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Environmental influences on the diversity of professional sports executive leadership

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Environmental influences on the diversity of professional sports executive leadership

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Environmental Influences on the Diversity of Professional Sports Executive Leadership

Monica Irene L’Esperance

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2023

© Copyright by Monica Irene L’Esperance 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Monica Irene L’Esperance certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Briana Hinga
Patrick Cates
Courtney Malloy, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023

iv
Abstract
This study used Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model as a framework to identify environmental
influences that play into the diversification of male professional sports leagues' senior leadership
roles (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The experiences and perspectives of 13 owners, head coaches, and
executives were examined through their actions of hiring the best candidates and hence
diversifying executive leadership in a White male-dominated industry. Data were collected
through qualitative surveys through the lens of Bronfenbrenner’s microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, and macrosystem. The study's findings were consistent with the literature in
identifying environmental factors that facilitate or prevent diversifying executive leadership
through roles, relationships, and activities. Additionally, the study provided recommendations for
practice to change systemic barriers and prevalent cultural workplace activities.
Keywords: professional sports; male sports leagues; leadership; executive; gender
diversity; Bronfenbrenner; diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI); mentorship; pipeline

v
Dedication
To my ancestors, my family, and my friends. Si se puede!

To my children, Maslen and Andres, may you understand and experience the value of dreaming
big, perseverance, that failures lead to growth when you can shift your mindset and learn from
them, and that finding your tribe of true supporters will get you through all of life’s ups and
downs. May your hearts serve as guides to help others throughout your lives.

To my husband, Jamie, thank you for your love, patience, and unwavering support. I am grateful
for your encouragement through it all, and I look forward to the next chapters in our life
together.

To my parents, Lionel and Lily, my cheerleaders through it all. Always and forever.

vi
Acknowledgements
Thank you to my dissertation chair, Dr. Courtney Malloy, for your guidance throughout
this journey and to my committee members, Dr. Briana Hinga and Dr. Patrick Cates, for your
insights and thoughtful questions. Many thanks to you all for your time and encouragement on
this very important topic.
Extra acknowledgements and gratitude to my family for your steadfast love and support. I
see you, I feel you, and I appreciate you. You are my greatest blessings and inspirations.
I am grateful to my own microsystem and USC friends from which I drew strength,
support, and encouragement through all the ups and downs.
I also thank my friends from around the globe who rode this wave alongside me. Thank
goodness for tribes and true friends.
Finally, to the 13 participants who took part in this study. Thank you for entrusting me
with your experiences and stories. May this dissertation serve as a starting point for larger and
lasting changes to come. The time is now!
Fight on!

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Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................x
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study ...........................................................................................1
Context and Background of the Problem .............................................................................2
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions ...................................................................2
Importance of the Study .......................................................................................................4
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .....................................................4
Definitions............................................................................................................................6
Organization of the Dissertation ..........................................................................................7
Chapter Two: Literature Review .....................................................................................................8
Historical Context ................................................................................................................8
Professional Sports.............................................................................................................10
Women in Executive Leadership .......................................................................................17
Impact of Gender Diversity in Executive Leadership Positions ........................................20
Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................................31
Summary ............................................................................................................................34
Chapter Three: Methodology .........................................................................................................36
Research Questions ............................................................................................................36
Overview of Design ...........................................................................................................36
Research Setting.................................................................................................................37
The Researcher...................................................................................................................38

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Data Sources ......................................................................................................................38
Credibility and Trustworthiness .........................................................................................41
Ethics..................................................................................................................................41
Chapter Four: Findings ..................................................................................................................43
Participating Stakeholders .................................................................................................43
Research Question 1: What Are the Environmental Influences That Led to a Change in
the Composition of the Executive Leadership Team? .......................................................46
Research Question 2: What Are the Facilitators or Barriers in Diversifying Executive
Leadership Teams? ............................................................................................................57
Research Question 3: What Are the Perceived Benefits for the Organization From
Diversifying the Executive Leadership Team? ..................................................................71
Summary ............................................................................................................................76
Chapter Five: Recommendations ...................................................................................................79
Discussion of Findings .......................................................................................................79
Recommendations for Practice ..........................................................................................80
Limitations and Delimitations............................................................................................87
Recommendations for Future Research .............................................................................88
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................89
References ......................................................................................................................................90
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ..................................................................................................109
Introduction ......................................................................................................................109
Interview Questions for BIPOC Women Leaders ...........................................................110
Interview Conclusion .......................................................................................................111
Appendix B: Interview Questions for Hiring Leaders and/or Owners ........................................113
Opening Questions ...........................................................................................................113
Transition .........................................................................................................................113

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Interview Conclusion .......................................................................................................114
Appendix C: Pre-interview Recruiting Communication..............................................................116
Pre-interview: Initial Email to Request Study Participation ............................................116
Pre-interview: Email to Confirm Participation for Study ................................................117
Appendix D: Information Sheet for Exempt Research ................................................................119

x
List of Tables
Table 1: League Demographics 44
Table 2: Participant Demographics 45

xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 32

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Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore diverse professional sports executive
leadership in male leagues and the environmental influences that led to a change in the
leadership composition. This inquiry intended to fill significant gaps in research on diverse
executive leadership in professional sports, specifically for Black, Indigenous, and people of
color (BIPOC) women. There is significant inequity in the make-up of senior leadership teams of
professional sports leagues (Aly & Breese, 2018; Burt, 2021; Carter-Francique & Richardson,
2016; Lapchick, 2021; Loveline & Harold, 2014; Pape, 2020). The inequitable racial and gender
gap on executive teams is not exclusive to professional sports but exists in organizations across
industries, including on boards of directors (Endo, 2020; Hecht, 2020; Mejia, 2018; Rosette &
Livingston, 2012; Sisco, 2020).
Women are greatly underrepresented in coaching and other executive leadership positions
in professional sports, with a few firsts happening in recent years (Acosta & Carpenter, 2012;
LaVoi & Dutove, 2012; Norman et al., 2018; Sotiriadou & De Haan, 2019). In 2021, the
National Football League (NFL) named its first Black female full-time assistant coach (Mather
& Shpigel, 2021). Major League Baseball (MLB) hired the highest-ranking female baseball
executive in 2020 (Connley, 2021). The first Black female CEO in the history of the National
Basketball Association (NBA) was hired in 2018, and in 2019 the first female-majority-owned
Major League Soccer (MLS) team was formed (Bogert, 2019; Scipioni, 2020). Discounting the
importance of a more equitable and diverse senior leadership team in professional sports can
ultimately hurt the bottom line and impact individual, team, and league sponsorship (IEG, 2015;
Meenaghan, 2013; O’Reilly et al., 2018; Wilson et al., 2008).

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Context and Background of the Problem
This dissertation focused on four of the male major professional sports leagues in the
United States; MLB, NFL, NBA, and MLS. In each league, teams with racial and gender-diverse
leadership were targeted for this study. The teams were in different cities in the United States,
with assorted gender and racial breakdowns in their coaching, executive, and general manager
teams.
Diversity is starting to be addressed more prevalently in professional sports, such as the
NFL’s Rooney Rule, established in 2003, to encourage more diverse leadership hiring
throughout the league (Archie, 2022). Although created in 2003, the Rooney Rule gained
increased attention with the 2022 class action lawsuit against the NFL for its reported
discriminating hiring practices and has since undergone revisions. The NFL’s commissioner
united with civil rights leaders and other NFL leaders to review the league’s hiring practices and
update the Rooney Rule (CNBC, 2022; Seifert, 2022). For the first time in the NFL’s history,
interviewing and hiring women is included in their hiring practices, with the Rooney Rule now
stating that beginning in the 2022–2023 season, each of the 32 NFL teams must interview at least
two women or BIPOC candidates and either a BIPOC or woman of color must be hired as an
offensive assistant (CNBC, 2022; Seifert, 2022).
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to explore the environmental influences that contributed to
greater racial and gender diversity among male professional sports executive leadership.
Centuries of oppressive workplace experiences and discriminatory social systems have led to
impediments to career progression for BIPOC, especially women (Esquierdo-Leal & Houmanfar,
2021; Hecht, 2020). Leaders must recognize the influences that led to racial inequalities to
3

remove systemic oppression and close the racial and gender gaps that are pervasive in the United
States across industries (Esquierdo-Leal & Houmanfar, 2021; Sisco, 2020). Researchers have
examined that few senior leaders of large organizations are BIPOC women, which traverses time
and industries notwithstanding the abundance of qualified BIPOC women (Endo, 2020;
Esquierdo-Leal & Houmanfar, 2021; Nocco et al., 2021). The intersectionality of gender and
race factor in the discrimination visible in executive, coaching, and general manager (GM)
positions on professional sports teams (Cunningham et al., 2020).
Literature shows that executive leadership composed of greater gender and racial
diversity fosters increased organizational performance, improves culture, and helps grow revenue
(Ashong & Jones, 2019; Dobbs et al., 2015; Holt et al., 2016). Identifying and accepting the
intersectionality of race and gender is essential to include, encompass, and give voice to diversity
in senior leadership (Cooper, 2017; Crenshaw, 1989). Intersectional leaders are armed to
establish inclusive cultures from their lived experiences of discrimination and oppression
(Cooper, 2017; Esquierdo-Leal & Houmanfar, 2021). Organizational cultures that embrace
unique voices from different genders and racial backgrounds increase feelings of belonging for
leaders and employees and result in healthier and more successful teams (Holt et al., 2016;
Schein, 2017). The research questions that guided this study are as follows:
1. What are the environmental influences that led to a change in the composition of the
executive leadership team?
2. What are the facilitators or barriers in diversifying executive leadership teams?
3. What are the perceived benefits for the organization from diversifying the executive
leadership team?
4

Importance of the Study
The examination of racial and gender diversity in professional sports leadership teams is
important to address for a variety of reasons. Large organizations in various enterprises share
similarities with professional sports leagues yet are distinctive in their pervasive lack of gender
and racial equity and extensive media presence (Burt, 2021; Carter-Francique & Richardson,
2016; Cheong et al., 2019; Wade et al., 2018). Researchers have examined the impact of diverse
representation of professional sports teams on fan viewership (Harrison & Secarea, 2010). Fan
viewership is a critical factor in measuring the success of a professional sports team, directly
impacting sports sponsorship which is concerned with fan engagement and is most critical to
measuring success (Meenaghan, 2013). Sports sponsorships comprise 70% of all sponsorships in
the United States and are considered a critical method in generating revenue for teams and
leagues (Cobourn & Frawley, 2017; Demirel, 2020; IEG, 2015; O’Reilly et al., 2018). The lack
of BIPOC women in leadership positions in sports and other industries is the result of
inequalities in policies, hiring practices, and support systems (Endo, 2020; Hecht, 2020; Nocco
et al., 2021; Sisco, 2020). Cunningham et al. (2020) maintained that the scarcity of BIPOC
support reinforces racial divides for women of color in advancing their careers (Cunningham et
al., 2020).
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model (1979) reinforces the analysis of the multilayered
tiers involved in creating greater gender and racial diversity among professional sports executive
teams. The four elements identified through the theoretical framework are the microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. In this study, the microsystem explored interactions
among roles, relationships, and activities. Mesosystem examined an individual’s navigation
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between settings, and the exosystem investigated external factors outside of an individual’s
direct control. Finally, the macrosystem considered environmental changes over time.
Qualitative methods were used through semi-structured interviews, and influences were studied
through the interviews, literature review, and content analysis. Data from the interviews were
coded, and themes related to the research questions were identified. Based on the findings,
research-based solutions were recommended.
The primary stakeholders were BIPOC women in senior leadership positions on
professional sports teams in the NBA, MLS, NFL, or MLB. The second group of stakeholders
was the senior leaders, including owners and head coaches, who work with the BIPOC women.
There is limited current literature on professional sports teams with diverse leadership teams
because of the scarcity of diverse teams, especially with BIPOC women executive leaders.
Professional sports are a historically White male-dominated field, slowly advancing toward more
gender and racial equality in leadership (Aly & Breese, 2018). Focusing on the BIPOC women in
these senior leadership roles gave voice to their lived experiences. Including other senior leaders
on BIPOC women leaders’ teams created additional space to examine influences dominating the
industry’s leadership composition and the factors that created space for more diversity on
leadership teams.
Interviewing these two stakeholder groups provided insight into the contributing factors
for other professional sports teams wanting to make systemic changes to the foundation of the
make-up of sports leadership (Sotiriadou & De Haan, 2019). Focusing on BIPOC women and
other senior leaders contributed to larger social movements by studying the policies, procedures,
and organizational cultures as the influential powers behind the gender and racial inequalities
6

that are pervasive throughout professional sports leadership, investigating the intersectionality of
gender and race.
Definitions
This section provides definitions for key terminology discussed in the dissertation.
BIPOC: Black, Indigenous, people of color. People of color includes Latinx and Asian.
Communities of practice: Groups of people who are engaged in a common endeavor and
are committed to learning more about their activity and helping teach each other the ways of
doing things, power relations, and successful practices (Wenger, 1998).
Intersectionality: Describes how people with multiple identities experience oppression
differently depending on their social identities (Crenshaw, 1989).
Mentoring: Refers to senior leaders who support, provide feedback, help make
connections with others in the field, and advocate for their protégé (Holt et al., 2016).
MLB: Abbreviation for (in the United States) Major League Baseball
MLS: Abbreviation for (in the United States) Major League Soccer
NBA: Abbreviation for (in the United States) National Basketball Association
NFL: Abbreviation for (in the United States) National Football League
Sponsorship: When an organization shows its name on sports teams’ products and gear
(Bragg et al., 2018). Meenaghan (1991) also defined it as “an investment, in cash or kind, in an
activity, in return for access to the exploitable commercial potential associated with that activity”
(p. 36).
White: Refers to individuals in the United States with origins from Europe, the Middle
East, or North Africa (U.S. Census Bureau, 2018).
7

Organization of the Dissertation
This study consists of five chapters. The dissertation begins with an introduction,
including a summary of the topic, its importance, and an overview of the research. Chapter Two
covers applicable research and literature related to the scope of this study, historical and
overarching contexts, and the conceptual framework selected. Chapter Three contains details on
the chosen methodology, including participants, data collection, and analysis. Chapter Four
covers the data assessment and analysis. Chapter Five presents recommendations based on the
literature and data results.

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Chapter Two: Literature Review
This chapter will cover multiple topics that emerged during a review of current literature.
It will begin with a review of the historical context of professional sports in the United States of
America. This section will examine gender and race in executive leadership organizations,
including the lack of women in senior leadership roles, what research demonstrated as the
reasons underlying the lack of racial and gender diversity in professional sports, and the impact
of having more diverse executive leadership teams. Subsequently, this section will discuss the
literature on BIPOC women executive leaders and the role their allies and mentors play in
supporting their career goals. It will then review professional sports through media coverage,
sponsorship, and social justice. Finally, this paper will explore the ecological systems at play
through the lens of Bronfenbrenner, as examined through the influence of intersectionality as
used in this study.
Historical Context
Much of the literature on the history of professional sports leagues in the United States
focuses on when sports began, with little attention on the leadership of professional sports (Burt,
2021; Carter-Francique & Richardson, 2016; Cunningham et al., 2020; Goldstein, 2014;
Lapchick et al., 2020). In the review of current literature, four male professional sports leagues
emerged in studies. These were MLB, MLS, NFL, and the NBA.
Historically, professional sports organizations have been in the United States since the
late 1800s through the early 1900s and experienced increased popularity and growth in their
current markets. The MLB was established by the mid-1870s, originally with eight teams and
now consisting of 30 teams (Goldstein, 1989). The NFL officially formed in 1920 with 10 teams
in four states and was known as the American Professional Football Association. The NFL, as it
9

is currently known, was created in 1922 and now has 32 teams. The NBA had its first recorded
event in 1946 with 11 original teams, now growing to 30 teams. Whereas 10 soccer teams
marked the start of MLS in the United States in 1993, it now has 26 teams. Professional sports
leagues have grown over the years; however, although professional sports teams appear diverse,
as seen in the make-up of athletes and entry-level employees, the industry has historically been
and continues to be led by White men (Burt, 2021; Carter-Francique & Richardson, 2016;
Cunningham et al., 2020; Lapchick et al., 2020). It is important to note that there is a limited
focus on women’s leagues in current literature, and a majority of the studies discussed in this
chapter were completed in men’s leagues.
Women are vastly underrepresented in coaching and other leadership positions in
professional sports (Acosta & Carpenter, 2012; LaVoi & Dutove, 2012; Norman et al., 2018;
Sotiriadou & De Haan, 2019). There have been slow increases in women’s leadership in sports,
as reported in the racial and gender report card that began in the early 2000s (Lapchick et al.
2020). Research looks at the influence of Title IX in sports at the collegiate level, citing flow
from the collegiate to the professional level. Fifty years ago, Title IX was passed in the United
States federal legislation to prohibit sex-based discrimination in any school or any education
program receiving funding from the federal government. One of the goals of the legislation is to
ensure equal opportunity in sports, including athletes and those in leadership positions,
regardless of sex (Burt, 2021).
Acosta and Carpenter (2012) conducted a longitudinal study of collegiate sports that
spanned 35 years, from 1977 to 2012. The authors reported that in 2012 at the collegiate level,
women comprised 20% of all head coaches, and this group was predominantly White women.
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The underrepresentation of women of color in coaching and other leadership positions in
sports exists at the collegiate level, with a pipeline to the professional level (Acosta & Carpenter,
2012; Burt, 2021; LaVoi & Dutove, 2012). Further, data from the 2020 Racial and Gender
Report Card: College Sport reported a C+ score for racial hiring and a score of C for gender
hiring, resulting in an overall grade of C (Lapchick et al., 2020). The authors cite historically
limited numbers for women and even lower numbers of BIPOC women in key decision-making
positions in college sports, funneling to the professional level. Media plays an increasingly
pivotal role in highlighting the lack of representation in senior leadership roles in collegiate and
professional sports (Burt, 2021; Carter-Francique & Richardson, 2016). Media has played an
important role in developing professional sports, including the perception of sports in society.
However, sports media coverage has historically also been a male-dominated field (McChesney,
1989). Sports coverage remained unpredictable and limited until the middle third of the 19th
century, when sports became more organized and commercialized via media coverage
(McChesney, 1989).
Professional Sports
This section discusses professional sports leagues relying on media coverage to help
increase sponsorship and how leagues lean into using media coverage to promote social justice
issues, including gender and race (Burt, 2021; Cheong et al., 2019; Meenaghan, 2013; O’Reilly
et al., 2018). The literature reviews various aspects of leadership in sports, including the role
sponsorship, plays in the industry (Meenaghan, 2013; O’Reilly et al., 2018). Additionally, the
literature considers the different sponsorship methods and how each has a unique influence on
professional sports (Cobourn & Frawley, 2017; Cornwell et al., 2001; O’Reilly et al., 2018).

