only about the amalgamation of
knowledge from different domains but also about applying this integrated
understanding to solve a pressing real-world issue.
Through such experiences, students in this study not only enhanced their cognitive
flexibility but also developed a comprehensive understanding of complex issues, preparing
them for the multifaceted challenges of the modern world.
Building Intrinsic Motivation for Learning. The impact of PBL among the students
surveyed and interviewed extends beyond mere knowledge acquisition; it transformed their
learning process into a journey driven by intrinsic motivation. This transformation is
supported by the data, where a survey question received an average score of 4.28 out of 5.
This score, reported by the participating students, indicated the effectiveness of PBL in
applying academic knowledge to practical situations. The score suggested that, for these
students, PBL helped them bridged theory and practice, which not only enhanced their ability
to apply learned concepts but also altered their perception of learning—from a task to be
completed to an enjoyable and enriching experience.
The interviews with these students further reinforced this view, as they shared their
personal revelations on how PBL projects enhanced their enjoyment and satisfaction with the
learning process. Student 2 shared:
In the midst of a PBL project focused on renewable energy solutions, I found
myself completely absorbed, not just by the challenge of applying scientific
principles but by the process of learning itself. It was a revelation—learning

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wasn't just a means to an end but an enjoyable journey. This project showed me
that applying academic knowledge in real-world scenarios could be incredibly
fulfilling, sparking a curiosity and love for learning that I had never experienced
in traditional settings.
This realization that academic principles could be effectively applied in practical
scenarios marked a significant milestone for the students in my study, reshaping their
perception of knowledge as a tool for tangible change. Following this insight, another
participant, Student 12, shared,
PBL redefined my academic motivation. Initially, my focus was on achieving
high grades, but through a project that involved designing a community garden,
I discovered the intrinsic joy of learning. It was more than just using botanical
knowledge for planting; it was about engaging with the community,
understanding their needs, and seeing the tangible effects of our work. This
hands-on application and the positive feedback from the community transformed
my approach to education. Learning became something I genuinely looked
forward to, a process filled with discoveries and personal growth.
These accounts from the students in the study illustrated that PBL could extend beyond
traditional educational goals, fostering a learning environment where the thrill of discovery
and the satisfaction of practical application were paramount. Such experiences suggested that
for these students, the shift toward intrinsic motivation might have enhanced their educational
experience, potentially laying a foundation for continual learning and personal development,
although further research would be needed to fully substantiate these broader impacts.

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By fostering curiosity, interdisciplinary exploration, and intrinsic motivation, PBL has
not only enhanced academic competencies for students participating in this study but also
rekindled a love for learning. This broader perspective on learning, underpinned by active
engagement and a deep-seated enthusiasm for discovery, equips students with the skills and
mindset necessary for success in the ever-evolving landscape of global education.
Research Question 2: Development of Non-Academic Qualities
Theme 3: Evolution of Soft Skills through PBL
Data from this study suggests that PBL is an effective tool in developing the soft skills
deemed essential by students in this study for success in the U.S. college admissions process.
Among 15 interviewees, 12 explicitly mentioned "soft skills," indicating a high awareness of
their importance. Despite varied interpretations of what soft skills encompass, among the
participants, there is a strong agreement on their significance in the context of U.S. higher
education. This acknowledgment from participants underscored the role of PBL in nurturing
collaboration, communication, leadership, and other interpersonal abilities, positioning
students not only for academic achievement but also for meaningful personal and
professional growth.
Enhancing Collaborative Skills. The student participants' assessment of their enhanced
collaborative skills, with an average score of 4.12 out of 5, indicated PBL's efficacy in
cultivating essential teamwork abilities. This score, situated closer to the 'strongly agree' end
of the spectrum, reflects a collective acknowledgment among participants of the role PBL
played in refining their ability to work effectively with others. In the context of a 1 to 5 scale,
where 1 denoted complete disagreement and 5 signified strong agreement, such a high

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average underscored the profound impact of PBL on students' perceptions and competencies
in collaborative settings. This acknowledgment from the students highlighted not just a
theoretical appreciation for teamwork but a practical, experienced-based affirmation of their
growth in this critical skill area. For example, Student 5 shared, "collaboration in PBL meant
aligning our individual strengths toward a common project goal. I recall a project where my
analytical acumen complemented another's creative input. This synthesis of skills was crucial
in constructing a robust project outcome."
These reflections from participants in this study illustrated how PBL facilitated the
integration of diverse talents within their specific projects. Through this process, the students
not only leveraged their individual strengths but also learned to effectively merge different
viewpoints, enhancing their collective ability to achieve unified project outcomes. Another
participant, Student 14, said,
In a PBL task, we confronted the challenge of integrating varying opinions into a
cohesive presentation. Each of us played a mediator at some point, ensuring that
every voice was heard. This honed not just our collective negotiation skills but also
the individual ability to give and receive constructive criticism.
Students reported that PBL has enhanced their collaborative skills, enabling them to integrate
diverse strengths and perspectives into cohesive project outcomes. Through PBL, participants
have refined their negotiation abilities and learned the importance of valuing each team
member's contribution to collective goals. This demonstrated a significant development in
their collaborative competencies as experienced directly through their project engagements.