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Professional Sports and Media Coverage
Currently, professional sports successes rely on high ratings, with a large number of
viewers, known as viewership, to bring additional revenue for the team (Bragg et al., 2018; Burt,
2021; Cheong et al., 2019; Coelho et al., 2019; Cornwell et al., 2021). Each sport has its specific
method and focus on generating revenue; these include event ticketing, broadcasting rights,
televised and online viewership, retail merchandise, and both team and athlete sponsorships
(Cheong et al., 2019; Picado, 2019). Sponsorship in sports is increasingly imperative to revenue
growth for sports teams (Burt, 2021; Picado, 2019). Handley (2018) noted that sports
sponsorships represent upwards of 65.8 billion U.S. dollars, with a continual steady increase.
One way that sponsors allocate funds is by selecting the perceived best match between their
company’s mission and the team’s fans (Douvis et al., 2015). Social responsibility is a
significant factor in choosing sponsorships from both the team’s perspective and the organization
offering sponsorship (Picado, 2019). Teams are leaning into taking stands on specific social
movements and using different media outlets to promote their opinions and beliefs on social
justice issues, such as gender and race equity.
Professional sports leagues share similarities with many large organizations and
businesses in other fields and yet, are unique in their lack of gender equity, racially divided
histories, and extensive media presence (Burt, 2021; Carter-Francique & Richardson, 2016;
Cheong et al., 2019; Wade et al., 2019). Harrison and Secarea (2010) noted that diverse
representation of athletes and professional sports teams directly impacts fan viewership.
Literature reports that there is little research on the impacts of social media given its nascency
but that racial discrimination is often noted in media through commentary (Litchfield et al.,
2018; Topić et al., 2021). Weber and Carini (2012) reviewed 716 Sports Illustrated covers
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between 2000-2011 and found that women were featured on 4.9% of the covers in that 11-year
span. Burt (2021) contended that media representation is important for increased sponsorship and
pay.
Professional Sports and Sponsorship
In addition to the importance of media coverage in professional sports, sponsorship’s role
in increasing team revenue is gaining awareness in research and in application, especially with
the growth of digital marketing and social justice movements (O’Reilly et al., 2018; Wilson et
al., 2008). Meenaghan (1991) defined sponsorshipas “an investment, in cash or kind, in an
activity, in return for access to the exploitable commercial potential associated with that activity”
(p. 36). Further, the author explained that while sponsorship’s primary objective may be to raise
consumer awareness, the overall impact on fan or consumer awareness is most critical to
measuring success (Meenaghan, 2013). O’Reilly et al. (2018) conducted the first known
empirical study on sponsorship sales in professional sports, with 92 sponsorship sales
professionals participating. Researchers found strong responsibility linked to sponsorship sales
by the professional sports team, sports leadership, and sponsorship sales professionals (O’Reilly
et al., 2018).
Sponsorship is used as a method of generating revenue in professional sports and
continues to grow in influence and fiscally with each new season (Cobourn & Frawley, 2017;
Demirel, 2020; O’Reilly et al., 2018). Seventy percent of all sponsorships in the United States
are in sports; these make up more investments than in entertainment, education, or any other
category (IEG, 2015). Brands or organizations often approach sponsorships as a return on
investment, either in the form of brand awareness or revenue increases (Lings & Owen, 2010;
O’Reilly et al., 2018). O’Reilly et al. (2018) noted that there was an approximate 4.5% growth in
13

revenue generated through sponsorship between 2016 and 2017, roughly US$62.8 billion.
Moreover, professional sport sponsors are focusing on connecting brands and consumers on an
emotional level using various types of sponsorships (Demirel, 2020; O’Reilly et al., 2018).
Sponsorships occur in various ways to interact with a team’s fans, using different mobile,
digital, and social technologies to engage with more fans and further understand their
motivations, needs, and desires (O’Reilly et al., 2018; Smith & Casper, 2020). Individual fans
are considered customers or sponsorship targets in this realm, with engagement opportunities
before, during, and after sporting events (O’Reilly et al., 2018). As a result, it is important to
understand the interactions between individuals and their communities related to specific sports
teams’ sponsorship choices (Cobourn & Frawley, 2017; Demirel, 2020; O’Reilly et al., 2018). It
is equally important for organizations to consider that due to the myriad of digital platforms, fans
have additional options on how they spend their money and are increasingly inclined to do so
with organizations that match their beliefs and principles (Demirel, 2020; O’Reilly et al., 2018;
Smith & Casper, 2020).
Organizations commonly examine the influence of social justice issues on sponsorship
effectiveness, measured by audience and media exposure (Cornwell et al., 2001; Meenaghan,
2013; Newton, 2013). Sponsorship that is incompatible with social norms and social justice
issues can result in considerable brand damage (Chen & Lin, 2020; Kim et al., 2019; Wilson et
al., 2008). Conversely, sponsorships in professional sports are influential platforms to deliver
social justice messages to more people through various media platforms (Vance et al., 2016).
Research shows that fans of teams performing well during a season will engage in more
sponsorship purchasing than when those teams are not performing well (Lings & Owen, 2007).
With an increased focus on social justice issues since 2020, professional sports teams are making
14

more public stances and using various media channels to hit a wider audience (Cornwell et al.,
2001; Vance et al., 2016).
Professional Sports and Social Justice
Professional sports teams can play integral roles in a more equitable world by
demonstrating their actions, commitment, and support of a more inclusive culture (Chen & Lin,
2020; Cunningham et al., 2021; Demirel, 2020; Vance et al., 2016). Sports, including athletes
and leadership, play pivotal roles in advancing social justice issues to a broad audience
(Cunningham et al., 2021). According to Schultz (2019), 70% of Americans follow a sport,
watching, on average, 7.7 hours of televised sporting events per week. The U.S. sports industry
topped $500 billion in 2016, demonstrating the visibility and impact of sports in the lives of the
American people. While technology has helped increase fan viewership of sports, the impact of
sports in promoting social justice movements is not new. Throughout history, women have led
large-scale social movements but received far less attention for their work than their male
counterparts (Hill et al., 2016). Hill et al. (2016) noted that there is a plethora of qualified BIPOC
women to fill senior leadership positions and lead large-scale social movements, as supported by
their active involvement in the workforce and social media. There have been several instances
where athletes have had opportunities to lead social movements.
Examples of Social Justice in Professional Sports
Literature documents different sporting events when athletes took public stands on
specific social justice issues (Ayala, 2020; Davis, 2008). Track and field gold medalist Tommie
Smith and bronze medalist John Carlos famously protested human rights abuses by raising their
fists during the playing of the U.S. national anthem in the 1968 Olympics medal ceremony
(Davis, 2008). The Olympic winners wore black socks with no shoes to the ceremony to signify
15

poverty for Black Americans, and each athlete also wore a single black glove to convey Black
power, peace, and harmony. The athletes’ actions during the Olympic medal ceremony, a global
stage with massive viewership, were intended to bring awareness to the lack of human rights felt
across the Black community of the United States (Davis, 2008). Smith and Carlos’s
demonstrations gained worldwide recognition, just as other athletes and teams have done more
recently.
In 2016, the Women’s NBA (WNBA) team Minnesota Lynx donned specially made
shirts with the slogan “Change Starts With Us: Justice & Accountability” to bring awareness to
prosecutorial wrongdoing (Ayala, 2020). However, despite the league fining the team for
violating WNBA-approved attire, athletes on the team took to social media and voiced their
support for the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement that started in 2013 in response to the
murder of an unarmed 17-year-old Black teenager, Trayvon Martin, by a community watch
guard. Additionally, the athletes from the Minnesota Lynx and Indiana Fever teams engaged in a
media blackout after their game together by refusing to answer any post-game questions from the
media. Sports teams and athletes are using their highly visible media platforms to bring to light
social justice issues they are championing, and some are willing to do so at the expense of their
professional sporting careers.
In 2016, NFL quarterback Colin Kaepernick also took a public stand against police
brutality and racial inequalities in the United States by kneeling during the national anthem as it
played during the start of an NFL game (Schmidt et al., 2019; Yoo et al., 2018). Kaepernick
continued to demonstrate against these social injustices throughout the remainder of the 2016
NFL season by kneeling or sitting during the playing of the national anthem and has not been
signed on to a professional football team since the 2016 season due to the polarizing reactions to
16

his actions. Colin Kaepernick’s kneeling as protest received new attention after the May 2020
murder of George Floyd when the arresting police officer knelt on Floyd’s neck for 9 minutes
and 29 seconds.
The killing of George Floyd sparked a significant shift in social activism in the United
States (Agyemang et al., 2020). Organizations around the nation began addressing racial
inequities in various ways. Increasingly, DEI positions were created, but more meaningfully,
organizations began to review their hiring and retention practices. The NFL reviewed the Rooney
Rule to confront hiring disparities for senior positions such as head coach, GM, and executives.
In November 2020, NFL owners voted to reward teams that developed underrepresented
candidates (Harrison et al., 2021). The NFL extended their commitment in 2021 by requiring
teams to interview at least two external BIPOC candidates for head coaching positions and a
minimum of one BIPOC candidate for senior positions such as executive or president (Al-
Khateeb, Z., 2022). Leagues, teams, and athletes have been using and continue to utilize their
widely viewed platforms to speak out on social justice issues and are launching more significant
social commitments.
In 2017, the NFL created a player-owner committee focused on social justice issues in
four primary areas: education, economic advancement, police and community relations, and
criminal justice reform. The NFL created a new position of senior director of diversity and
inclusion and, in 2017, hired a woman, Sam Rapoport, into this senior position. The aftermath of
Floyd’s murder in 2020 marked a significant year when many organizations around the United
States boosted their DEI efforts, including professional sports leagues.
During the 2020 NBA playoffs, the NBA Milwaukee Bucks team used their platform by
refusing to play the fifth game in their first-round series to protest the shooting of Jacob Blake by
17

police officers 40 miles from the team’s home base. The Milwaukee Bucks’ refusal to play led to
a 3-day league shutdown. Actions such as these are highly visible and done to incite changes in
discriminatory systems. The examples noted in recent literature highlight social justice issues on
gender and racial discrimination that were made highly visible through professional sports
platforms but did not address inequalities at the leadership level.
Women in Executive Leadership
Women are greatly lacking in senior leadership positions. However, BIPOC women are
at an even greater disadvantage and hold fewer seats at senior executive levels (Mejia, 2018;
Rosette & Livingston, 2012). The literature examines the intersection of race and gender in
senior leadership positions across industries, investigating the impact of diversity on
organizational culture resulting from racist policies and systems (Endo, 2020; Hecht, 2020;
Nocco et al., 2021; Sisco, 2020). Further, racial and gender inequalities in executive leadership
are prevalent and noted in professional sports (Esquierdo-Leal & Houmanfar, 2021; Hecht,
2020).
Lack of BIPOC Women in Executive Leadership Positions
Women executives are noticeably underrepresented in professional sports, and very little
literature examines the extent of inequality in professional sports organizations (Aly & Breese,
2018; Lovelin & Hanold, 2014; Pape, 2020). The research on sports and leadership shows strong
links between gender equality and how that is reflected in society (Kotschwar & Moran, 2015).
Leaders who demonstrate behaviors that align with their organization’s goals of creating a more
inclusive work environment for all employees are most successful (Schein, 2017). Furthermore,
an organization’s culture is impacted by the make-up of the leadership team, which is reported
across industries (Endo, 2020; Hecht, 2020; Nocco et al., 2021).
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The lack of BIPOC women in leadership positions negatively impacts the culture of
organizations due to inequalities in leadership and policies (Endo, 2020; Hecht, 2020; Nocco et
al., 2021; Sisco, 2020). Gender inequality in senior leadership positions is not exclusive to
professional sports teams. Women are underrepresented in executive positions in Fortune 500
companies, with only 44 women CEOs reported in the 2022 Fortune 500 list (Hinchliffe, 2022;
Rosette & Livingston, 2012). Sisco (2020) noted that gender disparities are visible across
industries. Lake and Price (2019) reported that women made up 23.6% of board leadership in the
hospitality, travel and leisure industry. The 2018 Gender Diversity Index report showed 17.7%
women on corporate boards. The report further showed that of the over 2,000 companies
reviewed, 63% added board seats rather than replacing men to truly equalize the gender
disparities.
In addition, BIPOC women hold even fewer senior leadership positions than their White
counterparts (Cunningham et al., 2020). The lack of BIPOC women in leadership positions is
due to long-standing oppressive social systems in organizations (Sisco, 2020). Moreover, the
shortage of BIPOC women senior leaders results in an underrepresentation of BIPOC women in
mentoring positions, thus affecting the pipeline of incoming BIPOC women from entry-level
positions to more senior-level leadership roles (Endo, 2020). The lack of BIPOC networks and
support reinforces racial divides in organizations for women of color in the advancement of their
careers (Cunningham et al., 2020).
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Lack of Gender and Racial Diversity in Professional Sports
Racialized social systems have led to centuries of oppressive workplace experiences and
challenges to career advancement for BIPOC, especially women (Esquierdo-Leal & Houmanfar,
2021; Hecht, 2020). Racial inequalities are deeply embedded in public and private organizational
cultures (Endo, 2020; Hecht, 2020; Nocco et al., 2021; Sisco, 2020). Researchers report that
systemic racism stems from historical and cultural frameworks, and leaders must fully
comprehend the factors that led to these racial disparities to dismantle systemic oppression and
close the racial and gender divides (Esquierdo-Leal & Houmanfar, 2021; Sisco, 2020).
Studies offer insight and data into the stark disparities of the lack of BIPOC women in
leadership positions. Nocco et al. (2021) reported that in academia and private organizations,
BIPOC constitute only 16% of the total population, and women overall make up only 23% of
leadership positions. Racial and gender disparities cross career levels and industries
(Cunningham et al., 2020; Sisco, 2020). Nickels and Leach (2021) described these differences in
nonprofit organizations, reporting that BIPOC constitute only 10% of senior leadership roles.
BIPOC women comprised less than 3% of CEOs in 2016 (Hill et al., 2016). Rosette and
Livingston (2012) shared that the first Black woman to lead a Fortune 500 company occurred in
2009. In 2020, there were only three BIPOC women CEOs of Fortune 500 companies
(Hinchliffe, 2020).
Research shows few BIPOC women leaders in large organizations spans time and
industries despite the plethora of qualified and experienced BIPOC women in the workforce
(Endo, 2020; Esquierdo-Leal & Houmanfar, 2021; Nocco et al., 2021). The intersectionality of
gender and race crosses into disparaging discrimination and bias evident in executive, coaching,
and GM positions from collegiate to professional levels in sports (Cunningham et al., 2020).
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Impact of Gender Diversity in Executive Leadership Positions
Gender and racial diversity in executive leadership positions increases organizational
performance, creates positive workplace culture, and increases revenue (Ashong & Jones, 2019;
Dobbs et al., 2015; Holt et al., 2016). Organizations with women on their boards have shown a
36% greater return on stock values in equity markets than those without women on boards
(Ashong & Jones, 2019). A 2015 report by McKinsey showed that the gross domestic product
would add up to as much as $25 trillion or an additional 26% if there were gender equality in
business organizations by 2025 (Dobbs et al., 2015). It is shown that multiple women sitting on
an organization’s board have positive “group effects” rather than individual effects like those
seen for women in CEO and other executive positions where those women do not have a
community of colleagues to lean on (Adams & Ferreira, 2009).
Communities of practice are shown to be distinguishing indicators of organizational
cultures and leadership behaviors that are more influential depending on the dominant gender of
the group (Walker & Aritz, 2015). It is important to close the gender gap in leadership because
studies show that women’s leadership styles directly impact corporate cultures and the long-term
success of increasing gender equality in organizations (Ravasi & Shultz, 2006). Creating spaces
and organizational cultures where differing opinions are welcome increases feelings of
motivation and belonging for employees (Holt et al., 2016). Acknowledging and understanding
the intersectionality of race and gender is important to fully incorporate diversity in senior
leadership.
Intersectionality
Intersectionality explores the axes of oppression and privilege and how they intersect and
oppose one another (Cooper, 2017; Crenshaw, 1989). Women of color (WOC) face judgment
21

and biases due to both their race and gender, confronting multidirectional and intersecting
discrimination in the workplace (Crenshaw, 1989; Hill et al., 2016). The unique intersection of
race and gender creates distinctive oppressive experiences for all individuals (Cooper, 2017).
According to Cooper’s (2017) Intersectionality diagram, those with multiple underprivileged
identities are exposed to compounding systems of oppression.
Researchers argue that BIPOC leaders are well-equipped to architect inclusive cultures
based on their lived experiences of oppression (Cooper, 2017; Crenshaw, 1989; Esquierdo-Leal
& Houmanfar, 2021). Organizations that effectively support BIPOC leaders can more readily
identify elements of privilege and oppression in the organization and can then adjust policies and
practices to ensure cultural inclusiveness and stronger, more successful leadership practices
(Cooper, 2017; Esquierdo-Leal & Houmanfar, 2021). Creating spaces and organizational
cultures where differing opinions are welcome increases feelings of motivation and belonging for
employees (Holt et al., 2016).
Racial inequalities are deeply embedded in public and private organizational cultures
(Endo, 2020; Hecht, 2020; Nocco et al., 2021; Sisco, 2020). Racialized social systems have led
to centuries of oppressive workplace experiences and challenges for career advancement for
BIPOC, especially women (Crenshaw, 1989; Esquierdo-Leal & Houmanfar, 2021; Hecht, 2020).
Researchers report that systemic racism stems from historical and cultural frameworks, and
leaders must fully comprehend the factors that led to these racial disparities to dismantle
systemic oppression (Crenshaw, 1989; Esquierdo-Leal & Houmanfar, 2021; Sisco, 2020). Since
most professional sports organizations lack diversity in leadership, these systems are also
maintained within these structures (Norman et al., 2018).

22

Challenges: Racial and Gender Leadership in Sports
Evidence highlights that cultural racism is prevalent in the United States and permeates
throughout large organizations; senior leadership representation demonstrates that BIPOC
women are inferior and less qualified to their White women counterparts (Crenshaw, 1989;
Cunningham et al., 2020; Tatum, 2001). In 2005, Sue (2005) reported that White males
comprised 33% of the U.S. population and were represented among senior executives by 92%,
whereas in 2018, it was reported that women consisted of half of the U.S. population and only
4.8% of chief executives of Fortune 500 companies (Cunningham et al., 2020; Zarya, 2018).
Lack of racial and gender diversity is evident in the leadership of professional sports
organizations as well, with very little literature providing data and numbers aside from the racial
and gender report card.
According to the 2020 Racial and Gender Report Card (Lapchick et al., 2020), the
highest grades received for NBA and MLS head coaches of color was an A+, the NBA with
30.3% and the MLS with 40.7%. The WNBA received a grade of A–, with 25% coaches of
color. The MLB received a B+, with 20% of coaches of color, and the NFL received a D+ with
only 12.5% of coaches of color. Gender scores for head coaching positions have remained fairly
stagnant for women’s teams, although they are higher than their counterparts for the men’s
teams. In the 2010–2011 season, women filled 39.5% of coaching positions, whereas in the
2019–2020 season, women held 41% of all coaching positions across all three divisions of
women’s teams (Lapchick et al., 2020). The underrepresentation of BIPOC women extends
beyond professional sports and is seen at the collegiate level as well, which is considered a
pipeline into professional sports leadership.
23

The College Sport 2021 Racial and Gender Report Card (Lapchick et al., 2020), reported
an overall grade of C, with a C+ in racial hiring and a C for gender hiring. Racial hiring from
NCAA vice president levels and above decreased to 23.5% in 2021 from 31.6% in 2020 due to
fewer candidates of color being hired into these top executive positions (Lapchick et al., 2020).
Lapchick et al. (2021) reported that gender hiring for NCAA vice president positions and above
went up from 36.8% in 2020 to 41.2% in 2021. The 2021 racial and gender report card showed a
downward trend for hiring WOC in GM positions in professional sports (Lapchick et al., 2020).
The 2020 Racial and Gender Report Card (Lapchick et al., 2020) grades for general
managers were lower for all five leagues they reported on, with the NFL receiving the lowest
grade for hiring WOC with a score of F or 6.5%. The MLB scored 13.3%, bringing their score to
a C- whereas MLS scored 21.4% or a B+. Lastly, the NBA received the highest scores for the
number of GMs of color, with a grade of 28% (A-). In 2021, there were 12 female coaches and
two female officials in the NFL (Connley, 2021).
Grading the leagues represented in this study for racially diverse presidents and CEOs
showed the MLS in the lead with 17.4% (B). The NFL followed behind with a D+, with the
NBA and MLB trailing behind even further with Fs (Lapchick et al., 2020). The racial and
gender report card for the MLB revealed significant increases in gender hiring practices (C).
However, it showed a decrease from the previous year’s scores for racial hiring practices for a
new total of 88.7% (B+; Lapchick et al., 2020). Hiring a diverse leadership team is as important
as developing effective leaders to create a successful culture.

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Best Practices for Leadership
Effective leaders directly contribute to an organization’s success (Bensimon & Neumann,
1993; Choi & Cho, 2019; Schein, 2017). An effective leader in any industry takes into
consideration the individuals who make up their team, knowing their distinct strengths, areas for
growth, and career aspirations (Bensimon & Neumann, 1993). Pluralistic leadership encourages
different opinions, experiences, and voices (Kezar, 2000). Acknowledging the expertise of
various team members and tapping into differing ideas builds trust, engagement, and cohesion
among teams (Kezar, 2000; Wheeler & Sillanpaa, 1998). Teams composed of individuals of
different racial backgrounds and genders tend to be healthy and successful (Schein, 2017).
Trust is considered one of the most important aspects of a successful leader (Pincus,
1986). For leaders to instill trust in their teams, they must lead by example (Choi & Cho, 2019;
Maduka et al., 2018). When employees witness leaders engaging in actions that reflect their
words, they feel that they can trust them (Reyes et al., 2020). Successful leaders also seek out
feedback from their team and encourage open dialogue on how they can improve as a leader and
as an organization which stems from a place of trust (Bensimon & Neumann, 1993). Forming a
culture of trust is rooted in hiring diverse leadership and creating a culture where everyone feels
safe and comfortable speaking up regardless of race or gender (Norman et al., 2018; Sotiriadou
& De Haan, 2019).
Current Strategies for Solving Lack of Gender and Racial Diversity in Professional Sports
Women executives are noticeably underrepresented in professional sports, with even
fewer BIPOC women in these leadership positions (Dobbs et al., 2015; Loveline & Harold,
2014; Sotiriadou & De Haan, 2019). BIPOC women face judgment and biases from both their
race and gender, confronting multidirectional discrimination in the workplace (Crenshaw, 1989).
25

The intersection of race and gender lead to different oppressive experiences (Cooper, 2017).
However, researchers argue that intersectional leaders are equipped to create cultures of
inclusiveness from their shared experiences of oppression (Cooper, 2017; Esquierdo-Leal &
Houmanfar, 2021). Connections between privilege and oppression are best shared in supportive
environments that allow for reflection and network-building (Cooper, 2017).
Organizational cultural awareness is critical for systemic changes for a more racially
equitable working environment (Hecht, 2020). Awareness is a critical first step. However,
awareness must turn to actionable behaviors for leaders to incite true and lasting change.
Including BIPOC women at the leadership table gives them the power and voice to make
systemic changes to their organizations (Hill et al., 2016). The White male allies who are willing
to make space at the leadership tables for more diversity and create climates where diverse
voices are heard and valued are critical to making systemic change.
Career advancement is often filled with roadblocks for BIPOC women, and research
shows that mentorships and communities of practice are critical for WOC career advancement
and retention (Sherbin & Rashid, 2017). These measures will not stop cultural racism or gender
discrimination, but they can help pave the way for WOC women to lead, support, and influence
others in organizations (Kaiser & Spalding, 2015).
Research shows the importance of BIPOC women having access to networks and mentors
to further advance their careers. This is especially important because White men and women are
afforded additional networking opportunities outside of work environments. White men and
women are more likely to live in the same community and cross social networks, whereas
BIPOC women may not, and therefore, benefit from more formalized networking and mentoring
opportunities (Endo, 2020; Esquierdo-Leal & Houmanfar, 2021; Hill et al., 2016). Endo (2020)
26

implores organizations to move away from traditional “androcentric and Eurocentric” valued
mentorship models toward models that are more inclusive and equitable or “equity-centric”
(p.172). The author further expounded on the importance of creating a supportive space for
BIPOC to reflect and share experiences with others in their organizations to foster community
and dismantle racial disparities.
Holt et al. (2016) defined successful mentoring programs as those that lead to overall job
satisfaction, greater employee motivation and improved organizational health and performance.
Research on mentoring benefits both mentors and mentees when a good match occurs and when
there is a point person to coordinate the relationship (Giancola et al., 2016). Further research
establishes the importance of gathering metrics to assess the effectiveness of formal mentoring
programs (Vance et al., 2017). However, much of the research focuses on informal mentoring,
which leaves gaps in the empirical research on the successes and challenges of formal mentoring
programs (Menges, 2016; Mohtady et al., 2019). Policies and procedures that focus on
diminishing the gender and racial gap in leadership hiring for professional sports need to address
hiring channels that occur at all levels of the hiring pipeline.
Organizational Efforts
The work of organizations and individuals focused on creating space for women in
leadership positions in professional and collegiate sports started with the passing of Title IX in
1972. Title IX is a federal civil rights law prohibiting sex-based discrimination in any
educational setting that receives funding from the federal government (Public Law No. 92-318,
86 Stat.). Title IX was not written as a law specifically for sports; however, it is distinguished for
its influence on high school and collegiate sports (Aly & Breese, 2018). Research shows that
White and underrepresented coaches at both the collegiate and professional levels are afforded
27

differing career paths based on both gender and race (Aly & Breese, 2018; Bozeman & Fay,
2013).
Research further shows that a “bro” network is typically utilized for hiring into the top
echelon of professional sports leadership positions (Aly & Breese, 2018; Bozeman & Fay, 2013).
In the NFL, head coach positions are commonly filled through the pool of assistant coaches or
head coaches of other teams (Bozeman & Fay, 2013). Due to that narrowly defined pipeline of
candidates, the tradition of hiring White male head coaches continues with each new season. In
2022, 31 out of 32 head coaches were White men; there were no NFL women head coaches.
However, the NFL instituted a new requirement as part of the Rooney Rule that all 32 NFL
teams must hire a female or minority candidate as an offensive assistant coach (Archie, 2022).
Although Title IX does not apply to professional sports, the funnel of hiring often stems
from the collegiate level up to the professional level. Therefore, the importance of the legislation
feeds upwards to the professional level. For these reasons, it is critical to open the candidate
pipeline through formal mentoring channels such as the NFL’s Women’s Careers in Football
Forum and individual senior leaders, such as head coaches, who are willing to speak up and
change the status quo. Organizations, events, and individuals are committed to changing the face
of senior leadership in professional sports to be more diverse and inclusive (Radu-Lefebvre et al.,
2021; Wenger, 1998).
Allyship and Mentoring. Several organizations and individuals are committed to
expanding the candidate pool in professional sports leadership to include qualified women.
Allies and mentors participate in different events organized by some clubs or leagues. The
definition of mentors in professional sports is regarded as individuals with influence in
professional sport who provide mentees with guidance, sponsorship, and increased exposure and
28

connections in the field (Radu-Lefebvre et al., 2021). Mentors and allies show up in different
ways. Billie Jean King, regarded as one of the greatest tennis players of all time, started the
Women’s Sports Foundation (WSF) in 1974, dedicated to increasing opportunities for girls and
women in sport.
One forum the WSF created for women in sports is the Tara VanDerveer Fund, which
provides fellowships for aspiring collegiate female coaches, mentorships, and hands-on training
to grow the pipeline of female coaches. These types of mentoring opportunities are critical to
growing the pipeline and increasing opportunities at the collegiate level that will then flow
upwards to the professional level for future coaches, executives, and general managers (Aly &
Breese, 2018). In 2017, the NFL launched the Women’s Careers in Football Forum (WCFF),
which is an annual 2-day event aimed at connecting current female college coaches with various
leaders in the NFL. The WCFF is a combination of a community of practice supported by allies
and mentors (Wenger, 1998). In 2021, the WCFF reported that 181 women were hired into
professional or collegiate football operations positions (Connley, 2021). Communities of practice
for women in sports are made of peer coaches and leaders across sports leagues and teams; these
are made up of colleagues who have formed trusting relationships and share advice, counsel,
opportunities, and various other matters related to sports (Radu-Lefebvre et al., 2021).
One of the most pervasive problems in establishing formal mentoring programs is the
lack of mentors who are suitable matches for the mentees (Dean & Perrett, 2020; Holt et al.,
2016; Yang & Aldrich, 2014). Espino and Zambrana (2019) presented one challenge as a lack of
underrepresented mentors to be paired with underrepresented mentees, with respect to both racial
and gender diversity. The researchers maintain that systemic racial inequalities throughout
organizations lead to inequalities and deficiencies in mentoring programs; when most mentors
29

are White, the pool of mentees often reflects that majority in the organization. When mentors and
mentees choose their own pairing, they tend to match up with individuals most like them. As
such, informal mentor pairing also typically happens between individuals with similar interests,
whereas formal mentor programs generally create pairs between available influencers and
interested mentees (Dean & Perrett, 2020).
Dean and Perrett (2020) argued that there is a lack of female mentors in formal mentor
programs, which creates disparities for women preferring to be paired with the same gender.
Men have a 37%greater chance of being in a senior leadership position than women. As a result,
there are fewer women in leadership positions to move into mentoring roles (Yang & Aldrich,
2014). However, mentees reporting long-lasting mentor relationships have been shown to
naturally gravitate to mentors similar to themselves (Holt et al., 2016). Therefore, creating and
establishing opportunities between mentors and mentees is one of the most important goals for a
formal mentoring program such as the WCFF.
In addition to organizations with missions to expand opportunities for women in
leadership in sports, several individuals are active and vocal in looking beyond the usual
candidate pools. The most influential individuals in professional sports are predominantly and
historically White men in professional teams’ senior leadership positions, such as head coaches.
When these men serve as allies to WOC candidates, their words and actions are widely noticed
by colleagues. Trust is considered one of the most important aspects of a successful leader
(Pincus, 1986). For leaders to instill trust in their teams and others, they must lead by example
(Choi & Cho, 2019; Maduka et al., 2018). When people witness leaders engaging in actions that
match their words, they feel that they can trust them (Reyes et al., 2020). While trust in
30

leadership is important in creating successful organizational cultures, it is also important to
review hiring policies and practices.
Hiring Practices. Professional sports leagues are creating new and reworking hiring
policies to establish improved hiring practices to close the inequalities on senior leadership
teams, with the NFL leading the charge. One such example is the NFL’s 2003 Rooney Rule
which was originally established to increase the candidate pool by rewarding teams that
developed underrepresented candidates for positions and was amended in 2021 to require that a
minimum of two external BIPOC candidates be interviewed for head coaching and GM
positions. Also, at least one BIPOC must be part of the candidate pool for executive or club
president positions. Even with this amendment, no policy specifically addresses interviewing
women for any coaching, GM or executive positions.
Furthermore, it has recently come to light that NFL teams found workarounds to the
Rooney Rule, as described in the February 2022 class action lawsuit against the Miami Dolphins
NFL team and the NFL, citing discrimination against Black coaches in their hiring practices. The
NFL commissioner responded by joining civil rights and NFL leaders to review the league’s
hiring practices. One new hiring requirement beginning for the 2022–2023 NFL season is that
each of the 32 teams must hire a woman or a BIPOC as an offensive assistant coach (CNBC,
2022; Seifert, 2022). This is the first time interviewing and hiring women has been officially
addressed as part of the Rooney Rule for the NFL (CNBC, 2022; Seifert, 2022). Research shows
that organizations with more women in senior-level positions outperform those with
disproportionately greater numbers of male senior leaders (Hackenberg, 2021).
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Conceptual Framework
Originally, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model (1979) focused on individuals’
development through their interactions in different systems, later changing into the ecology of
human development and influences. It was acknowledged that external factors influence
everyone’s experience and development in ways that could be out of their control.
Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) ecological systems model later evolved into the bioecological model,
where the focus was on the influences of the immediate environment on each individual.
However, for this study, the focus was on the original analysis, referring to the four elements
identified through the theoretical framework: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and
macrosystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The microsystem analyzes the interactions between roles,
relationships, and activities. The mesosystem investigates an individual’s navigation between
settings, and the exosystem considers external factors outside of an individual’s direct control.
Finally, the chronosystem evaluates environmental changes over time.
Sports leadership is most often examined interactionally with environmental influences
and individual traits and influences; thus, Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological model was chosen
for this research with the BIPOC women leaders at the center of the ecosystem (Weinberg &
Gould, 2019). Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model supports the analysis of the multifaceted tiers
connected with creating space for greater gender and racial diversity among professional sports
executive teams. The graphical representation of the ecological model in Figure 1 examines the
role of the WOC executive, coach, or general manager in the microsystem of the specific
professional sports team where she is on the leadership team.