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Communication: Beyond Language Proficiency. One of the survey questions asked
students to rate the statement "Participating in PBL improved my communication skills" on a
scale from 1, meaning 'strongly disagree', to 5, meaning 'strongly agree'. The average
response was 4.11, indicated that a majority of the students in this study acknowledged a
significant enhancement in their ability to communicate effectively. This score reflected a
broad consensus among participants on the importance of PBL in developing not only their
language skills but also their capability to engage in meaningful and constructive interactions.
To illustrate this point, Student 8 shared,
Engaging in multicultural team projects under PBL demanded a reevaluation of how
I communicate. It taught me that true communication extends past mere words to
foster understanding and respect among diverse viewpoints. This initial step of
recognizing the complexity of communication paved the way for deeper learning.
Building on this foundation, Student 10's experience offers a deeper perspective,
Following this realization, a debate on genetic engineering within a PBL context
challenged me to present intricate scientific ideas in accessible language. The
progression from basic communication to effectively debating complex topics
marked a significant evolution in my communicative skill set. This journey not only
bolstered my ability to engage in high-level discourse but also filled a gap in my
confidence, enabling me to express myself more fully.
This progression from understanding the foundational aspects of effective
communication to applying these skills in complex scenarios exemplified the transformative
power of PBL. Through these experiences, students in this study not only enhanced their

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ability to interact within diverse groups but also gained confidence in their voices,
showcasing the profound personal growth facilitated by PBL.
Leadership Emerging Through Challenges. In the survey, participants were asked to
rate the statement "I believe my leadership skills have significantly improved as a result of
participating in PBL." On a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 indicated strongly disagree and 5
indicated strongly agree, leadership skills received an average score of 3.83, the lowest
among all options. Other options included teamwork and collaboration skills, communication
skills, and creative thinking and problem-solving abilities. However, despite the relatively
low score, this rating may still suggest a positive shift in perceptions of leadership due to
engagement with PBL. The interviews suggested an expanding view among Chinese
students, who traditionally might see leadership as synonymous with formal authority, to
recognizing leadership as a spectrum of influential behaviors and actions.
Student 13's reflection begins to peel back the layers of this evolving understanding,
In our PBL projects, I found myself in roles where leadership was not about being in
charge but about facilitating meaningful dialogue and supporting my peers' ideas.
This experience was eye-opening. It helped me see that true leadership is about
contributing positively to the team's dynamics and outcomes, regardless of your
official position.
Building on this insight, Student 3 offered a narrative that further illustrates the nuanced
development of leadership skills through PBL,
During a particularly challenging phase of our project, it became clear that waiting
passively for instructions would lead us nowhere. I decided to step forward,

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coordinating our efforts and steering the team past the obstacles. This was a moment
of realization for me—leadership isn't merely about titles or being at the forefront;
it's about recognizing the need for action and having the courage to take it, especially
when the path isn't clear. This insight into leadership, especially coming from a
culture that often equates leadership with authority, signifies a significant shift in
perspective.
These narratives not only underscored the personal growth and expanded understanding
of leadership among PBL participants in this study but also hinted at the reasons behind the
relatively lower scoring of leadership skills. They revealed a complex interplay between
cultural perceptions of leadership and the transformative experiences provided by PBL,
which collectively fostered a more inclusive and action-oriented view of what it means to
lead.
This exploration into soft skills development through PBL highlights its significance in
preparing these students for the competitive environment of U.S. colleges. The emphasis on
collaboration, communication, and leadership reflects a comprehensive understanding of soft
skills, vital for navigating academic and professional landscapes. Despite varied
interpretations of soft skills among the students, the collective acknowledgment of their
importance, coupled with the transformative experiences shared, underscores PBL's
effectiveness in fostering these essential qualities among them. This alignment with the
expectations of U.S. higher education institutions demonstrates PBL's pivotal role in shaping
well-rounded individuals ready for the challenges and opportunities of global education.

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Theme 4: Cultivating Confident Engagement and Culture Awareness
Data from this study found that PBL transcends traditional education boundaries, crafting
pathways for students who participated in this study to acquire not just scholarly knowledge
but key life skills. For example, the ability to confidently engage in interpersonal settings and
navigate the complexities of a globalized society stands out during the interviews. These
facets of personal growth are crucial for these students aiming to excel in the vibrant,
multicultural academic landscapes abroad.
Confidence in Interpersonal Engagement. The survey asked students to rate the extent
to which they agreed that participating in PBL enhanced their confidence in expressing their
ideas on a scale from 1 to 5, where 1 indicated 'strongly disagree' and 5 indicated 'strongly
agree'. With an average score of 4.17, it was evident that students in this study felt notably
more assured in expressing their thoughts following their engagement with PBL. This
highlighted the significant impact of PBL on students' self-perception and their ability to
effectively communicate and interact with others. One student, Student 9 shared,
Facing a classroom diverse in thought and background was initially overwhelming,"
reflects Student 1. "Yet, as I engaged more with PBL, it became a platform for selfdiscovery. I learned the importance of speaking up, not just to be heard, but to
contribute meaningfully. The encouragement to voice my ideas, coupled with
constructive feedback, nurtured a sense of confidence in my perspectives and a
belief in the value of my contributions.
Building on this sentiment, Student 13 shared a compelling transformation,