32

Figure 1
Conceptual Framework

In the microsystem, the WOC leader is surrounded by other senior leaders and the teams’
owners. The mesosystem and exosystem include individual leaders from within the team’s
organization and individuals from within the field but from other teams or organizations. Some
of these individuals in the mesosystem and exosystem serve as allies for the WOC, WOC in
similar positions (communities of practice), and others vying for the same levels of position as
the WOC; each individual holds assorted degrees of influence and power. The mesosystem is
comprised of mentors and communities of practice that provide influence regarding career
development and future career opportunities (Radu-Lefebvre et al., 2021). The macrosystem
33

consists of individuals in the industry who influence the direction of the league and teams
regarding policies, procedures, recruitment, and retention.
Although the literature review for this study touches on all four elements of
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model to explore WOC in executive leadership positions on
professional sports teams, the examination will be focused on the microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, and macrosystem. The model illustrates numerous ecosystems at play during a
WOC’s career in professional sports leadership. Research in the field of women leaders in
professional sports shows the varying experiences and obstacles they encounter during their
careers, regardless of the league. The professional sports industry is a historically male-
dominated field with a slowly advancing movement toward more gender and racial equality in
leadership (Aly & Breese, 2018).
Examining systemic factors through the exosystem of teams who have hired WOC onto
their executive, coaching, and GM teams creates space to consider elements that have dominated
the industry’s leadership make-up thus far by looking at current leaders who are retiring from
leagues and those who are just entering professional sports leadership. The factors examined
include organizational norms, societal norms, leadership changes, and financial contributing
factors.
Research on male professional sports teams who have hired WOC executives could
provide insight for other teams looking to pivot away from the historically cultural hiring norms
of White males (Sotiriadou & De Haan, 2019). The assumptions that underlie the centering of
the gender and racial disparities of professional sports executive leadership teams could lie in
systemic dynamics, factors associated with the exosystem, that are responsible for the large
racial and gender disparities in professional sports executive leadership teams. This study
34

contributes to the current social movement by studying the policies, procedures, and
organizational cultures as the influential powers behind the gender and racial inequalities that
currently permeate professional sports leadership, taking note of the intersectionality of gender
and race.
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological model was used to understand the interconnectivity
of how assorted behaviors, interventions, and policies influence each other. Positive perceptions
and supportive systems in the microsystem of WOC executives, coaches, and general managers
can influence her longevity in these leadership positions in professional sports. Examining the
exosystem of a professional sports team creates space to analyze data on teams with diverse
leadership and consider organizational practices and cultures that help mitigate systemic
discrepancies in leadership diversity.
Summary
This study serves the interest of women, WOC, and male professional sports
organizations that hire women into executive positions because research shows that diversity in
leadership results in greater organizational success (Nocco et al., 2021). Organizational
awareness of systemic racial disparities is an important first step to fostering racial equity in the
workplace (Endo, 2020; Hecht, 2020). Actively engaging the organizational community by
supporting and promoting qualified BIPOC women into leadership positions can lead to systemic
changes in deep-seated organizational racial divides (Nocco et al., 2021). BIPOC women
experience more obstacles in their careers than White men and White women and will continue
to face additional obstacles unless organizations implement changes to their cultures and institute
interventions to eliminate the oppressive divides (Esquierdo-Leal & Houmanfar, 2021). Leaders
must understand the root causes of organizational and systemic oppression to remove workplace
35

barriers for BIPOC women in senior leadership positions (Hecht, 2020; Schein, 2017). Further
research into the social constraints embedded in organizations is needed to truly dismantle the
racial disparities that run deep in workplaces, especially in professional sports (Esquierdo-Leal &
Houmanfar, 2021; Nataraj et al., 2020; Sisco, 2020). The various influences identified in Chapter
Two were used as a foundation for data collection in Chapter Three.

36

Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter of the dissertation covers participating stakeholders, including the rationale
for focusing on the identified participants in the study. Next, the recruitment strategy and
rationale are described. Following, the interview sampling criteria and rationale are explained.
Then, the data collection and instrumentation section describes the methods chosen. The
following section focuses on data analysis, including the credibility and validity of the data.
Ethics and the role of the investigator are covered in the final section.
Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to identify environmental influences that play into the
diversification of professional sports senior leadership roles and the potential benefits of doing
so. The research questions that served as a guide in this study are as follows:
1. What are the environmental influences that led to a change in the composition of the
executive leadership team?
2. What are the facilitators or barriers in diversifying executive leadership teams?
3. What are the perceived benefits for the organization from diversifying the executive
leadership team?
Overview of Design
This study utilized a qualitative approach to gain deeper insights into the experiences of
the stakeholders and to maximize the data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The chosen data source
was semi-structured interviews of individual stakeholders, conducted and recorded over video
conferencing. Creswell and Creswell (2018) defined semi-structured interviews as a method that
encourages more two-way communication while allowing flexibility for respondents to provide
further information in each question. Participants had the opportunity to share their experiences
37

through their own voices. Additionally, given that there are few BIPOC women owners, coaches,
and executives in professional sports, conducting semi-structured interviews was the most
appropriate method for collecting data. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) stated that interviewing is the
most effective technique when the sample size is small. The choice to conduct interviews
allowed the principal investigator to gather data and gain a comprehensive understanding of the
lived experiences of the BIPOC women in senior leadership in male professional sports leagues.
Furthermore, interviews provided additional opportunities to collect a richer data set by
understanding the various personal perspectives and narratives of owners, coaches, and
executives who are all aligned with having more diverse leadership teams to ensure the most
qualified individuals are in those positions. The qualitative method aligned with this study by
providing opportunities to explore the influences, obstacles, and possible solutions to engender
changes.
Research Setting
The goal of this study was to examine diverse professional sports executive leadership
and the environmental influences that led to a change or acted as a barrier in the leadership
composition through semi-structured interviews. Interview recordings were transcribed, coded,
and analyzed to find common themes related to the three identified research questions. To
protect the interviewees’ anonymity, their names and team names were removed from
transcripts. All contributors to this study were recruited through word of mouth and social media
platforms like LinkedIn and Instagram. The primary stakeholders were BIPOC females in senior
leadership positions in the NBA, MLS, NFL, or MLB. The secondary group of stakeholders was
the senior executives who work with the BIPOC female leaders. A snowball approach was
utilized by reaching out to one person and asking them to connect to three other senior leaders
38

who they thought would be willing to participate in this study. The neo-positive approach was
used, asking semi-structured questions, providing information relevant to the research question,
and ensuring minimal bias (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The Researcher
As a Latina woman, I am aware that my positionality, both identifying as female and as a
WOC, may have influenced interactions with the male leaders interviewed. A part of that
influence may stem from my own bias on what they may think about a BIPOC woman
interviewing them. I have worked in White male-dominated industries for over 20 years and
have often been the only or one of few women in the room. I have led teams while cultivating
cultures of authenticity, trust, and inclusivity. For these reasons and given my personal career
experience, I focused on an industry that is also historically White-male-dominated.
Given the recent increase in public scrutiny of professional sports hiring practices, some
participants were hesitant to share information on hiring policies and procedures. Since the
inception of this study, there has been very public litigation against sports leagues and teams that
might have made participants reticent in what they said and shared. Therefore, to address
concerns about how much participants might feel comfortable speaking up about hiring
practices, I leaned into my experience with authentic leadership practices to facilitate trust.
Data Sources
The data source in this study was semi-structured interviews. The interviews were
scheduled once institutional review board (IRB) approval was obtained and occurred over 3
months due to varying busy seasons for each league.
A semi-structured interview approach was used with all stakeholders. Each participant
was asked the same series of questions, using follow-up questions as appropriate (Merriam &
39

Tisdell, 2016). The follow-up questions differed depending on each person’s answer. There were
12 structured interview questions (Appendix A) in addition to follow-up questions. The open-
ended questions allowed flexibility for the participants to share their own experiences and
provide rich, in-depth responses. The interview questions were created based on Patton’s
question types and the importance of writing questions aligned with the research questions and
problem of practice (Patton, 1987, 2002).
Each interview was conducted at a scheduled time and with one participant at a time over
Zoom. The interviews were semi-structured to allow participants to answer questions more
deeply by sharing their experiences, feelings, and beliefs. Participants were given a study
information sheet that shared the goals and purpose of the interview, the IRB number, that the
interview is voluntary and confidential, and that no names would be utilized. Precautions were in
place to protect the anonymity of participants in reporting results to ensure confidentiality. The
interview questions were connected to Bronfenbrenner’s framework by addressing potential
barriers, benefits, organizational norms, societal norms, and other environmental influences.
Participants
Thirteen individuals from MLS, NBA, MLB, and NFL participated in this study. This
was a significant sample size given the limited number of BIPOC women currently in executive,
coaching, and GM positions in professional sports. Interview requests targeted senior leaders
from male professional sports teams and leagues who have hired BIPOC women in senior
leadership positions or are BIPOC women in coaching or executive roles. Interviewees were
selected using purposeful sampling. The timing of the interviews was spaced out given that each
of the four leagues examined in this study has differing busy seasons. Therefore, interviews were
conducted over 3 months to allow leaders in each league ample opportunity to participate. Fifty-
40

four potential participants were contacted for participation. Seventeen responded that they
wanted to participate but feared for their jobs if they were to do so. Of those 17 who were fearful
of participating, one was a White male, and 16 were WOC.
Instrumentation
The video conferencing system that was utilized for the interviews was Zoom. Merriam
and Tisdell (2016) reported that the downside of utilizing online tools for interviews is the
possibility that not everyone has access to them or knowledge of how to use them. However, a
benefit resulting from much of the nation having worked via video conferencing due to the
COVID-19 pandemic was that participants all had access to and ample practice with video
conferencing platforms.
Data Collection Procedures
Interviews were conducted between August and October 2022, thus allowing adequate
time to interviewees, depending on their availability. The MLB season runs from April to
October, whereas MLS’s season begins in February and concludes in October. The NBA season
begins in October and finishes with playoffs in April the following year. Finally, the NFL begins
in September, with the regular season ending in January, immediately followed by playoffs. Each
interview took approximately 60 minutes, and all were conducted over video conferencing. The
interviews were recorded with the participants’ permission. Video transcriptions were captured
using the Zoom platform and immediately deleted from the Zoom platform to be saved in
encrypted files on my computer. Files were then deleted after the completion of the study. Notes
were also taken to capture other significant aspects, such as tone, pauses, and other important
information, to aid in data analysis.
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Data Analysis
Data analysis began once interviews commenced. Immediately following each interview,
the PI documented thoughts, observations, concerns, and observed themes in an analytic memo.
The data notated was linked to Bronfenbrenner’s conceptual framework and the research
questions. Once interviews were finished, they were transcribed and open-coded using the
coding software AtlasTi to ensure greater credibility (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002).
The codes were then grouped further and refined into axial codes, drawing connections between
identified themes and ideas (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Finally, pattern codes were identified,
with themes emerging in relation to Bronfenbrenner’s conceptual framework and the research
questions.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
This study utilized several strategies to maintain a high standard of credibility and
trustworthiness. Multiple strategies, as outlined by Merriam and Tisdell (2016), were
implemented to minimize threats to credibility and trustworthiness. Only senior leaders from
professional sports leagues were interviewed, including BIPOC women and other male and
female senior leaders in professional sports (Burkholder et al., 2019; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Additionally, the research design of this study correlated with the research questions and
objectives, with faculty review and guidance throughout, as conveyed by Salkind (2014). To
ensure further credibility, only stakeholders who met the criteria participated in this study.
Ethics
All practices set by the IRB were followed to ensure ethical research and data collection
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Prior to beginning each interview, I read the participant a standard
introduction for each interview. The explanation included a brief overview of the study, the role
42

of the researcher in ensuring stakeholders’ confidentiality, and an explanation that participation
was voluntary and could be stopped at any time. Obtaining IRB approval required an ethical
commitment to the research and participants (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). As part of the
commitment, a digital copy of the information sheet was provided to each stakeholder prior to
the interview to describe in detail the interview protocol, informed consent, and verbiage
explaining that their participation was voluntary and that they could retract their participation at
any time. Additionally, names and team references were removed when findings were reported
to ensure anonymity. Finally, interview results were reported in the agreed-upon method,
ensuring confidentiality and anonymity.

43

Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore diverse professional sports executive
leadership and the environmental influences that led to a change or acted as a barrier in the
leadership composition. This inquiry intended to fill significant gaps in research on diverse
executive leadership for professional sports, specifically for BIPOC women. The research
questions guiding this study were developed through the lens of Bronfenbrenner’s (1979)
ecological theory:
1. What are the environmental influences that led to a change in the composition of the
executive leadership team?
2. What are the facilitators or barriers in diversifying executive leadership teams?
3. What are the perceived benefits for the organization from diversifying the executive
leadership team?
As discussed in Chapter Three, a qualitative data collection method was used to explore the
research questions. Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological model reinforces the analysis of the
layers involved in creating greater gender and racial diversity among professional sports
executive teams. Semi-structured, open-ended interviews with 13 executives in professional
sports were completed over the videoconferencing software Zoom. Detailed findings of this
study are discussed throughout Chapter Four, with a summary at the conclusion of the chapter.
Following this chapter, Chapter Five will discuss recommendations based on the findings.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders for this study included owners, head coaches, and executives in MLB,
NFL, NBA, and MLS. All participants had authority on hiring/firing and setting the direction of
44

their organization, including changing the culture and demographics of the executive leadership
team. The breakdown of participants per league is shown in Table 1.

Table 1
League Demographics
League Number of participants
MLB 7
NFL 2
NBA 2
MLS 2

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Three participants were males, and 10 were females. One of the males identified as
Black, and seven of the 10 females were WOC. In this sample of owners, head coaches, and
executives, two were from the NFL, two were from the MLS, two were from the NBA, and
seven were from the MLB. Due to the low numbers of individuals in these highest roles in
professional sports, additional details about the participants' demographics are not shared, and
pseudonyms are assigned to each participant to ensure anonymity. Eight respondents identified
as the only or one of a few BIPOC in their organization. Table 2 illustrates participant
demographics, with a breakdown by gender and race.

Table 2
Participant Demographics
Participant number Pseudonyms Race
1 Alex White
2 Blaine White
3 Gabrielle BIPOC
4 Bowie BIPOC
5 Erin BIPOC
6 Everest BIPOC
7 Jody BIPOC
8 Brooklyn White
9 Jillian BIPOC
10 Ashley BIPOC
11 Kris BIPOC
12 Jackie White
13 Leslie White
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Research Question 1: What Are the Environmental Influences That Led to a Change in the
Composition of the Executive Leadership Team?
Four primary environmental influences were identified as impacting the composition of
executive leadership teams in professional sports. The first influence was social movements’ role
in creating urgency for dismantling discriminatory practices. The second was shifts in culture to
align personal values with workplace norms. The third revolves around recognizing racial and
gender leadership imbalance. Finally, leader influence and positionality were identified as the
fourth factor impacting the change in the composition of executive leadership teams.
The Role of Social Movements in Creating Urgency for Dismantling of Discriminatory
Practices
The murders of Breonna Taylor, Ahmaud Arbery, and George Floyd, the surge of
violence and discrimination against Asians, and the Uvalde school shooting that left 21 people,
including 19 children, dead are tragic events participants referenced during their interviews.
These events resulted in some of their organizations creating new DEI positions, forming
employee resource groups (ERGs), and making public statements in response to the events.
Gabrielle explained how it played out with her team:
George Floyd happened, and … a year on, when the verdict came out, we’ve gotta put
something out. We have to make a statement about it. And I get it, you’re not gonna
please everybody with what you wanna say, but we have to address those big things. We
cannot stay silent.
Participants, regardless of their gender or racial background, recognized the need for
teams and leagues to make public statements in response to the various violent acts against
different ethnic groups. Six respondents described this as a critical factor because people
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increasingly want to know if their values align with the organization’s values. Gabrielle stated,
“Even before I joined, I wanted to know if the [team] were gonna put out a statement around the
uptick in anti-Asian violence and how they stand with the Asians.” Ten participants noted the
importance they placed on knowing where their organization stood for social movements and
that silence is no longer an option. Gabrielle expressed the importance of leadership
communicating their values in public forums because other leaders in their organizations want to
know where they stand on specific issues: “I know CEOs hate making statements. They think
they shouldn’t get political; they shouldn’t get involved. But I think, unfortunately for them,
things are changing for better or worse from their perspective. And they need to figure it out.”
Six respondents noted that owners, head coaches, and other executives in professional
sports have influential platforms with a fan base in the millions and that it is their responsibility
to publicly speak out against acts of violence and racism. Participants explained it is important
for leaders to make public statements to make known their values because BIPOC leaders are
interested in being a part of organizations that align with their own values. Furthermore, when
organizations create positions that are centered around those organizational value statements,
BIPOC leaders take note that the team or the league are willing to invest in changing the
leadership composition. Gabrielle explained this with a recent event:
Everybody saw what Steve Kerr said around the shooting in Uvalde. You’ve gotta see the
coaches and owners take a view and say, this is important. And I think the owners that
have done that, you’ll notice which teams have new directors of DEI because you need to
have head count and you need to have budget for things like that.
More than half of the respondents commented that the silence some organizations chose
and continue to choose demonstrates complacency, and some felt it left employees and players
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feeling unsupported. Additionally, participants noted the importance of not only making public
statements but that it is critical for organizations to make changes internally. One such step that
seven respondents discussed was hiring a dedicated DEI team member with the power to make
changes that reach out in different branches of the organization. As Gabrielle commented,
“Teams are just standing up their affinity groups right now. There’s only a handful of teams in
the larger cities that even have a dedicated DEI specialist or contact.”
Three of the respondents in DEI positions expressed the desire to utilize their roles and
positions to influence culture change in their team and league. These respondents were not new
to their respective organizations, so they shared how they intend to utilize their strong networks
and positions of power to create DEI positions that are deeply meaningful and impactful. Jackie
had been in her DEI position for several years and created successful, new opportunities to
expand and diversify leadership throughout her league that started prior to COVID-19 and
preceding George Floyd’s murder. However, Jackie declared that the urgency to diversify
leadership became stronger after Floyd’s murder because people became less tolerant of leaders
and organizations choosing silence over racial discrepancies:
Being dedicated to making impactful change is the important thing. If every VP and
above position that comes open is filled with a middle-aged White male, you’re truly not
dedicated to solving the problem. You have to think outside of your sphere of influence.
Brooklyn spoke about the urgency teams, and leagues are feeling about diversifying
leadership but also recognized that change is happening slowly. Moreover, several respondents
argued that change cannot happen quickly due to how deeply embedded the racial and gender
divides are in professional sports, but teams that have made changes to their leadership are being
noticed. Conversely, the majority of teams that have not yet hired more BIPOC leaders are
49

standing out as organizations choosing inaction over action. Jillian detailed that she often
searches team websites to see the leadership team make-up:
I go on websites all the time and look at the pictures of the employees just to see are there
any women? Is there any Black people, White people, any color? Are there any others?
And you’ll be amazed, some of the huge conglomerates that I’ve come by and I’ve seen
their entire executive boards, the directors and management under them, and you don’t
see any type of diversity, you see a few women far and few in between.
Respondents urged senior leadership to commit to making changes and to be strategic
with the actions they choose to take to decrease the racial divide in their leadership teams. Six
participants noted that executive leaders should vocalize their stances on diversifying leadership
teams to show through their actions that they are hiring outside of the usual pool of candidates.
Respondents understood deep, lasting change would not happen overnight as affirmed by
Brooklyn:
I think for me, the challenge is about the pace at which progress can happen and that
everyone commits verbally to this progress and they wanna see it until sometimes it’s time
to do the work. And it’s not even about doing the work but being okay with what it takes
to get done what we wanna get it done.
Nine of the 13 respondents discussed how social movements fueled the actions of some
leaders and organizations to speak up, while many have chosen inaction. The section below
describes those findings in greater detail in the context of organizational culture.

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Shifts in Culture to Align Personal Values to Workplace Norms
The role that organizational culture plays in leadership diversification, or lack thereof,
was a common factor discussed in the interviews. The shared themes around workplace culture
were (a) leadership engagement, (b) the creation of ERGs, and (c) having BIPOC leaders at the
table and ensuring their voices are heard.
Eleven executives spoke about the importance of changing the culture in their own teams
and the industry more broadly. Ten participants shared that they see few owners, coaches,
executives, and organizations taking the lead on changing how they conduct business. Executives
who spoke about culture agreed that senior leaders must be the guiding forces behind any
meaningful culture changes that will stick, as described by Kris:
I think what was identified coming out of the NBA league office was how important
culture matters and how the leader sets the tone and the pace of a culture of an
organization. And it’s important that you build this framework that allows for the people
within the organization to bring the culture to life within this sort of framework.
Eight participants spoke about the importance of leadership involvement and engagement
in changing the culture of their teams. One owner and one head coach acknowledged that the
current culture in their leagues is a White, male-dominated industry that is not accustomed to
women being in the room or on the field. They were aware that hiring women onto their
leadership teams caused ripples throughout their clubs but expressed the importance of hiring
whom they deemed the best person for the position, despite the dominant cultural beliefs that
only males are qualified for leadership roles. These two most senior leaders led the charge to hire
the best person for specific roles, breaking down usual hiring practices. Blaine described how
hiring female executive leaders caused waves in his club:
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I think the baseball side is a completely male-dominated sport, so as a woman, you’re
walking into club houses with baseball lifers, guys who have played the game, guys are
playing the game currently, coaches, and managers. And they’re not used to seeing
women in the clubhouse, so I think, just being honest with you, it shouldn’t be that way,
but it is.
One head coach shared that when he first spoke out publicly about hiring women
coaches, he knew he was putting himself out on the line for criticism and potential backlash from
other head coaches, but he felt passionate about speaking up and hiring the best person for the
roles. He recognized that some coaches were hiring more women interns but not hiring them full-
time onto their coaching staff. He changed that practice for his team and created a pipeline for
women to gain experience through coaching via internships, with opportunities for them to be
hired onto the team after completing their internship.
Several executives shared actions their teams have taken to change the culture and open
the pool to more than the mainstream White male candidates. Leslie explained, “I’m really lucky
in my current role. The [team] have traditionally been leaders in this space of hiring diverse
candidates. We were the first pro team to have a female head coach.” While Everest shared,
“Besides having the ERGs, we’ve tried to put together a diversity council, which would work
directly with our leadership to discuss any issues that we have as far as diversity.” Although
several participants revealed some of the actions their organizations have taken to change their
culture, they also expressed that by far, it is still primarily individual cases of female coaches or
female executives at the highest levels in their leagues being hired, rather than it being several
qualified women in these highest positions.
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Although the White male participants shared their stories about opening the pipeline and
hiring women onto the coaching staff or executive teams, some of the women in these positions
shared their struggles. Despite these women being in some of the most powerful positions in the
industry, a few shared how they are still navigating the male-dominated culture and ensuring
their expertise is heard and acknowledged. Jody revealed her personal experience with being the
only woman in this highest position of leadership: “So, the challenges I see is, ‘Oh, we hired a
woman; we’re good.’ And it’s like, no, no, because your senior executives still sit in meetings
with me and look through me while I talk.”
Bowie also shared, “Yes, I definitely have a voice. Sometimes I will say, I’ll admit this,
sometimes just for the sake of efficiency, I can’t break every example of group think that I see.
So, I just say, okay, I got it. And then we move on.” Conversely, Leslie expressed that she does
not feel like she has a voice at the table but that she uses other tactics to influence the group.
Kris, another powerful executive, expressed feelings that the value of her voice has diminished
and continues to shrink despite her position in the organization. Some of the other WOC
executives admitted to sometimes keeping their thoughts and ideas to themselves, as expressed
by Jackie:
I’m not afraid to speak up, but I think that there are definitely times when there are
certain people in the room that I just know it’s better just to keep my mouth shut.
As expressed by Jackie and other BIPOC participants, the culture in which they work can
feel that it is not inclusive and that it is better to not voice their opinions or experiences. They
shared similar experiences leading in a White male-dominated industry, where feeling safe to
assert their expertise in their areas is not always a choice they felt they had control of. This
recognition of racial and gender leadership imbalance is detailed in the following section.
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Recognition of Racial and Gender Leadership Imbalance
Collectively, participants agreed, regardless of their race or gender, that professional
sports are a White male-dominated industry and have been since its inception. Some respondents
also spoke about the demographics of fans in their sport. The respondents working in baseball
maintained that most of the current fan base are White males aged 55 years old but declared a
slight shift in those demographics. Five of the executive leaders in the NFL, MLS, and NBA
remarked that their leadership teams still do not match their fan base or the demographics of the
United States. Six respondents commented that while there is some movement to hire more
diverse leadership, some of that remains surface-level, with individuals interviewing BIPOC
despite having someone else they fully intended to actually hire. Alex expressed his anger in how
often he has witnessed this happen in his several decades long career in the NFL:
Each and every owner is so different. Some already have their guy picked but they gotta
go through the process, which is all bullshit. But they go through the process just to
appease the rules and some go around the rules.
Two respondents also explained that more often than not, the diversity interview is a
man, with the rare exception a woman is interviewed. Jody explained this, “I would say the
challenges I see thus far are organizations, mine included, are hiring women into executive
leadership roles. But they’re all White women.” Both White women and BIPOC participants
acknowledged White women are more advantaged for being White in a White male-dominated
industry. Furthermore, they accredited the relationship-driven nature of professional sports for
perpetuating this racial divide across genders.
Through interview data analysis, eight of the participants revealed that the systemic
racism continues to be perpetuated due to the nature of professional sports being a relationship-
54

driven industry. Since it has been historically White male-dominated, the relationships and
networking opportunities typically focused on White males interacting and networking with
other White males. Ashley affirmed this phenomenon: “People hire people that look like them
and that they’re comfortable with.” Participants described that only in recent years have there
been leadership support and advocacy for new networking opportunities for White women and
BIPOC women to engage in at the senior executive level in sports. Gabrielle stated,
The reality is for those men in particular, the White men, whether they’re senior leaders
or otherwise in the organization that don’t wanna get with the program, that’s fine. If
you’re not gonna level up, then the reality is you’ll be gone because you’re not gonna be
able to keep up with the changes and nobody’s gonna tolerate that kind of view anymore.
Brooklyn noted the importance she places on using her position of influence as a White
woman to open the pipeline for BIPOC women to be provided opportunities to network and enter
the industry:
Typically, what happens with women is White men are most comfortable with White
women because we look like their wives, their daughters, their nieces, they can relate to
us. So, we’re the first in the door when they let women in.
Six participants described similar beliefs that networking in professional sports trends
toward individuals connecting with others who are akin to themselves.
Other women executives shared their experiences as the few, or the only, BIPOC women
in executive positions. Jillian self-identified as a one and only in her organization: “I am the only
African American woman out of probably 300 people.” These executives in some of the
uppermost positions of power in the industry are often not the lone woman in the room and the
lone woman of color. Everest, a seasoned male executive, also expressed this sentiment: “It’s
55

really hard when you’re one of a very few in an organization, to feel like you’re wanted.” Five
BIPOC participants shared sentiments of feelings of isolation rather than inclusion.
The feeling of oneness expanded beyond the boardroom and executive suite and into the
candidate pipeline. The White and BIPOC female executives were aware of being the only
women in the room and in their positions. Kris shared how she sees this play out in her career in
regard to job searches:
I feel like I’m on every headhunter’s list because I’m the only. When they say they gotta
find a diverse candidate, there’s only, I’m the only person with maybe four or five other
people that would be able to do that.
The oneness extended into other participants’ hiring experiences when multiple
respondents shared stories about being BIPOC females who were interviewed by only White
men and in some instances by a panel of White men. Three participants suggested changing the
status quo by always including a BIPOC leader for an interview of BIPOC candidates. Jody
shared her interview experience as a BIPOC female executive with a panel of White males:
These are all guys I’ve known for a really long time. And so, it wasn’t the worst for me.
And even if it was me and four White guys, it wouldn’t bother me particularly. I can
handle that, but that doesn’t mean I should have to handle that.
Jody explains that she believed that because she had a long-standing professional
relationship with the men who interviewed her, so she felt confident and not intimidated by the
interview. Five of the seven BIPOC women interviewed shared similar experiences during their
interviews. Another participant explained that she believes she is at an advantage for having a
strong voice and resilient self-confidence when she is the one and only in a room. However,
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three BIPOC women executives agreed that the onus should not be on them to be strong and
resilient, that instead, a change in culture needs to occur.
The fourth factor identified through the data analysis demonstrated that regardless of
race, multiple executives affirmed the importance of leadership using their personal influence
and positionality to be the drivers of change toward the creation of more diverse leadership
teams.
Leader Influence and Positionality
Collectively, study participants expressed a drive to change the culture and open the
pipeline for more diversity at the executive level in professional sports and the value in
leadership using their influence and positionality to do so. The shared feelings on influence and
positionality were supported when Brooklyn expressed her experience and how she views her
role in helping other women in the industry:
My number one passion in this by far is to make sure that door is open for all women and
not just one type of woman who would be the next person up because they feel the most
comfortable with us.
All participants shared personal stories of environmental influences they have faced in
their very public positions of senior leadership. The two White males recognized and spoke to
their positions of influence to be the voices that can change the paradigms of how things have
been and shift the status quo to new norms and fresh ways of conducting business. In addition,
the White women recognized their positions of influence differed from their BIPOC women
colleagues, as Brooklyn expressed, “I’m a White woman, and … I think many White women
don’t understand the damage that they cause because they feel like they’re in a minority group.”
57

Three of the White participants expressed the importance of them and their White
colleagues understanding and using their positions of influence to change the culture of
professional sports as an industry. The overarching theme was the need to shift how teams and
leagues currently think about and act on diversifying the talent pool with more BIPOC women at
the executive level. Kris expressed the importance of advocating for women in the industry:
If you want to blaze a path, there’s so many different ways of getting there, but when you
listen to these women’s stories, everyone is making a sacrifice somewhere for the next
thing, for the next level. And they’re opening so many doors and so there’s not one path to
anything. We gotta just blaze this open field and see what happens!
The data showed four primary environmental influences identified as impacting the
composition of executive leadership teams in professional sports. The second research question
will discuss the facilitators and barriers found to influence the diversification of executive
leadership teams. Common themes are described below in greater detail.
Research Question 2: What Are the Facilitators or Barriers in Diversifying Executive
Leadership Teams?
The factors contributing as barriers in diversifying executive leadership teams include:
(a) the need to expand the current recruitment pipeline, (b) the deficits in current networking
practices, (c) the need to reassess hiring policies and procedures, and (d) re-alignment of
leadership expectations regardless of gender. Finally, the contributing factors that were identified
as facilitators in diversifying executive leadership teams were (a) creating cultures reinforcing
the retention of BIPOC leaders and (b) the supportive roles of mentors and allies.
Participants shared that to break the common practice of White males dominating
coaching and senior leadership positions, there needs to be a conscious effort to look beyond the
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usual places for potential candidates. As Alex explained, “Open the pool. Open the pool as big as
you can, and don’t be afraid to look outside the box.” Participants agreed that diversifying the
pool of candidates begins with shifting how and where recruiting happens. Regardless of role or
position, respondents agreed that the most important goal is to hire the right person for the
position and that doing so requires looking beyond hiring only White males.
Expand the Recruitment Pipeline
The two primary recruitment strategies interviewees noted focused on (a) the need to
expand the current recruitment pipeline and (b) change recruitment strategies. Participants
referred to the pipeline in professional sports as a means by which candidates enter the
workforce through different networking and recruitment avenues. Entry-level positions often
recruit at the college level, creating a pipeline of candidates for future senior-level positions,
whereas the pipeline is considered the primary source of how senior leaders enter new positions,
utilizing relationships and their professional networks.
The factors identified regarding college recruiting were (a) expanding university
recruitment efforts to more colleges and (b) creating new recruitment outreach with HBCUs.
Interviewees noted that recruiting for entry-level positions often occurs at colleges throughout
the country. Participants noted that students who are interested in careers in professional sports
attend recruiting events or may seek an internship in hopes that it leads to a future hire. However,
college recruitment often focused on colleges that were part of leadership networks. Everest
explained, “We’re getting kids from the same school, [university], but we need to start looking
outside that box that we are in.” Three participants shared stories on how recruiting from the
same universities has led to a homogenous group of candidates for their team year after year,
narrowing the pool of candidates. Ashley explained this phenomenon: “People hire people that
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look like them and that they’re comfortable with.” Jillian further explained how this occurs on
teams she has been a part of: “You can’t keep going to the same place. We go to [university] and
[university] because two of the directors graduated from there. And that’s why everybody that
comes through looks exactly the same.”
Collectively, participants acknowledged that diversifying senior leadership must happen
at different levels and through various avenues. Respondents spoke about college recruitment as
an important place to begin making changes in where they look for candidates because change
needs to happen from multiple angles if it is to stick and truly incite systemic changes. Jillian
explained, “If I wanna get the best people to be in these positions, where do I go?” A few
participants discussed that once someone enters professional sports, he or she will typically stay
throughout their career which is why it is important to start shifting the career pipeline from the
bottom moving up as well as from the top downwards. Gabrielle explained this phenomenon:
“They’ll try to get their foot in the door, however which way they can and then they stick
around.” In the discussions regarding university connections, participants shared common
experiences that their organizations relied on limited relationships that had spanned years and in
some cases decades.
Three senior leaders who participated in this study spoke about creating new relationships
with HBCUs around the country. They maintained that creating new relationships with HBCUs
would open networking opportunities and create a wider pipeline of candidates. Leslie explained
that adding new connections could significantly change the pipeline of recruiting candidates:
I did suggest to [owner] specifically that we reach out to some HBCUs. … But it’s really
opening up that pipeline. … Where do I go if I wanna get the best insert race or ethnicity
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here? If I wanna get the best people to be in these positions, where do I go? So, it’s really
creating the pipeline that would remedy a lot of that.
Participants described these recruitment avenues as opportunities to intentionally shift
where candidates are sought out and that a key opportunity is to push owners and other senior
leaders in their organizations to look outside of professional sports and beyond their usual
networks for new and diverse candidates to open up the pool. Everest declared, “If you’re only
looking for diverse candidates with experience in baseball, you’re not gonna get it.” He
explained that if senior leadership wants to have a more diverse leadership team, but the
pipeline does not include a lot of diverse candidates with the level of experience they’re looking
for, White males will continue to fill senior leadership positions unless they look in different
places than they typically have to find qualified candidates. Collectively, participants who spoke
about opening the pipeline beyond hiring White males, agreed that the objective for any hiring
executive should be to get the most qualified candidate in the position who fits best in the
organization’s culture.
Regardless of role or position, respondents agreed that the most important goal is to hire
the right person for the position and that doing so requires looking beyond hiring only White
males. Ten participants expressly called out that the pool of candidates will change when leaders
actually consider hiring qualified women for roles as well. Bowie explained, “There should be
getting-to-know-you sessions … people of color, women, that owners should be meeting these
people.” Participants agreed that by looking beyond the usual candidate, they are opening up
opportunities to in fact hire the most qualified candidate who might have otherwise been
overlooked.