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The journey from reluctance to confidence wasn't swift, but it was transformative.
Engaging in PBL taught me that expressing oneself is an act of courage and trust in
one's insights. Initially, leading a group discussion filled me with dread. Over time,
however, I realized that my fears were unfounded. Each successful interaction, each
positive outcome stemming from my input, reinforced my self-assurance. PBL didn't
just make me more expressive; it instilled a profound confidence in my ability to
effect change through my ideas.
These reflections underscored the critical role of PBL in fostering a robust self-confidence
among these students, enabling them to approach academic discourse and personal challenges
with newfound courage and a steadfast belief in their abilities.
Cultural Awareness. Cultural awareness , as indicated by an average score of 4.11 on
the survey, underscored PBL's role in preparing these students to thrive in multicultural
environments. This question gauged the extent to which students believed that participating
in PBL significantly enhanced their global cultural awareness and expanded their
international perspectives. A score of 4.11 indicated that a majority of the students perceived
a substantial improvement in their ability to navigate diverse cultural contexts and engage
effectively in a globalized world. As students embarked on PBL projects with international
themes, they cultivated a deepened awareness of global cultures, preparing them for the
multifaceted realities of studying abroad. A student interview participant, Student 2, shared
an enlightening moment,
Collaborating with peers from various cultural backgrounds pushed me to transcend
my own viewpoints. The Project-Based Learning (PBL) approach didn’t just

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introduce me to global issues; it fundamentally taught me the value of cultural
awareness and the necessity of understanding and respecting diverse perspectives.
Echoing this sentiment, Student 4 described a pivotal project experience,
In one of our key projects, we had to devise solutions that were viable across
different cultural contexts. This experience was profoundly eye-opening as it
required us to immerse ourselves in the cultural nuances and intricacies of each
context. By engaging deeply with these cultural perspectives, I gained a heightened
awareness of how cultural backgrounds shape problem-solving approaches and
decision-making processes. This project underscored the crucial role of empathy and
cultural adaptability, teaching me that understanding and respecting cultural
diversity is essential not only for effective collaboration but also for creating
innovative and inclusive solutions in our increasingly interconnected world.
Interviewed students perceived growth in their ability to communicate confidently and
interact with a globally diverse set of peers through their engagement with PBL. These
skills—confidence in interpersonal engagement and global cultural competence—were seen
as valuable assets for these students as they navigated the challenges of international
education. While it's important to note these perceptions, further research would be needed to
establish a clear causative link between PBL and such growth. However, within the context
of my study, PBL emerged as a significant educational strategy that appeared to contribute to
the development of these essential skills, positioning students to better adapt to a globalized
world.

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Summary of Findings
This study specifically investigated the impact of Project-based Learning (PBL) on
Chinese students, focusing on their preparation for U.S. college admissions. It revealed
significant advancements in both academic and soft skills development of the students who
participated in this study, essential for navigating the complexities of the U.S. higher
education landscape. Notably, the findings highlighted improvements in critical thinking,
problem-solving abilities, and a broader perspective on learning, indicating a departure from
traditional rote memorization toward active, inquiry-based learning approaches among the
participants.
Furthermore, the study underscored the evolution of soft skills such as communication,
collaboration, and leadership, alongside the cultivation of resilience and self-management, as
integral components of PBL's impact on these students' preparedness for international higher
education. These outcomes resonated with the principles of social constructivism,
emphasizing learning as a dynamic, social process that extends beyond academic proficiency
to encompass personal growth and adaptability within the specific context of the students
involved in the study.
Conclusion
The inquiry into the role of PBL in preparing Chinese students for the challenges of U.S.
college admissions and beyond illuminates its profound and wide-ranging impact. By
fostering a learning environment that champions active engagement, critical inquiry, and
collaborative learning, PBL not only enhances academic abilities but also cultivates essential

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soft skills and personal competencies for students who participated in this study. These
findings affirm the critical role of PBL in aligning with the evolving demands of the global
educational landscape, providing valuable insights for educators, policymakers, and students
alike. As Chinese students venture into the diverse academic and cultural milieu of U.S.
higher education, the competencies developed through PBL—resilience, independence, and a
global perspective—equip them for success and leadership in their academic pursuits and
future careers. This study underscores the importance of innovative educational approaches
like PBL in supporting students' holistic development, advocating for its broader adoption
and integration into international education frameworks to empower the next generation of
global citizens and leaders.

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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
This chapter synthesizes the insights garnered from this study on the influence of ProjectBased Learning (PBL) on the academic and non-academic development of Chinese students
preparing for U.S. college admissions. The purpose of this study is to explore the nature of
this influence, considering an education system traditionally focused on rote memorization.
In this final chapter, I will revisit the two guiding research questions of this inquiry:
1. How does PBL influence the academic performance and college admissions
preparedness of Chinese students?
2. What impact does PBL have on the development of non-academic qualities, such as
soft skills, among these students?
The discussion aims to contextualize the findings from Chapter Four within the broader
academic discourse, linking back to the theoretical framework and literature reviewed in
Chapter Two. This analysis will highlight how the findings align with, contradict, or extend
existing educational theories and practices. Additionally, this chapter will present targeted
recommendations for educational practice, derived from the study's findings, to suggest
practical applications and strategies for stakeholders in educational systems similar to those
discussed. These recommendations will be supported by both the empirical data collected and
the theoretical insights discussed throughout this dissertation.
This chapter will not only address the implications of these findings but also propose
avenues for future research, thereby aiming to contribute to the ongoing development and
refinement of educational strategies that fully recognize the varied influences of PBL.