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Deficits in Current Networking Practices
Collectively, participants spoke about how small the industry of professional sports is,
regardless of the league. Respondents explained that when hiring for a position, they pick up the
phone and call owners, coaches, and executives from other teams to gather information on the
candidates they are considering. Bowie described how small the industry is and how that
translates to hiring practices:
This business, this industry, is somewhat small. So, there’s a lot of different ways to get
information about the candidates. We all are out in public interviews. We all know people
who know people. I mean, again, it’s pretty small. So, I think that’s the bulk of the
screening process.
Participants shared that the tight knit network contributes to the narrow pipeline of
candidates because they are repeatedly calling and networking with the same individuals.
Furthermore, they argued that this results in a homogenous group of candidates, socializing in
the same networks. Jackie expounded the importance of expanding the typical hiring network:
A lot of times the people that you go to in the business look like you. So, you have to be
diligent about finding other folks that don’t look like you to make sure that you’re
tapping into their sphere of influence when searching, recruiting, and hiring at an
executive leadership level.
The two primary factors related to the topic of hiring that were repeatedly discussed in
the interviews included networking and policies and procedures. With an entire industry
accustomed to conducting business through a network of professional relationships, the
executives spoke about the need to peel back layers of “this is how we have always done it”
attitudes.
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Social circles, networking, and relationships were identified as cornerstones to entering
the sports industry and advancing a person’s career at the highest levels of leadership.
Respondents explained that who a person knows and with whom they are connected is
significant, sometimes more than experience once a candidate has reached a senior leadership
level. Ashley expressed this, “Networking is just as important if not more important than
experience.” Multiple female participants discussed this in depth and explained the importance
of making themselves available for other women wanting to enter the industry or looking to
move into new positions. Kris explained, “The industry is taking people who you’re connected
with and you pull them up with you.” She explained that networking permeates throughout all
aspects of the industry, from recruiting to hiring and career advancement. Bowie further
demonstrated this and explained how relationships have played a role throughout her career:
This is a large business, but it’s a small business or industry. And so having been in it for
so long I would say the only time I didn’t know the person interviewing me was probably
the first interview I had in the industry. Other than that, I at least had met them previously.
While participants shared their stories and experiences about how relationships helped
them move around in their careers, many also explained how the industry needs to pivot in how
relationships are utilized to move away from perpetuating a long-term and destructive cycle of
White males predominantly benefitting from such relationships. They spoke about creating
different opportunities for people of different races and genders to grow their networks. As
Gabrielle explained, “This industry is still one of those, you were at the right place at the right
time and you knew somebody.” Therefore, creating more space for more people to be in the right
place, at the right time, can help create new opportunities for highly qualified leaders. Brooklyn
further illustrated this:
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From the club standpoint, we still are very antiquated in the sense of people are hired
because I know a guy, and a guy meaning masculine, I mean the male gender. We need to
get away from, I know a guy, and that was the reason that the Women’s Forum was born
because we wanted to put 40 women in a room. So, we started saying, I know a person
and it’s not necessarily a guy.
Three participants discussed how different types of forums, leadership expos, and formal
networking events are some of the types of changes they are involved with or spearheading.
Respondents also addressed the policies and procedures involved in hiring. Each club and league
explained their varying ways of addressing this, with common factors identified in the following
section.
Reassess Hiring Policies and Procedures
Participating executives explained that each league has its own set of policies and
procedures regarding hiring practices. They explained that some policies and procedures are
formal mandates and others are described as boxes to be checked off to appease the general
public. However, some executives have been instrumental in pushing their league to make
substantial changes such as that Alex described: “I’ve been pushing the league now. The league
has finally made it an initiative where everybody has to have a minority offensive coach that
deals with the quarterback and the head coach and we kinda spearheaded that.”
Other executives admitted to not knowing if there were specific hiring policies or
procedures, such as Jackie, “Do we have policies around recruitment? I mean, not really. I
probably shouldn’t say this, but not that I’m aware of.” While others explained that new
ownership has focused on creating new policies and procedures that are currently being
implemented, as Jody explained:
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So now there’s a process, but I will tell you nine times outta 10, the person that’s being
asked to sit in on it [interviews] is me because I’m the only woman of color, female
executive leader who can be thrown in. And unfortunately, I don’t always have the time.
Jody explained that her organization is aiming to have a diverse team or panel of leaders
participating in interviews for senior-level positions. However, being the one and only woman of
color senior executive means she is often requested to participate and she does not have the
bandwidth to constantly sit in for other departmental interviews. She explained, “And now
people can check a box and say, Yeah, I interviewed people of color. In fact, my final candidate
was a person of color or a woman. But at the end of the day, you still didn’t hire one.” Alex
explained a similar observation, “I think the [team] went through 20 GM candidates and then
hired their own guy, which I knew they were gonna do anyway.” Participating executives
acknowledged the best and most qualified candidates should be the ones getting hired and that
“there should be some guidelines in place that ensure that those candidates are getting to that
final interview process, that final yard line,” as Jackie stated.
Eight executives described the need and the desire for their clubs and leagues to move
beyond hiring White males, as Jody explained: “The tendency is still, if you get down to two
candidates and then one person of color or a female and one is a White male, the tendency is to
go with a White male.” Another participant described one measure her league is taking to help
attract diverse candidates by using employee referrals. Yet another executive explained she has
seen and experienced the evolution of the diversification of senior leadership in sports and where
she hopes to see it progress to. Jillian illustrated,
I feel like it took NBA players, for everyone else, for men to speak up and say, ‘Hey
guys, you aren’t paying attention to this.’ It wasn’t just something that organically
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happened by any means, Title IX, their hands were forced to provide equal opportunities
in sports for young ladies. And now we do see it, we see the leadership, we see the
respect a little bit more. It’s still not, of course, where we want it to be.
Participants established that simply acknowledging the substantial gaps in hiring diverse
leadership is an essential step toward closing the gap. However, they also described how these
carry into the retention of the qualified BIPOC female leaders. Three executives spoke about
creating cultures and spaces for leaders of different races and genders to grow and thrive in their
careers.
Re-Align Leadership Expectations for Leaders Regardless of Gender
Regardless of the league, executives shared that the money is less than in comparable
positions in other industries. Additionally, they expressed that the hours are long, but that they
are in sports because of their passion for it. Two executives explained that MLB plays the most
games in a single season compared to NFL, MLS, and NBA. Erin shared a glimpse of what a day
in the life looks like for her:
We have 81 home games. So, 81 times a year, you work your 9-to-5 day and then at 5
o’clock, 15,000 fans start coming through the door and then you go out, you host 15,000
people until midnight and then the next day you do it all over again.
Executives from each league shared that despite the passion they feel toward the sport,
the long hours can take a toll. One participant explained that, in the first year, the excitement
level is at an all-time high, Year 2 sees a minor decrease in excitement, and Year 3 sees a more
significant decline. She explained that COVID-19 exacerbated this downward trend because the
stadiums were empty and employees were working remotely. Now that games are back to being
played with fans filling stadiums and employees work in person together again, participants
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reported that the excitement has increased once more. However, some executives have noted that
women who have worked in the industry for a long time and started as interns and are not
receiving pay comparable to their counterparts who started the club at a higher level rather than
as an intern. Gabrielle described this phenomenon:
But the women that had been with the organization for over 20 years, they got their foot
in the door as an intern back in the day, and then they just stuck around all this time. And
it’s unfortunate because I don’t know if they appreciate how probably grossly underpaid,
they are … the incremental increases year after year, even if you are getting promoted, I
don’t think are gonna be reflective of somebody that would be coming into that role
today and what they would be getting.
Some of the women stated the importance of women openly sharing what they make with
other women to help level the playing field in terms of salaries earned. Most participants,
regardless of gender or race, shared a passion for sports, and as Blaine stated, “I don’t think
anybody gets in sports solely for the economics of sports, they get in for a passion.” Although
many concurred with this statement, many of the women executives would like more
transparency in the salaries for various positions.
Another factor discussed by several executive women is the discrepancy of treatment
they experience depending on whether or they have children. One participant shared that her
boss once gifted her a children’s book to read to her children. He had never taken the time to
learn more about her personal life to realize that she does not have children. Another female
executive, Leslie, shared that the expectations for her are much greater because she does not
have children:
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I’ve been told that I needed to be going to more games and staying later at games because
I didn’t have a family. And it was understandable when my colleagues who had kids were
leaving early, and that one was really tough for me.
One male participant reflected that when he is searching for coaches, one of the important
considerations is whether the candidate has a supportive partner who understands that they
would not be regularly available for bedtime with their children or other family responsibilities
due to the long hours. One female executive shared that she recognizes she can climb the ranks
in sports, with the long hours, because she has a supportive husband who stays at home with
their children. Gabrielle, another female executive, shared,
I am still single, I don’t have any children, so I do have a lot more flexibility and time to
do things that maybe somebody in my age group or at my stage in my career may not have
because they’ve got other responsibilities.
Both male and female participants recognized and spoke about the long hours and
expectations that come as part of the territory in professional sports. They shared how
organizational cultures and support systems have personally and professionally helped anchor
them and lift them at different times throughout their careers. Some of the identified support
systems have been specific mentors and allies throughout participants’ careers. As Bowie
explained, “I will say it [professional sports] is still hard to break through. If women are
encountering a hard time, try and identify your allies.” The sections below describe the
contributing factors that were identified as facilitators in diversifying executive leadership teams.
Facilitators in Diversifying Executive Leadership Teams
Executives argued that creating a culture of inclusivity and belonging supports the
creation of environments where all leaders feel that they can use their voice and share their
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expertise in a room of all White males. The identified factors were (a) create cultures reinforcing
the retention of BIPOC leaders and (b) the supportive roles of mentors and allies. The next
section discusses how inclusive cultures can reinforce and support the retention of BIPOC
leaders.
Create Cultures That Reinforce the Retention of BIPOC Leaders
Female BIPOC participants shared their experiences in organizational cultures that are
not yet conducive to supporting greater gender and racial diversity and how they navigate such
cultures to do their best to grow in their careers. One male described the shifts he has witnessed
in the past year or two in his own team where he felt that three strong BIPOC leaders left for
other teams whose organizational culture was thought to be more supportive of BIPOC leaders.
Jody described the importance of employee retention in her own career and attributed it to the
passion she feels for the industry and for the sport:
I have friends who work in [other industries] that are like, why don’t you just transition,
make double the money, less pressure, and none of this White male bullshit to navigate
through. I love my industry. I love being the brains behind the business of the sports and I
don’t want to let them take that away from me. So, I’m gonna keep fighting for that. I
could have bailed ship a long time ago for another industry, but I wanna be here. So, a
message to ownership and senior leadership is truly, you guys have the opportunity to
install more unicorns to the point where they become normal or the norm and you just
gotta be better. All of them, they just gotta be better.
Nine executives shared a need for opportunities for career advancement need to retain
skilled and qualified leaders. Both males and females noted the important role that mentors and
allies play in diversifying executive leadership. The following section describes how mentors
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and allies can help break down barriers and open new opportunities for BIPOC women leaders
especially.
Supportive Roles of Mentors and Allies
The three male participants shared that they focus on hiring the most qualified individuals
for the job, regardless of race or gender. They recognized the barriers for women in leadership
positions in sports but emphasized that the best business case is to ensure they have the right
person for the job. Male and female owners, coaches, and executives shared stories about
mentors and allies who were in their court at various times in their careers. Bowie, a female
executive, shared,
I had one boss who was a huge advocate of mine. Huge. I think a lot of that stemmed
from the fact that his wife was also in sports and had to deal with a lot of things in her
career that obviously he was privy to. I think he saw that and wanted to make sure that I
did not encounter a lot of the things that she went through.
Male and female participants explained that mentoring others in their field is important to
them. Alex shared that, as an ally for BIPOC leaders in the field, he takes action to help others
gain new opportunities: “I see qualified people not get a chance, I wanna do something about it.”
Leslie, recognized that the responsibility of helping develop a person in their career is a big
responsibility that they do not take lightly: “It’s a great responsibility to develop people’s careers
and to have the ability to say, I’m gonna hire this candidate, or I’m not gonna hire this
candidate.” Many of the BIPOC female executives shared stories about professional mentors or
allies who have been resources for them in navigating a White male industry. Those WOC who
did speak about having allies shared that they had White male mentors and/or allies. Some
BIPOC female executives shared that they wish they had another WOC colleague as a mentor
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because they could relate to their experiences better than their White male colleagues. They
shared that because there are so few WOC in positions of power in sports, that is not a simple
find. Jody explained her experience: “I’m really lucky in my mentors, but it is three White men.
So, there are definitely moments when I’m like, guys, I can’t do that. I don’t look like you, I
can’t do that. And they’re like, why not?”
One club owner explained, “I want to make sure that I have other people’s back who
work for me. I’m a big believer in that because that builds trust, to build loyalty and builds
success”. Another participant explained that being allies for one another also serves as a
resource that benefits everyone involved and contributes to greater success in their roles. Leslie,
shared that she learned about her current position through a male colleague: “The friend that I
was speaking of that alerted me to this opportunity was a White male.” She explained that he
was privy to hearing about the job opening before it was officially posted and because they had
a long-standing professional relationship, and he shared that information with her. Everest
explained the role this type of allyship plays in creating a supportive and successful
environment: “I think it’s very important that our male counterparts, which within this
organization are mostly White males, that we have them as allies and we get them to see the
importance of having a diverse staff.”
The topic of mentors and allies continually connected back with opening the pipeline in
sports for more diversity. Participants discussed the importance of leagues and clubs investing in
opening the pipeline for different types of candidates. One participant said, “So, I think,
ultimately, it’s about that pipeline in development and the investment of the development of
candidates in that space.” Most notable, however, is that some of the most powerful people in
sports are advocating for more diversity in ownership, coaching, and senior executive teams. As
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one club owner expressed, “You see some clubs have exceeded, some clubs have done a poor
job, and I think, just like in society, we have to do a better job as a society.” The following
sections describe the third and final research question that explains the benefits to diversifying
leadership teams.
Research Question 3: What Are the Perceived Benefits for the Organization From
Diversifying the Executive Leadership Team?
Research question three dives into the benefits of diverse leadership. The identified
factors are (a) enhanced diversity of thought, (b) increased sponsorship, (c) stronger leadership,
and (d) better business overall.
Enhanced Diversity of Thought
Study participants agreed that having a more diverse front office works betters the
business, the organizational culture, and even the players on the team. As Alex noted, “Players
need to hear things from different faces, different voices. And as a coach, I wanted a collective
group of ideas that were different. The better the input, the better the output.” Another participant
explained that with a recent change in ownership came changes at the executive level that they
are now seeing trickle down to other parts of the organization. Gabrielle described how this
played out in her organization: “The people that [the new owner] hired to build out these teams
already appreciated the importance of diversity, to get that diversity of thought, diversity of
perspective and views.”
Nine respondents agreed that if the pipeline remains the same, if people keep looking to
hire individuals in the same places, systemic and cultural changes will not happen and the
organization will flounder. Alex shared why this is especially important for him: “Having more
voices, different voices, bringing different ideas helps the collective.” He shared that having
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leaders who only make statements they believe he wants to hear does not challenge him as a
leader to be better.
There was a collective agreement that organizations cannot stay stagnant and keep doing
things how they have always done them just because that is familiar and comfortable.
Participants expressed that organizations that will see the most growth in fan base and hence in
revenue will be those that show a willingness to change, diversify leadership, and ensure the
front office reflects the demographics of the United States. Hiring the same people, who share
the same thoughts, and address issues in the same ways, will only produce the same results that
have been going on for decades.
Respondents asserted that to achieve diversity of thought and in leadership, the pipeline
needs to be widened with the pool of qualified candidates sought in different places. As Leslie
expounded, “At the end of the day, if I’ve got two qualified candidates, I’m giving the edge to
the candidate who brings a more diverse perspective.” Participating executives also explained
how they see that diversity of thought would increase sponsorship and revenue, as described in
the following section.
Increased Sponsorship/Revenue
Participants explained the roles fans play in professional sports and that revenue partly
depends on their fan base, including fans at home and those in attendance at the live games.
Respondents explained the importance of knowing the demographics of their fans to properly
connect with them and ultimately grow their fan base. As Leslie explained, “We cannot expect to
reach a diverse group of people if those perspectives aren’t represented in our staff.” Knowing
the fans’ demographics leads to a greater understanding of who is purchasing the most and what
they are spending money on. Bowie explains the importance of understanding fan demographics:
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“Diversity should be always front of mind, given the time that we’re living in, giving our
influences, given just pure business sense. Who the fans are, who the consumers are, who has the
purchasing power.”
Respondents expressed an understanding of the need to approach business and grow their
revenue in new ways and the role that making statements about their organizational values plays
in this new approach to increasing revenue. Participants explained that it is now increasingly
critical to state their organizational values and to connect with sponsors who share them. In turn,
sponsors are looking to connect with teams that they can align with in regard to their values. Five
respondents argued that teams that show a commitment to supporting a specific cause or
speaking out on behalf of a group of people will connect with sponsors looking to do the same.
They further expressed that connecting with value statements trickles down to the individual
level as well. Leslie explained how her owner’s actions affected her as a BIPOC leader:
We had a meeting with one of our biggest sponsors the other day, and in this meeting, my
boss [owner] was wearing a shirt that said, “Hire women, pay women, promote women,”
and I was like, this is so cool. I mean, it was just a regular thing, and it was awesome.
Owners, senior executives, and other leaders hiring highly skilled, qualified, and experienced
individuals of diverse races, genders, and backgrounds is leading the field to new growth. One
executive shared that she has noticed more female fans approaching her both on and off the field.
Another executive, Brooklyn, shared her experience:
I get asked a lot about do more women watch the game now. Because there are women
on the field. And my answer is, and this is pure anecdotal, but it’s not more women. It’s
more people who now like the NFL more because it reflects society.
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Female executives in each of the four leagues included in this study shared similar stories
of experiences they encountered. They shared anecdotal reports of more types of fans feeling a
connection to the game, owners and other executives exhibiting their support of having more
diverse teams, and the importance of leadership teams presenting as a reflection of society. All
these factors play parts in influencing the success of leadership.
Stronger Leadership
Participating executives asserted that having more gender diversity on leadership teams
brings new ways of leading. They contend that the intersectionality of gender and race adds
different perspectives and varied experiences and provides distinct opportunities for others to
connect with and see leaders who look like them. Six respondents spoke about the gender
differences in leadership and expressed how important it is to have more gender diversity to then
create stronger organizational practices. Participants explained the feeling that each gender
brings different skills and perspectives that, as a collective, are important to the overall success
of the business. Gabrielle shared her perspective: “I’m generalizing, but women tend to be higher
EQs and recognize the juggling and the work that other women are doing, whether it’s within
their direct team or more broadly in the organization.”
Six participants expressed that broadening the leadership team’s make-up will work
toward strengthening the front office. Bowie expressed her perspective on the gender differences
in leadership: “I don’t wanna generalize, but women can be a lot more perceptive. And I think
there are many studies that show women are better listeners.” Respondents noted that diversity in
thought and stronger leadership work together to create better and more profitable business
practices.

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Better Business
Respondents expressed that a large benefit of a diverse leadership team is greater success
for the team. Participants shared that more diverse teams contributed to the cultivation of more
positive work cultures, which resulted in employee happiness and retention. Jody explained that
her organization was shifting toward more diverse leadership teams and that she was
endeavoring to play a pivotal role in the overall success of her team:
I’m vying to be promoted, and with the most confidence for the first time in my life, sat
in one of our senior executive’s offices, and I was like, “You have the opportunity to
install the first female woman of color, vice president, in this organization. I’m a unicorn.
You ought do this. … Here’s why.”
She continued by explaining how she tied the decision to promote her back to the
betterment and success of the organization. She knew she was qualified for the new position and
had spent the week leading up to the meeting with the senior executive planning with her
mentors how to create the strongest business case for why she is the best person for the job.
Everest expressed, “Once they [owners and other executives] see how having a diverse staff is
important for business, I think that goes a long way.” Conversely, Jackie articulated the
importance of owners and senior executives advocating and hiring leadership from diverse
backgrounds and experiences: “They have to be cognizant and aware of the issue that a lack of
diversity at a leadership level can negatively impact business.”
Six of the 13 respondents shared that their club either has active ERGs or recently created
them in response to the organization taking a stand against racist and violent acts post-George
Floyd’s murder. Executives shared that it is a combination of fans, sponsors, and employees who
take note of actions taken by leaders and organizations in times of crisis. Everest explained,
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They need to understand the impact of having certain people on their staff, how important
that is for their organization. And once they start to realize that’s why we have these ERGs
to show the impact that we have as minority employees, how that’s good for business.
The benefits that were revealed in the data analysis were (a) diversity of thought, (b)
increased sponsorship and revenue, (c) stronger leadership, and (d) better business. Executives
described these factors as linking together, not existing in silos. The following summary
highlights the key findings throughout each research question.
Summary
Findings indicate that several different environmental influences are contributing to
changes in the leadership make-up of the MLB, NFL, NBA, and MLS. The commonality in all
interviews was that relationships fuel the professional sports industry, and all findings were
grounded in this. The findings for the first research question were the role of social movements
in creating urgency for the dismantling of discriminatory practices, shifts in culture to align
personal values in workplace norms, the recognition of racial and gender leadership imbalances,
and the importance of the role of leadership influence and positionality. The findings for the
second research question were expanding the recruitment pipeline; reassessing policies,
procedures, and practices; identifying the deficits of current recruitment practices; aligning
leadership expectations; creating cultures that reinforce the retention of BIPOC leaders; and the
supportive roles of mentors and allies. Finally, the findings for the third research question were
enhanced diversity of thought, increased sponsorship, stronger leadership, and better business
overall.
The White male interviewees acknowledged they have the power, voices, and ability to
advocate for WOC in senior leadership positions. They have both hired WOC into the most
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senior positions in their leagues and made hires that are the first and some that are the only in
their fields. As Jackie described,
We have to create a pipeline of individuals that are diverse so we can train them, support
them, and build a better pipeline. So, down the road, we will have more individuals of
diverse backgrounds to be able to take seats in those roles.
They have shown through their actions that they believe in hiring the most qualified person for
the job and are not confined to hiring only from their networks of White male candidates.
The White female interviewees shared their challenges due to being one of the only
women in their senior leadership positions and acknowledged that there are even fewer people of
color where they sit in the highest levels of leadership in their organizations. These women
shared that they sought to have their expertise recognized and their voices heard. However, most
of the WOC shared that they struggle to have their voices heard or their qualifications credited
and are often looked through instead of looked at. The BIPOC females in the highest positions of
power in their organization felt their expertise and qualifications were known and credited, but
even being in their positions of power, they still recognized that their voices were sometimes
disregarded.
The thread woven throughout all 13 interviews was the acknowledgement that the
industry is fueled by relationships. As Kris explained, “This is a very relationship-driven
business.” Whom a person knows and whom they are connected to plays an integral part in
hiring, career progression, and retention in all four leagues. Each respondent shared stories and
experiences of how networking affected or drove certain parts of their careers. Mentor
relationships came into play in various ways, with some participants having expressed a desire
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for a person of color as a mentor in their professional career, whereas others shared that their
mentor or mentors were White men advocating for them as a WOC.
Finally, the benefits of having diverse executive leadership spanned across improved
workplace culture, increased sponsorship, and stronger organizational performance. The past 3
years in the United States were met with major shifts in the workforce due to COVID-19 and
social movements that spanned racial divides, gender norms, and social classes. Individuals
started placing more importance on the alignment of their personal values with the values of their
organizations. Participants agreed that executive leadership can no longer stay silent on where
the organization stands regarding acts of violence or injustice. Respondents further agreed that
the front office of professional sports should be more reflective of the demographics of the
United States.

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Chapter Five: Recommendations
Chapter Five begins with a discussion of the research findings related to the research
questions and the 13 interviews. It continues with recommendations for practice as championed
by the literature, data analysis, and findings. Then, the limitations and delimitations of the study
are addressed. Next, future research recommendations are shared, concluding with a summation
of the study.
Discussion of Findings
Women, especially WOC, remain underrepresented in professional sports senior
leadership positions. The underrepresentation of WOC in roles such as head coaches, executives,
and owners is not representative of fan or national demographics. Research shows that diversity
in leadership results in greater success for organizations, and actively engaging the
organizational community by supporting and promoting qualified BIPOC women into leadership
positions can pave the way to systemic changes in historically White male-dominated industries
(Nocco et al., 2021). However, hiring more BIPOC women leaders is not the sole answer to
diversifying executive leadership in male professional sports; dismantling White male privilege
and changing organizational cultures are necessary to make lasting changes in the sports industry
(Ryan & Dickson, 2018).
The three recommendations described below are based on the findings and data analysis
of this study through an examination using Bronfenbrenner’s model. The research findings
showed common barriers and benefits on multiple ecological levels that influenced the changes
in executive leadership team structures. The literature and study findings both show that BIPOC
women experience more obstacles in their careers than their White male and White female
colleagues and will continue to face additional obstacles unless organizations implement changes
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to their cultures and institute interventions to eliminate the oppressive divides (Esquierdo-Leal &
Houmanfar, 2021).
Additionally, findings showed that barriers and benefits occurred simultaneously, not
necessarily in isolation. The emergent themes were aligned with the findings in the literature.
Particularly, BIPOC women executive leaders reported facing more obstacles than their White
colleagues, regardless of gender, specifically regarding more limited networking opportunities.
Furthermore, leaders must understand the root causes of organizational and systemic oppression
to remove workplace barriers for BIPOC women in senior leadership positions (Hecht, 2020;
Schein, 2017). The first two recommendations fall under organizational structures and include
formal networking and mentoring programs, whereas the third recommendation falls under
leadership engagement and includes organizational values communicated through public
statements, community engagements, and ultimately changing organizational cultures.
Recommendations for Practice
The following three recommendations are intended for MLB, NFL, NBA, and MLS.
Additionally, the recommendations are intended for the teams that fall under those four leagues.
All the participants of this study are in positions of power and can implement the following
recommendations for their respective organizations.
Recommendation 1: Develop Formal Networking Opportunities for Diverse Hires
This first recommendation was identified based on findings pertaining to the
intersectionality of race and gender, hiring practices, and retention of leadership. The findings in
this study align with the literature on the importance of creating supportive networking
opportunities for BIPOC leaders (Endo, 2020). Five BIPOC participants in this study shared
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observations about the differences they have experienced in networking opportunities versus
their White male colleagues.
All 13 respondents concurred that professional sports as an industry is heavily
relationship-driven and continues to principally have White males in the highest positions of
power. Racial and gender imbalances in senior leadership positions are seen across industries.
Moreover, it is well-documented that regardless of industry, more diverse leadership teams lead
to more successful work environments (Endo, 2020; Hecht, 2020; Nocco et al., 2021). Studies
further confirm that BIPOC leaders help create more inclusive cultures, ensure more successful
leadership practices, and help increase feelings of motivation and belonging for employees
regardless of level in the organization (Cooper, 2017; Crenshaw, 1989; Esquierdo-Leal &
Houmanfar, 2021; Holt et al., 2016; Schein, 2017). Collectively, participants maintained that to
meet the objective of hiring the best person for a position, the pipeline needs to be opened to
include more than just White males.
Research shows that BIPOC women benefit the most from access to more formalized
networking opportunities because they have fewer informal networking opportunities with their
White male counterparts, as it is noted that people tend to socialize with those most like
themselves (Endo, 2020; Esquierdo-Leal & Houmanfar, 2021; Hill et al., 2016). Both White and
BIPOC participants shared that they consider creating new networking events and opportunities
focused on BIPOC leaders as a central component to opening the hiring pipeline. Five executives
shared formal programs and events they have either created or attended for White women and
BIPOC women to network with leaders in the industry. When more teams create formal
networking opportunities for BIPOC women leaders, the playing field can be leveled for more
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senior leaders and rising leaders in professional sports, decreasing the racial and gender gap in
senior leadership positions.
Both leagues and teams should host two annual networking events for BIPOC women.
One event will be targeted at BIPOC women leaders interested in entering professional sports to
learn more about the industry and network with some of the leaders, including head coaches and
other executives. The other event would be for BIPOC women already in professional sports and
in leadership positions as an opportunity to network and connect with other BIPOC colleagues in
the industry. The events hosted at the league level could mirror the NFL annual event, the NFL
Women’s Forum, where more than 227 female candidates have been hired since the program’s
inception in 2017. It is critical that the team-level networking events are supported by senior
leadership with specific goals and objectives communicated throughout their club and publicly.
Leadership involvement and support are significant factors in both networking programs. The
NFL Women’s Forum has participation from coaches and general managers from all 32 NFL
teams. Each league should aim to have participation from all teams as well for their specific
annual networking event. Roger Goodell, the NFL commissioner, attends the NFL Women’s
Forum to show his support for the event and to expand the hiring pool of candidates for the NFL.
The networking events targeted at BIPOC women would feed into the next recommendation on
mentoring relationships.
Recommendation 2: Create Supportive Cultures to Promote Mentoring Relationships
The second recommendation is centered on findings pertaining to creating cultures that
reinforce the retention of BIPOC leaders and how the supportive roles of mentors and allies can
foster more inclusive workplace cultures. Creating workplace cultures that include mentoring as
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part of the norm shows leadership commitment to creating more inclusive leadership teams. Nine
respondents shared the importance of mentors and allies throughout their careers.
Studies show that creating spaces and opportunities for BIPOC women to engage in
professional mentoring relationships opens the pipeline for more diversity throughout
organizations and in various senior leadership positions (Cunningham et al., 2020). Research
further illustrates that mentorships for BIPOC women are especially important and effective
because organizations tend to focus on more traditional “androcentric and Eurocentric” valued
mentorship models which exclude BIPOC women (Endo, 2020). The BIPOC women who shared
stories about mentors and allies who have played significant roles in their careers shared the
common thread that those mentors and allies were all White males. They further expressed a
desire to have a BIPOC mentor, but because there are so few BIPOC women in their upper-level
positions, there are few possible mentor options. In many cases, the BIPOC women who
participated were the only ones in their field, in highly influential positions, and high up in the
chain of command.
Leagues and teams should include mentoring as part of executive leadership’s annual
reviews or bonus payouts. A component of the review would be a quarterly or biannual
communication on diversity mentoring and hiring for the club or organization. This program
should also include collaborating with colleges and universities to expand outreach efforts.
Moreover, this should be done as part of the networking events described in the first
recommendation. Creating mentoring and mentee opportunities for executive leaders and adding
an accountability element will further strengthen the efficacy of the proposed solution. In
addition to incentivizing mentoring participation, formalized training should be an essential
program component. Training should be provided to mentors on strategies to best guide the
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individuals they would be connected with on topics such as career coaching, and mentees would
undergo training on topics such as strong questions to ask a mentor on leadership or challenges
they have overcome. There will be an agreed-upon and documented mentoring plan created
between the mentor and mentee. There should be scheduled and pre-organized mentoring
sessions that will be decided between mentor and mentee if they would be in person or online. If
possible, there should be an opportunity to job shadow together in person to provide an
opportunity to network with others in the industry. Finally, opportunities should be created for
mentors and mentees to attend the formal networking events described in the first
recommendation.
Mentoring programs can help establish another approach toward improving
organizational culture by helping BIPOC women find new ways of connecting with colleagues,
increasing retention, and improving recruitment pipeline efforts and avenues. Positive
organizational cultures are critical to getting ahead of the game in any industry regarding getting
the best candidates for positions and increasing revenue. The following recommendation
discusses the role communicating organizational values plays in improving league and team
culture.
Recommendation 3: Issue Public Statements on Organizational Values
The third recommendation is grounded in findings about social movements' impact on
workplace cultures and better business practices leading to increased sponsorship and revenue.
Ten participants specified the importance of leagues and teams publicly communicating their
values and where they stand regarding social movements and nationally known acts of violence
or discrimination. The third recommendation consists of four parts: (a) leagues and clubs update
their mission and value statements to lucidly convey their position on diversity, inclusion, and
85

discriminatory acts; (b) leagues and clubs publicly communicate their newly evolved value
statements; (c) issue public declarations when public tragic events occur; (d) Create a DEI senior
leadership position.
Participants shared their beliefs that sponsors and fans alike are paying closer attention to
whether organizational values align with their own and that it is more important now than ever
not to judge a culture based on the 10% that is most obvious but on the actions as well (Schein,
1985). These findings link up with Schein’s (1985) iceberg theory of culture, which considers the
most critical part of an organization’s culture is the core, as that includes the organizational
values, collective individual values, and social roles, including race and gender. Just as the
iceberg model encourages a deeper dive into the root causes of an organization’s culture, so does
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological model. It is essential to look beyond the tip of the iceberg,
which only exposes 10% of a culture and to look at the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem,
and macrosystem to identify all the factors involved and how they affect one another to truly
improve the culture (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Schein, 1985). For these reasons, leagues and teams
should review their vision and mission statements and update them to reflect their organizations’
values. When updating these statements, they should consider issues such as discriminatory or
violent acts against groups of people and reflect on where their beliefs are on DEI matters.
Additionally, they should consider their fan demographics which some participants noted have
noticeably shifted since COVID-19 first emerged and resulted in people moving to new states
and cities. Finally, these new statements should be communicated publicly
Seventy percent of Americans follow a sport and watch an average of 7.7 hours of
sporting events per week (Schultz, 2019). The professional sports industry has a captivated
audience year-round, with millions of people tuning in, watching games played, and connecting
86