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Discussion of Findings
This section delves deeper into the outcomes of Project-Based Learning (PBL) to explore
how the empirical data from Project-Based Learning (PBL) interventions corresponds with
and elaborates on the socio-constructivist learning theory. This section aims to interpret the
findings in light of existing educational theories, thereby elucidating how PBL contributes
uniquely to the academic and personal development of Chinese students in this study as they
prepare for U.S. college admissions and answers the research questions that guided this study.
Research Question 1: How does PBL influence the academic performance and college
admissions preparedness of Chinese students?
The findings reveal that PBL fosters significant growth in academic competencies such
as critical thinking and problem-solving of the participants. These outcomes align closely
with socio-constructivist learning theory, which posits that knowledge is constructed through
social interactions and contextual experiences (Vygotsky, 1978). This theory supports the
observed shift from rote memorization to active, inquiry-based learning, reflecting a deeper
cognitive engagement facilitated by PBL. The improvement in students' abilities to adapt to
new learning environments also exemplifies Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal
development, where learners expand their capabilities through social collaboration and
scaffolding (Vygotsky, 1978).
Research Question 2: What impact does PBL have on the development of non-academic
qualities, such as soft skills, among these students?
The enhancement of soft skills such as communication, collaboration, and leadership
under PBL can be examined through the lens of socio-constructivism. This framework

102
emphasizes learning as inherently social and dialogic (Palincsar, 1998). The findings suggest
that through PBL, students in this study engaged in meaningful social interactions that are
critical for developing these skills. However, the variability in leadership skills development
highlighted in the findings suggests that while PBL provides the context for soft skills
development, individual outcomes can vary significantly. This points to the complex, situated
nature of learning as posited by socio-constructivism, where personal, social, and contextual
factors all interplay to influence learning outcomes (Lave & Wenger, 1991).
These insights contribute to the existing body of literature by underscoring the potent
role of PBL in enhancing educational outcomes through socio-constructivist practices. They
suggest that while PBL is generally beneficial, its effects on soft skills development are not
uniformly guaranteed but are influenced by individual engagement and group dynamics.
Recommendations
Recommendation 1: Schools in China should integrate structured PBL interventions to
enhance students' critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
Within this study, Project-Based Learning (PBL) has been explored as a transformative
educational approach, showing significant effectiveness in enhancing critical thinking and
problem-solving skills among student participants in this study who were preparing for U.S.
college admissions. These insights reflect the specific experiences and data derived from the
participants involved. As Chapter Four reveals, a significant majority of student participants,
above 90% in average, reported improvements in these competencies, reflecting PBL's
effectiveness not only in academic settings but also in preparing these students for real-world
challenges.

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The data from the surveys and interviews underline that PBL allowed these students to
engage deeply with complex problems, thereby enhancing their analytical capabilities. This
aligns with research suggesting that PBL fosters higher-order thinking skills by placing
students in the active role of problem-solvers and critical thinkers (Thomas, 2000).
Furthermore, Barron and Darling-Hammond (2008) emphasized that PBL's real-world
relevance helps students apply their knowledge practically, enhancing their learning
experience and outcomes.
Educational institutions, particularly those catering to international students preparing for
college in the U.S., should integrate structured PBL interventions within their curricula.
These programs should be designed to:
1. Focus on Complex, Real-World Problems: Ensure that the projects are relevant to
real-world issues, encouraging students to apply academic knowledge to practical
scenarios.
2. Facilitate Reflective Practices: Implement reflective sessions where students can
contemplate their problem-solving processes and decisions, enhancing their
metacognitive abilities.
Curriculum designers should collaborate with subject matter experts to create projects
that not only integrate core academic content but also incorporate real-world applications,
ensuring that learning remains relevant and engaging. Teachers need to be trained in the
methodologies of Project-based Learning (PBL), as supported by research findings from
Barron and Darling-Hammond (2008), who highlight the importance of inquiry-based and
cooperative learning in fostering deep understanding, critical thinking, and collaboration

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skills among students, with a particular emphasis on guiding and facilitating rather than
directing, enabling them to better support students in their problem-solving processes.
Additionally, it is essential to establish continuous feedback mechanisms. These should
ensure that students regularly receive insights and guidance on their approaches to critical
thinking, helping them refine their skills over time. Both teachers and curriculum designers
are accountable for implementing these strategies effectively and monitoring their impact on
student learning.
Implementing structured PBL interventions as recommended will directly address the
findings from Chapter Four, where 91.8% of participants highlighted the positive impact of
PBL on their educational experiences, specifically in enhancing their critical thinking and
problem-solving skills. This approach is supported by educational theories like
constructivism, which advocate for learning as an active, contextualized process (Piaget,
1950; Vygotsky, 1978). The adoption of structured PBL interventions will not only align with
the educational aspirations of Chinese students aiming for higher education in the U.S. but
also equip them with the critical thinking and problem-solving skills necessary for academic
and professional success. This strategy ensures that students are not merely passive recipients
of knowledge but active participants in their learning journey, prepared to tackle the
challenges of the global educational landscape.
Recommendation 2: Chinese educational programs should establish international PBL
collaborations to cultivate cultural adaptability among students.
Cultural adaptability is crucial for Chinese students preparing to study in multicultural
environments such as U.S. colleges. Chapter Four of the study highlighted that students

105
involved in this study not only improved in academic areas but also developed significant
interpersonal confidence and cultural adaptability. This development of cultural awareness
allowed students to navigate and appreciate diverse perspectives, enhancing their overall
learning experience. This recommendation seeks to enhance these outcomes through
international PBL collaborations.
The emergence of confidence in interpersonal engagement and global cultural awareness
among students engaging in PBL aligns with findings that educational interactions across
diverse cultural backgrounds can enhance students’ global awareness and adaptability
(Byram, 2003; Hunter, White & Godbey, 2006). These skills are essential in today’s
interconnected world and are highly valued in global higher education contexts.
Educational programs aimed at Chinese students should establish international PBL
collaborations that allow students to work on projects with peers from different cultural
backgrounds. These programs should:
1. Partner with International Institutions: Form partnerships with schools and universities
overseas to facilitate cross-cultural exchanges and projects.
2. Design Multicultural Curricula: Create PBL curricula that incorporate global issues
and require students to work in multicultural teams.
3. Implement Technology-Enabled Communication Platforms: Use technology to bridge
geographical gaps, allowing real-time collaboration and interaction.
In building on the strategies set by curriculum designers and teachers for implementing
PBL, it is crucial to develop partnerships with international educational institutions. Research
by Stoller (2006) indicated that such partnerships are essential for fostering shared PBL

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initiatives, enhancing the global relevance and impact of the curriculum. These partnerships
will foster shared PBL initiatives, enhancing the global relevance and impact of the
curriculum. Furthermore, it is imperative to provide specialized training for educators who
manage and facilitate these international PBL groups, with a strong focus on cultural
sensitivity and effective communication. To support these collaborative efforts, classrooms
must be equipped with the necessary technology, including video conferencing tools and
collaborative online platforms, enabling seamless virtual collaboration and interaction.
This recommendation is directly supported by the study’s findings, where students
participating in PBL showed improved global cultural awareness and confidence in
interpersonal engagement. Research by Dewey (1938) on experiential learning and later
studies on educational multiculturalism (Banks, 2008) further validate the effectiveness of
interactive and culturally diverse learning environments in fostering global competence.
Through international PBL collaborations, students can develop a deeper understanding
of different cultures and global issues, enhancing their cultural adaptability and preparing
them for the challenges of studying and living abroad. This approach not only broadens their
academic horizons but also equips them with the essential soft skills needed for personal and
professional success in a global context.
Recommendation 3: Chinese educational institutions should enhance Chinese students’
collaborative skills by implementing structured team dynamics within PBL curricula.
Project-Based Learning significantly enhances collaborative skills among student
participants, as indicated by the findings in Chapter Four, which revealed that students
experience profound improvements in their ability to work effectively with others. This

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recommendation aims to further develop these skills, which are essential for success in both
academic and professional settings, particularly in the culturally diverse environments of U.S.
higher education. The importance of collaborative skills in educational settings aligns with
the theory of social interdependence (Johnson & Johnson, 1999), which posits that
cooperative learning environments, such as those provided by PBL, enhance students' ability
to engage in effective teamwork. Moreover, research has shown that structured team
dynamics within PBL can lead to better problem-solving outcomes and more positive
interpersonal interactions (Laal & Ghodsi, 2012).
Educational institutions should implement specific strategies within PBL curricula to
enhance collaborative skills through structured team dynamics. These strategies should
include:
1. Role Assignment: Assign specific roles within PBL teams to encourage
accountability and ensure that all members are actively contributing.
2. Team-Building Activities: Regularly incorporate activities designed to strengthen
team cohesion and trust, which are vital for effective collaboration.
3. Conflict Resolution Training: Provide students with training on conflict resolution to
equip them with the skills necessary to handle disagreements constructively.
To further enhance the effectiveness of PBL initiatives, curriculum designers should be
tasked with creating detailed PBL projects that specify the roles and responsibilities within
each team. This structured approach ensures clarity and accountability among participants.
Teachers, as the primary educators in this context, should be tasked with facilitating and
closely monitoring the interactions within student teams. Research by Johnson & Johnson

108
(2009) and Laursen (2018) indicated that students often encounter conflicts during teamwork,
which can hinder collaboration if not properly managed. Providing targeted guidance and
training in conflict resolution techniques is essential. They must provide targeted guidance
and timely interventions to sustain productive team dynamics and resolve conflicts.
Additionally, implementing a robust system for continuous assessment is crucial. This system
should focus on evaluating team performance regularly and offering specific, constructive
feedback to improve the collaborative processes.
This recommendation builds directly on the study’s findings that PBL enhances
collaborative skills, with a high average score of 4.12 out of 5 from students indicating
effective teamwork. The proposed strategies are supported by the educational principles of
experiential learning (Kolb, 1984), which suggested that structured experiences enhance
learning outcomes. By implementing structured team dynamics within PBL, educational
institutions can provide students with the necessary framework to develop strong
collaborative skills. These skills are not only crucial for academic success but are also highly
valued in the global job market, particularly in environments that value diversity and
teamwork.
Recommendation 4: Chinese schools should foster their students’ lifelong learning and
curiosity by designing interdisciplinary PBL programs that integrate multiple academic
disciplines.
The findings from Chapter Four suggest that Project-based Learning (PBL) not only
sharpens academic skills but also fosters a deeper curiosity and a lifelong learning mindset
among students who participated in this study. To further enhance these benefits, this

109
recommendation proposes the integration of interdisciplinary approaches within PBL
frameworks, preparing students for the complex, interconnected challenges of the modern
global landscape. Recent educational research supports the integration of interdisciplinary
approaches within PBL, noting its effectiveness in increasing student engagement, enhancing
cognitive skills, and promoting curiosity. Such approaches encourage students to connect
knowledge from various disciplines, fostering deeper understanding and problem-solving
abilities (Wang, 2018; Choi & Pak, 2006).
Educational institutions should design interdisciplinary PBL programs that merge
different academic subjects to address complex real-world issues. Key elements of these
programs should include:
1. Integration of Multiple Disciplines: Develop PBL projects that require insights and
methodologies from varied academic fields.
2. Promotion of Exploration and Curiosity: Design projects that compel students to
explore beyond the curriculum and initiate their own inquiries.
3. Expert Collaboration: Engage educators from diverse disciplines to provide
mentoring, thus offering multidimensional perspectives on problems.
In order to effectively tackle real-world challenges, curriculum development teams must
collaborate with faculty from various departments. This collaboration is focused on designing
interdisciplinary projects that mirror real-world problems and require diverse, crossdisciplinary solutions. Additionally, dedicated professional development programs should be
established to specifically train teachers and instructors on the benefits and methodologies of
interdisciplinary teaching, thereby enhancing their skills in facilitating such learning

110
environments. Regarding resource allocation, schools must provide substantial support,
including access to advanced software tools, research databases, specialized laboratory
equipment, and opportunities for consultation with industry experts. These resources will
enable teachers and instructors to conduct comprehensive exploration and facilitate effective
problem-solving in student projects.
This recommendation builds on the study's discovery that PBL promotes a shift from rote
learning to active inquiry, significantly enhancing students' academic depth and instilling a
lifelong learning mindset. Studies have shown that interdisciplinary PBL can extend these
outcomes by giving students a platform to apply and integrate knowledge across fields,
enhancing their adaptability and holistic understanding (Klein & Newell, 2014; Spelt et al.,
2009). Implementing interdisciplinary PBL programs will enable students to develop a robust
framework for understanding complex global issues, equipping them for the challenges of
higher education and beyond. By cultivating curiosity and promoting exploration, these
programs can foster a sustained passion for lifelong learning, essential in today’s rapidly
evolving world.
Limitations and Delimitations
Every research endeavor has limitations that are beyond the researcher's control, and
this study is no exception. One of the most prominent limitations lies in the dependability of
respondents' self-reported data. As with all qualitative research, the study relies on
participants' honesty and self-awareness, which can be influenced by social desirability bias
or selective memory (Podsakoff, MacKenzie & Podsakoff, 2012). Moreover, due to the

111
nature of the participants’ social-economic status (students who plan to study abroad), this
study's focus could limit the generalizability of findings to students in general.
Delimitations, on the other hand, are choices made by the researcher that set the
boundaries of the study. The decision to conduct in-depth interviews with 15 participants is
one such delimitation. While this sample size is deemed sufficient for a qualitative study, it
might not capture the full diversity of experiences among Chinese students in PBL programs
(Guest, Bunce & Johnson, 2006). Additionally, the choice of questions asked in both the
surveys and interviews influence the type of data collected. Although the questions are
designed to address the research questions comprehensively, they might not encompass all
potential influences on students' academic and non-academic readiness for college
applications.
Recommendations for Future Research
Building upon the findings from this study on the effects of Project-Based Learning
(PBL) on Chinese students, it is evident that while the immediate educational benefits are
clear, there are numerous avenues for further exploration. These recommendations aim to
extend our understanding by addressing both the longevity of PBL outcomes and the
adaptation of PBL methods to diverse and technologically advanced learning environments.
By delving deeper into these areas, future research can uncover ways to enhance and
optimize PBL for broader and more effective application in global education.
Further research could expand on these findings by exploring longitudinal outcomes.
Future studies should consider following students over longer periods to assess the sustained

112
impacts of PBL on their educational and career achievements. This longitudinal approach
would help determine the long-term efficacy of PBL in fostering skills that are vital for
academic success and professional adaptability in a globalized work environment.
Also, current research focuses predominantly on Chinese students preparing for U.S.
college admissions. Future research could broaden this scope by examining the effects of
PBL on students from other cultural backgrounds or educational systems, providing a richer,
comparative perspective on the adaptability and effectiveness of PBL across different global
contexts. Additionally, investigating the implementation of PBL in varied subjects and its
differential impacts could offer deeper insights into how interdisciplinary approaches within
PBL influence learning outcomes across diverse academic disciplines.
With the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in education gaining momentum, it is
pertinent to explore how AI can enhance PBL frameworks. Future research should investigate
AI's role in personalizing learning experiences, providing real-time feedback, and facilitating
complex problem-solving scenarios. This includes studying AI-driven analytics to tailor PBL
activities to individual learning styles and needs, potentially transforming how PBL is scaled
and customized. Furthermore, understanding the ethical implications and potential biases of
AI in educational settings is crucial for developing tools that are fair and effective for all
students.
These areas of future research build on the initial findings and address limitations of the
current study, paving the way for a more comprehensive understanding of PBL's role in
education. By exploring these recommended topics, researchers can contribute to the

113
development of more effective, inclusive, and technologically integrated educational
practices.
Conclusion
This dissertation concludes that within the context of this specific study, Project-Based
Learning (PBL) substantially influences the academic and non-academic development of
Chinese students preparing for U.S. college admissions. This focused inquiry reveals how
PBL provides an alternative source to traditional education methodologies, particularly those
emphasizing rote memorization, to foster critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and an
expanded learning perspective among the participants studied.
The findings strongly align with socio-constructivist theories, underscoring that effective
learning occurs when it is active, social, and contextually relevant. For the Chinese students
involved in this study, PBL not only enhanced academic competencies but also equipped
them to adapt more effectively to the dynamic and diverse academic environments typical of
U.S. colleges. This was particularly evident in their improved capabilities for independent
research and critical engagement, crucial skills for navigating the educational landscape in
the United States.
Beyond academic enhancement, this research highlights the role of PBL in nurturing
global competencies that are essential in the 21st century. For the student participants in this
study, PBL significantly enhanced confidence and cultural adaptability, skills that are
indispensable for thriving in multicultural settings. This transformative impact of PBL
prepares students not only for educational success but also for active global citizenship,
enabling them to interact more effectively and empathetically within diverse communities.

114
Additionally, the recommendations derived from the findings advocate for structured
PBL interventions that focus on real-world problems and emphasize reflective practices and
diverse assessment methods. These recommendations aim to enhance the educational
outcomes for similar cohorts of students and prepare them for higher educational challenges
and professional environments. Moreover, these recommendations serve as a guide for
educators and policymakers in similar educational contexts, offering a blueprint for
integrating PBL to improve engagement and learning outcomes effectively.
Reflecting on the scope of this research, it is evident that while the implications are
robust for the participants of this study, they invite cautious generalization to other settings.
This research lays a substantial foundation for further exploration into the potential of PBL in
broader educational applications. Future studies could explore how these findings translate
across different cultural and educational contexts, potentially broadening the applicability of
PBL as a transformative educational approach.
Thus, this dissertation does not merely conclude an academic investigation but sparks
ongoing dialogue about the transformative potential of educational innovations like PBL. It
challenges educational stakeholders to consider these insights within specific contexts and
advocate for the implementation of PBL where it aligns with educational goals and student
needs.
In essence, the journey of this research illuminates a path not just towards academic
achievement but towards fostering a comprehensive educational approach that equips
students to navigate and shape an interconnected world thoughtfully and effectively.

115
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Appendix A
Survey Items
Thank you for participating in this survey. Your responses will contribute to a
research study investigating the impact of project-based learning (PBL) programs on
the academic and non-academic development of Chinese high school students in the
context of U.S. college admissions. Please read each question carefully and provide
honest and thoughtful responses. Your participation is voluntary, and all information
will be kept confidential.
1) I have enrolled in at least one PBL course offered by Future Academy
a. Yes (survey continues)
b. No (survey goes to question 1x
Section 1: Demographic Information
3. Where are you currently located in China?
First-tier city (Beijing, Shanghai, Shenzhen, Guangzhou)
Province capital city
Other Cities
Rural areas
4. What type of school do you attend?
Public school
Private bilingual school
International School
Other (please specify)
5. what is your gender？
——————————
6. Which grade are you currently in?
a) 9th Grade
b) 10th Grade
c) 11th Grade
d) 12th Grade

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Section 2: Academic Performance
5. How do the PBL programs influence your academic success?
a) Very positive
b) Positive
c) Neutral
d) Negative
e) Very negative
f) Not applicable (if not applicable)
•
6. How do you think participation in PBL programs has influenced your ability to
apply critical thinking skills to academic tasks and challenges?
a) Significantly improved
b) Improved
c) No noticeable change
d) Declined
e) Not applicable (if not applicable)
7. How do you think participation in PBL programs has influenced your ability to
analyze and solve complex problems effectively?
a) Significantly improved
b) Improved
c) No noticeable change
d) Declined
e) Not applicable (if not applicable)
8. How do you think participation in PBL programs has influenced your ability to
conduct independent research and inquiry?
a) Significantly improved
b) Improved
c) No noticeable change
d) Declined
e) Not applicable (if not applicable)
Section 3: Non-Academic Development
9. To what extent do you believe participating in PBL programs has
contributed to the development of the following non-academic factors considered in
holistic admissions processes? Please rate each factor on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1
represents "Not at all" and 5 represents "Significantly."
a) Leadership skills
b) Teamwork and collaboration
c) Communication skills
d) Creative thinking and problem-solving abilities
e) Initiative and self-motivation

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f) Cultural competency and global awareness
Section 4: Motivations and Barriers
10. On a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 represents "strongly disagree" and 5 represents
"strongly agree," please indicate your level of agreement with the following
statements:
a) The PBL program improved my critical thinking skills.
b) The PBL program enhanced my research skills.
c) The PBL program increased my confidence in presenting ideas.
d) The PBL program improved my ability to work in a team.
e) The PBL program helped me understand the practical applications of academic
knowledge.
11． Do you believe that participating in PBL programs provides an advantage in
the US college admissions process?
a) Yes, definitely
b) Yes, to some extent
c) Unsure
d) No, not really
e) No, not at all
12. How well do you feel the PBL program prepared you for the demands of
college-level education?
a) Extremely well
b) Very well
c) Moderately well
d) Slightly well
e) Not well at all
13. Would you recommend the PBL program to your peers who are aiming to apply
to U.S. colleges?
a) Yes, without hesitation
b) Yes, with some reservations
c) Neutral
d) No, not really
e) No, definitely not
14. Would you be willing to participate in a 30—45 minute interview for this
study?
Yes – please provide your contact information.
————————————

137
No
Thank you for your valuable input. Your responses will contribute to the research
study. If you are selected for an in-depth interview, you will be contacted separately.

138
Appendix B
Interview Protocol
Interview Protocol for Investigating the Impact of Project-Based Learning Programs on
Chinese Students in the United States College Admissions Process
Opening:
Thank you for agreeing to participate in this interview. My name is Richard Wang, and I am
a researcher investigating the impact of Project-Based Learning (PBL) programs on the
academic and non-academic factors of Chinese students in the United States college
admissions process. Your perspective is valuable to this study, and your participation is
greatly appreciated. This interview should take approximately 45 minutes to complete. Please
feel free to ask for clarification or to pause the interview at any time if you need a break. The
interview will be semi-structured, which means that I have prepared a list of questions to
guide the conversation, but we can also explore other related topics that come up during the
discussion. All information you share during this interview will be kept confidential.
1. What is your understanding of the concept of project-based learning prior to you
participation in a project-based learning experience?
2. How did you first hear about the program you participated in?
3. Describe your experience with this Project-Based Learning program?
4. What influence, if any, do you believe your participation in PBL programs has had on
your academic performance?
5. In what ways, if any, do you feel that your involvement in PBL programs has prepared

139
you for the United States college admissions process?
6. Can you think of any specific skills or knowledge that you have gained through PBL
programs that may be beneficial for your college application?
7. In your experience, how have PBL programs contributed to the development of nonacademic factors, such as leadership or teamwork abilities?
8. How would you describe the overall impact of PBL programs on your college application
process?
Closing:
Thank you for sharing your experiences and insights. Your input is valuable in helping us
better understand the impact of PBL programs on Chinese students in the United States
college admissions process. If you have any additional thoughts or comments you'd like to
share, please feel free to do so now. Otherwise, thank you again for your time and
participation.

140
Appendix C
Informed Consent/Information Sheet
INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH
STUDY TITLE: Examining the Influence of Project-Based Learning Programs on the
Academic and Non-Academic Development of Chinese Students in the United States College
Admissions Process
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Haibo Wang
FACULTY ADVISOR: Tracy Tambascia
You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This
document explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything
that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of project-based learning (PBL)
programs on the development academic and non-academic abilities of Chinese students
within the context of the United States college admissions process. We hope to learn how
PBL programs, which emphasize collaborative problem-solving and real-world application,
can address the unique challenges faced by Chinese students as they navigate the competitive
landscape of U.S. college admissions and adapt to the educational expectations of their host
institutions. You are invited as a possible participant because you are planning to apply U.S.
colleges and had relative PBL experience.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
The survey is translated from the source language (English) into the target language
(Chinese) and then translated back into English by a different translator to check for accuracy
and consistency. The survey will consist of 10-12 questions designed to be completed in
approximately 10 minutes. The survey will include open-ended questions, Likert scales and
multiple-choice questions. Open-ended questions provide rich, nuanced data that captures the
complexity of participant's experiences, while Likert scales and multiple-choice questions
facilitate data analysis and comparison between participants. If you decide to take part, you
will be asked to use personalized email, reminders and a user-friendly survey interface.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION

141
You will receive a $5 digital Jingdong gift card for your participation. The card will be sent
to you via the email you provided.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team, and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Haibo Wang at
haibowan@usc.edu/+86 18636984486. / Dr. Tracy Tambascia at tpoon@rossier.usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This dissertation explored the role of Project-Based Learning (PBL) in Chinese students' academic performance and preparedness for college admissions in the United States. Grounded in social constructivist learning theory, this research examines how PBL, as an educational strategy, enhances critical thinking, problem-solving, and cultural adaptability among students. This qualitative study found that PBL improved students' academic competencies and equipped them with essential skills for navigating the diverse and dynamic academic environments of U.S. colleges. The research also highlights PBL's role in fostering global competencies, such as confidence and cultural adaptability, which are crucial for success in multicultural settings. The findings suggest that the implementation of structured PBL interventions that emphasize real-world problems and diverse assessment methods to improve educational outcomes better prepare students for higher educational challenges and professional environments. Recommendations for educators and policymakers include enhancing student engagement and learning outcomes in similar educational contexts.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Wang, Haibo (author)

Core Title Examining the influence of project-based learning programs on the academic and non-academic development of Chinese students applying for admission to colleges in the United States

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Global Executive

Degree Conferral Date 2024-08

Publication Date 08/26/2024

Defense Date 07/19/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Chinese students,constructivist theory,OAI-PMH Harvest,PBL,qualitative,social,study

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tambascia, Tracy (committee chair), Carbone, Paula (committee member), Picus, Lawrence (committee member)

Creator Email haibowan@usc.edu;79850385@qq.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113999JQI

Unique identifier UC113999JQI

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Legacy Identifier etd-WangHaibo-13429

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Wang, Haibo

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