with leagues, teams, coaches, and players on social media. This type of significant media
presence leads to numerous opportunities for leaders in the professional sports industry to make
waves and ultimately change the cultural norm of primarily hiring and placing White males into
senior leadership positions. Additionally, professional sports’ influential platform allows space
for individuals and organizations to take public stands on the different social movements
occurring around the nation. For instance, in May 2022, NBA head coach Steve Kerr issued a
public statement on the Uvalde mass shooting, which made headlines around the nation (Brito,
2022). Multiple other instances of leagues, clubs, head coaches and other public sports figures
issuing statements on racially driven tragic events have also made headlines and caught the
public’s attention (Elassar, 2020; Lyles, 2021; Rocha et al., 2021; Streeter, 2022; Tracy, 2020).
George Floyd’s murder in 2020 ignited new social activism demonstrations and
declarations around the nation among citizens and organizations, including in professional sports
(Agyemang et al., 2020). These social justice movements have directly correlated to professional
sports as an industry, using their influence to reach a wider audience through multiple media
channels (Cornwell et al., 2001; Vance et al., 2016). Eight participants in this study spoke about
the importance they placed in knowing their team’s values on specific issues that were most
important to them, such as anti-Asian discrimination, BLM, gun violence, police brutality, and
lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender issues.
Consequently, this fourth component of the third recommendation is centered on how
leagues and teams address issues pertaining to social movements and violent acts against specific
groups of people. As leagues and clubs revisit their value statements and include input from a
subset of the executive team, they should ensure equally diverse representation on the leadership
team involved. This includes creating a DEI leadership position if that does not exist. That
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person should be on the senior executive leadership team with the power and influence to make
changes and have input into hiring practices and policies. These DEI leaders should spearhead
diversity councils made of leaders in the organization who would work as advisors on hiring-
related issues, including creating diverse hiring panels. It is important that the DEI leader have
the power to influence change in the organization to further hold them accountable for upholding
their mission and value statements and not simply be a box that is checked off to avoid
discriminatory cases or to look favorable in the public eye.
Equally important, leagues and teams need to no remain silent on social movement issues
and acts of violence that are prevalent in the nation’s news and social media platforms. BIPOC
participants in this study illustrated the need for their organizations to publicly communicate
their values and how important it is that their values are aligned with their club. BIPOC leaders
wanted to know they were supported, advocated for, and heard. They believed that some fans
and sponsors expressed these same sentiments. Teams aim to grow their fan base, expand their
sponsorships, and increase revenue.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations are influences that impact the study and are not controllable by the researcher
(Creswell, 2014). In this study, some interviewees were guarded with their answers due to fear of
their answers being leaked publicly or to others on their team, and they voiced these concerns.
The participants' confidentiality and anonymity were explained before the interview began and
reiterated when they expressed concern over their answers to questions being traced back to
them.
Delimitations are influences that the researcher can control by thoughtfully constructing
and designing studies (Creswell, 2014). Delimitations that affected this study included the
88

sampling criteria, which meant that the perspectives of BIPOC men executives, coaches, and
general managers were not fully represented as part of the data collection, with only one BIPOC
male participant. Additionally, the sampling did not take into consideration the interviewees’
sexual orientation, gender identity, or socioeconomic status. The interview questions reflected
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model, which shaped the scope of the sampling criteria for this
study. Moreover, male professional sports leagues were the focus of this study rather than female
professional sports leagues to highlight the presence of even fewer BIPOC female owners, head
coaches, and executives in male leagues overall to contribute to the limited available data.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study contributes to the limited body of literature on environmental influences
affecting policies, procedures, practices, and organizational cultures behind gender and racial
inequalities in professional sports leadership. Additional future research is needed, with
opportunities to focus on different factors and influences that contribute to dismantling systemic
racial and gender barriers in a multi-billion-dollar industry. Additional qualitative research
should focus on gathering data on leagues and teams that change their mission and value
statements and the impact on sponsorships.
Furthermore, future research should explore the factors influencing gender and racial
diversity in female sports leagues’ executive leadership and coaching. Long-term studies into
further understanding cultural differences and changes in teams and throughout leagues could
help provide insight and data on identifying root causes of systemic racial and gender disparities.
Furthermore, future research on anti-bias training for leaders in professional sports could provide
further understanding of the effectiveness of directed and targeted diversity and inclusion
training. Lastly, researching the effectiveness of professional sports networking events and
89

mentoring programs could provide valuable insight into the effectiveness of different methods
and solutions to narrow racial and gender gaps in senior leadership.
Conclusion
BIPOC women endure more impediments in their careers than White men and women
and will continue to face additional barriers unless leaders change their organizational cultures
and establish interventions to abolish the repressive divides (Esquierdo-Leal & Houmanfar,
2021). This qualitative study explored professional sports leadership for male leagues and the
environmental influences that affect the creation of diverse leadership teams. Bronfenbrenner’s
(1979) theoretical framework provided a model to investigate how assorted behaviors,
interventions, and policies affect each other. The factors investigated include organizational
norms, social movements, leadership involvement, and financial contributing factors.
Positive perceptions and supportive systems in the microsystem of BIPOC executives,
coaches, and general managers were shown to influence their longevity in these leadership
positions. Examining the exosystem of various male professional sports teams created space to
analyze data from diverse leadership and consider organizational practices and cultures that
helped mitigate systemic discrepancies in leadership.

90

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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
The researcher will ask the following interview questions to BIPOC women senior
leaders on professional sports teams as well as other senior leaders in their organization on the
Zoom platform. The introduction and interview questions are below.
Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I appreciate your time and sharing
your experiences and knowledge. As I originally mentioned, the interview should take about an
hour, does that still work for you? Participation is completely voluntary, and you can end this at
any time, and skip any questions you do not want to address.
Before we start, I want to remind you about this study. I am a doctoral student in USC’s
Organizational Change and Leadership program and am conducting a study on male professional
sports teams who have hired women of color onto their executive leadership, coaching, and
general manager teams. I am interested in understanding the environmental influences that led to
a change in the leadership composition. I will speak to multiple hiring leaders from multiple
teams, as well as the women who have been hired onto the leadership teams. My goal is to
understand your perspective and experience within your organization.
As stated in the study information sheet, all participants will be given pseudonyms and
team names will be omitted to maintain confidentiality and anonymity. The data for this study
will be compiled into a report, and while some of what you say might be used as direct quotes,
none of the data will be directly attributed to you or your organization. All data will be kept in a
password-protected computer that only I have access to, and all raw data will be destroyed once
the study is complete.
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Interview Questions for BIPOC Women Leaders
I will be recording this interview to accurately capture your words and information
shared with me. The recording is strictly used to properly capture what you share with me and
will not be shared with anyone outside of the research team. After our interview, I will have the
recording transcribed and, as mentioned, the recording will be deleted once the study concludes.
Do I have your permission to record our conversation? Do you have any questions before we
begin?
Opening Questions
I am going to begin by asking you to tell me a little about yourself.
1. Tell me about yourself. What do you like to do for fun when not working?
2. Tell me about what sparked your interest in sports [insert their specific sport]?
Prompt: Was there a specific person who influenced you in this sport? Was it a
positive influence or negative influence? How did it affect you?
Transition
3. How long have you been with [insert name of organization]? Prompt: How long have
you been in your current role?
4. Walk me through the experience of being interviewed and recruited onto your current
leadership team. Prompt: Who was at the decision-making table?
5. Explain your understanding of fan viewership with the presence of women on the
leadership team. Prompt: Do you see a positive or negative impact on the number of
viewers? Do you see a shift in who the demographics are as viewers with a woman of
color (women of color) on your leadership team?
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6. What do you feel is the responsibility of male coaches and owners in diversifying
senior leadership? Prompt: Can you describe what this looks like?
7. Can you describe your experience through the hiring process, starting with the initial
screening to the actual selection? Prompt: What is the screening criteria as you
understand them to be? Who is represented on the interview teams? How many
rounds of interviews did you go through?
8. How would you define a good leader? Prompt: What leadership qualities stood out
for you? What communication style did they use? Can you give me an example of a
good leader?
9. Tell me about someone who served as an ally or mentor for you professionally.
Prompt: What did they do well? What do you wish they had done more of?
10. What recruitment and selection policies are at play in your organization? Prompt: Are
there specific recruitment or selection policies/practices that you would change? If so,
which ones? Why?
11. How are leadership/coaching meetings structured? Prompt: Do many people speak up
in these meetings or do a few select usually do most of the talking?
12. What advice do you have for other women in your field who are interested in
positions such as coaches, executives, general managers in professional sports?
Prompt: What makes you feel this way?
Interview Conclusion
Thank you so much for sharing your experiences and insight with me. I truly appreciate
your time and willingness to share. Your feedback is incredibly valuable for this study. Do you
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have any additional questions for me? You are welcome to reach out to me at any time should
questions arise. You have my contact information, both my email and mobile.
I have one final question for you. Can you please share the names of 2-3 senior leaders or
owners of your organization who you believe would be willing to participate in my study and be
interviewed? If you need to think about this, I can reach out to you in a couple of days.
Thank you again for your time.

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Appendix B: Interview Questions for Hiring Leaders and/or Owners
I will be recording this interview to accurately capture your words and information
shared with me. The recording is strictly used to properly capture what you share with me and
will not be shared with anyone outside of the research team. After our interview, I will have the
recording transcribed and, as mentioned, the recording will be deleted once the study concludes.
Do I have your permission to record our conversation? Do you have any questions before we
begin?
Opening Questions
I am going to begin by asking you to tell me a little about yourself.
1. Tell me about yourself. What do you like to do for fun when not working?
2. Tell me about what sparked your interest in sports [insert their specific sport]?
Prompt: Was there a specific person who influenced you in this sport? Was it a
positive influence or negative influence? How did it affect you?
Transition
3. How long have you been with [insert name of organization]? Prompt: How long
have you been in your current role?
4. Walk me through the experience of interviewing and recruiting women of color
onto your leadership team. Prompt: Who was at the decision-making table?
5. Explain your understanding of fan viewership with the presence of women on the
leadership team. Prompt: Do you see a positive or negative impact on the number of
viewers? Do you see a shift in who the demographics are as viewers with a woman
of color (women of color) on your leadership team?
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6. What do you feel is the responsibility of male coaches and owners in diversifying
senior leadership? Prompt: Can you describe what this looks like?
7. Can you describe your hiring process, starting with the initial screening to the actual
selection? Prompt: What is the screening criteria? Who is represented on the
interview teams? How many interviews are held for a single senior-level position?
Can you share some of the protocols used for final selection?
8. How would you define a good leader? Prompt: What leadership qualities stood out
for you? What communication style did they use? Can you give me an example of a
good leader?
9. Tell me about someone who served as an ally or mentor for you professionally.
Prompt: What did they do well? What do you wish they had done more of?
10. What recruitment and selection policies are at play in your organization? Prompt: Are
there specific recruitment or selection policies/practices that you would change? If so,
which ones? Why?
11. How are leadership/coaching meetings structured? Prompt: Do many people speak up
in these meetings or do a few select usually do most of the talking?
12. What advice do you have for others in your field who are hiring positions for
coaches, executives, general managers? Prompt: What makes you feel this way?
Interview Conclusion
Thank you so much for sharing your experiences and insight with me. I truly appreciate
your time and willingness to share. Your feedback is incredibly valuable for this study. Do you
have any additional questions for me? You are welcome to reach out to me at any time should
questions arise. You have my contact information, both my email and mobile.
115

I have one final question for you. Can you please share the names of 2 to 3 other senior
leaders on another team who you believe would be willing to participate in my study and be
interviewed? If you need to think about this, I can reach out to you in a couple of days.
Thank you again for your time.

116

Appendix C: Pre-interview Recruiting Communication
The following email was sent to BIPOC women executives, coaches, and general
managers of various male professional sports organizations within the NFL, NBA, MLS, and
MLB. It will then be sent to two other senior leaders as identified by the BIPOC woman leader in
the organization.
Pre-interview: Initial Email to Request Study Participation
Dear Dr., Ms., or Mr. [insert name],
My name is Monica L’Esperance, and I am a doctorate student at the University of
Southern California’s (USC) organizational change and leadership program. I am conducting
research on the organizational practices that contribute to the successful recruitment and
retention of women of color into executive, coaching, and general manager positions in male
professional sports organizations. My goal is to provide insight into the environmental influences
that led to a change in the leadership composition for diverse professional sports executive
leadership in male leagues.
I have received IRB approval, (UP-22-00527) and am now permitted to gather data. I am
seeking to interview women of color in senior leadership positions on MLB, NFL, MLS, and
NBA teams. Additionally, I will conduct interviews with two to three other senior leaders on
your team as identified by you. I understand and respect how incredibly busy you are, and I fully
appreciate you gifting me an hour of your time for this very timely and critical study. It is my
hope that my findings will be valuable not only to you and to your organization, but to
professional sports leagues and teams across the nation.
Please let me know of a few time options that you’re available in the next week or two.
Thank you for your time and consideration.
117

With Gratitude,
Monica L’Esperance
Doctoral Student
Rossier School of Education
The University of Southern California
Pre-interview: Email to Confirm Participation for Study
Following the scheduling of a participant the email below was sent to confirm interview
appointments.
Dear Dr., Ms., or Mr. [insert name]
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my research study on professional sports teams
with racial and gender diversity and the environmental influences that led to a change in the
leadership composition. When you registered for an interview date and time, you should have
automatically received a Zoom link: [insert link].
As a reminder, your identity and your organization’s identity will be known only to me
and my Chair as part of my doctoral dissertation at the University of Southern California.
Attached to this email is a pdf file detailing the formal notice of participant rights and the
protocol on how the information you provide will be used and protected.
Thank you so very much for taking time out of your busy schedule to assist me with
this research. I look forward to our conversation on [insert time and date]. Please reach
out to me if you have any questions.
With Gratitude,
Monica L’Esperance
Doctoral Student
118

Rossier School of Education
The University of Southern California

119

Appendix D: Information Sheet for Exempt Research
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Pkwy Ste 1100, Los Angeles, CA 90089

STUDY TITLE: Professional Sports Gender and Racially Diverse Executive Leadership and
Influences on Sponsorship

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Monica L’Esperance, Doctoral Student

FACULTY ADVISOR: Dr. Bryant Adibe

You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to explore diverse professional sports executive leadership in male
leagues and the environmental influences that led to a change in the leadership composition. I
hope to learn possible influences from your lived experiences and perspective. You are invited as
a participant because of your specific role within your organization, which fits the defined
research population of the study.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT

You are asked to participate in a Zoom interview about the research topic that is expected to last
no longer than 60 minutes. You, others named in your interview, and your organization will
remain confidential and anonymous. Neither you, others, nor your organization will be named or
alluded to in a manner that would provide identification. While it is the desire of the researcher
to record the conversation for subsequent confidential and anonymous transcription so that your
responses can be accurately analyzed, such recording is purely voluntary on your part and is not
a requirement for participation. Alternatively, the researcher can take notes during the interview.
There is no ‘prework’ necessary for the interview, and it will be scheduled for a time that is
convenient to you and with respect to your schedule and availability.

CONFIDENTIALITY

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. When the findings of the research are
published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable information will be used.

120

Audio recordings, if made, will not have any direct reference to the full name or organization of
the participant and will be used solely for the purpose of analyzing the transcript for relevant
content. The recordings will remain in the sole possession of the research team and will be
destroyed not later than one year from completion and final approval of the study. The study is
expected to be fully completed by [insert date]. For this study, the Research Team is the
researcher and the Chair of the researcher’s dissertation committee. Audio recordings, if made,
will not be started until the preliminary and identifying remarks of the participant, and their
organization, are concluded. The researcher will refer to the participant by an arbitrary
identification to maintain confidentiality and anonymity. As a part of the research study the
recordings will be transcribed by a bonded academic paper transcription company. If a
participant desires a copy of the transcript, it will be provided for review, editing, or declination
of participation.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION

If you have any questions about this study, please contact Monica L’Esperance: (415) 913-0003,
lesperan@usc.edu, or Dr. Bryant Adibe: badibe@usc.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

USC IRB Information Sheet Template Version Date: 01/30/2021

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Asset Metadata

Creator L'Esperance, Monica Irene (author)

Core Title Environmental influences on the diversity of professional sports executive leadership

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-05

Publication Date 04/24/2023

Defense Date 03/09/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag and inclusion (DEI),Bronfenbrenner,diversity,equity,executive,gender diversity,leadership,male sports leagues,mentorship,OAI-PMH Harvest,pipeline,Professional Sports

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Malloy, Courtney (committee chair), Cates, Patrick (committee member), Hinga, Briana (committee member)

Creator Email lesperan@usc.edu,monica.lesperance@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113078010

Unique identifier UC113078010

Identifier etd-LEsperance-11701.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-LEsperance-11701

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights L'Esperance, Monica Irene

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230425-usctheses-batch-1030 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu