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Effects of mentoring on public school administrators: an evaluation study

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Effects of mentoring on public school administrators: an evaluation study

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Running head: EFFECTS OF MENTORING

Copyright 2019 Constantino M. Aguilar

Effects of Mentoring on Public School Administrators:
An Evaluation Study

by

Constantino M. Aguilar

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August, 2019

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 1
Abstract
The purpose of this project is to evaluate the degree to which the California Association of
Latino Superintendents and Administrators (CALSA) is meeting its goal of providing effective
mentoring to its protégés. Leadership programs are being redesigned to ensure administrators are
successful in their positions and remain in their positions with a support system. Without
effective mentorship and leadership, turnover in the administration becomes an obstacle to
school improvement efforts. This study used a modified gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes,
2008), to evaluate knowledge, motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences related to
CALSA providing effective mentoring to its protégés. Following a review of literature, assumed
KMO influences were examined through a qualitative, emergent design. Assumed influences
were validated or invalidated through the use of interview data. A comprehensive
implementation plan using the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016)
is presented to measure its effectiveness of the recommendations.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 2
Dedication
This research is dedicated to my mom and dad who sacrificed everything for me to
succeed. May they both rest in eternal peace.
This work is also dedicated to my wife Julianne who supported me throughout this long
process. She was also a pillar of support at home with our three children (Charles, Tessa, and
Emma), while I was upstairs reading and writing away on weeknights and weekends.
To all immigrant families trying to find their way - The United States is a great country.
Never give up on your dreams.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 3
Acknowledgements
I would like to first acknowledge Dr. Ken Magdaleno who has inspired me through his
mentorship. It was an honor to follow and continue his work through this study.
My family is very important to me, especially my three children - Charles, Tessa, and
Emma. I want you to always remember that with discipline, will power, and heart, you too can
accomplish anything.
My two sisters (Brenda and Ana), thank you for always encouraging me with everything
I have decided to do. You always kept things in perspective as I went through my research.
Thank you to my father-in-law, Michael Crass and mother-in-law Jo Crass, for giving me
the support I needed throughout these last three years. I could not have better in-laws/parents.
I am very thankful for having Dr. Frederick Freking (my chairperson), Dr. Melanie
Brady, and Dr. Cathy Krop (committee) guide my learning through this program and with my
study. I could not have done this program without your encouragement, patience, and positivity
throughout this study.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 4
Table of Contents

Abstract 1

Dedication 2

Acknowledgements 3

Table of Contents 4

List of Tables 6

List of Figures 7

Introduction to the Problem of Practice 8

Organizational Context and Mission 8

Importance of Addressing the Problem 9

Purpose of the Project and Questions 10

Organizational Performance Goal 10

Stakeholder Group of Focus and Stakeholder Goal 11

Review of the Literature 12

Latino Leaders in Public School Education 12
History of Latino Administrators in Public Education 12
The Impact Latino Administrators have on Latino Communities 13

Mentoring Models for Public School Administrators 14
The Impact of Formal Mentoring on Administrators 14
Building Leadership Capacity through E-Mentoring 14

Mentoring Outcomes for Public School Administrators 15
Career Benefits Associated with Mentoring for Protégés 15

Analytic Conceptual Framework 15
Knowledge Influences 15
Motivation Influences 19
Organizational Influences 23

Conceptual Framework 27

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 5
Stakeholders Knowledge and Motivation 27

Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation 30
Interviews 31

Data Analysis 32

Findings 33
Participating Stakeholders 33
Knowledge Findings 35
Motivation Findings 41
Organizational Findings 45
Synthesis Findings 51

Recommendations 52
Knowledge Recommendations 52
Motivation Recommendations 56
Organizational Recommendations 58

Limitations and Delimitations 62

Conclusion 63

References 65

Appendices 73
Appendix A: Participating Stakeholders and Interview Sampling Guide 73
Appendix B: Interview Guide 75
Appendix C: Interview Questions 76
Appendix D: Information Sheet for Interview Participants 78
Appendix E: Credibility and Trustworthiness 80
Appendix F: Ethics 81
Appendix G: Implementation and Evaluation Plan 82
Appendix H: Initial Blended Evaluation Plan (Levels 1-2) 93
Appendix I: Subsequent Blended Evaluation Plan (Levels 1-4) 94

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 6
List of Tables

Table 1. Summary of Assumed KMO Influences and Assessment 25

Table 2. Demographic Summary of CALSA Proteges Interviewed 34

Table 3. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 53

Table 4. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 57

Table 5. Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations 61

Table 6. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 84

Table 7. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 85

Table 8. Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 86

Table 9. Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program 88

Table 10. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 89

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 7
List of Figures

Figure 1. Interactive Conceptual Framework 30

Figure 2. Sample visual dashboard data presentation approach 91

Figure 3. Sample visual dashboard data presentation approach 91

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 8
Introduction to the Problem of Practice

Currently, the 11% of California Latino administrators (California Department of
Education, 2016) do not reflect the 54% of Latino students or the 19% of Latino teachers in state
public schools (California Department of Education 2018). This evidence highlights the need to
have California school administrators mirror the community, student, and staff population they
are serving. This problem is important to address because the number of Latino students is
increasing in California, but the number of Latino administrators in California is not increasing
at a similar rate (California Department of Education, 2016).
Organizational Context and Mission
The California Association of Latino Superintendents and Administrators (CALSA) is a
professional association that advocates for the continued development and advancement of
Latino educational leaders who are committed to quality public education. The California
Association of Latino Superintendents and Administrators is a dedicated community of diverse
and skilled educational leaders with a mission to address the needs of Latino and Latina students,
and increase the number of highly effective Latino and Latina administrators (CALSA, 2017).
CALSA was established on January 29, 1999, and its headquarters is located in Sacramento,
California. CALSA was initially created to address the disproportionality of Latino
superintendents in California public schools. CALSA has since evolved to include all public-
school administrators as part of its mission. The hallmark of the CALSA program is the
administrator protégé and mentoring program, which involves a two-year commitment to
professional development, training, coaching, and building professional relationships (CALSA,
2017). Thirteen protégé cohorts, which consisting of active public-school administrators, have

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 9
successfully completed the mentoring program. There are currently 1,045 active CALSA
members.
Importance of Addressing the Problem

Leadership programs are being redesigned to ensure administrators are successful in their
positions and remain in their positions with a support system. Mentoring models for novice
administrators and superintendents were created in the late 1980s and early 1990s by university-
based administrator preparation programs and state policymakers as a vehicle for stimulating
reflective practice and providing technical expertise, role clarification, and socialization in a
more authentic context (Crow & Matthews, 1998; Daresch, 2004). The role of a school
administrator is difficult, and hiring and recruitment is also a challenge due to an absence of
support and training (Gajda & Militello, 2008).
Mentoring relationships become a priority when activities are relevant and focused on the
needs of the school district related to strategic improvement plans (Clayton, Sanzo, & Myran,
2013). In order to make the mentor and protégé relationship meaningful, careful pairing of
mentors with protégés is needed, as well as providing clear guidelines regarding the activities
and expectations they will experience with their mentors (Liang & Augustine-Shaw, 2016;
Oliver, 2005). When district leadership understands the change process and corresponding
capacity building, they value what needs to be done. In turn, they foster collective moral
purpose, organize the structure and roles more effectively, provide ongoing leadership
development for those in key roles, and formulate strategies where schools learn from each other
(Robinson, Lloyd, & Rowe, 2008).
School administrators account for 20% of a school’s impact on student achievement
(Leithwood, Anderson, & Wahlstrom, 2004), and without appropriate mentorship, administrators

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 10
struggle to apply the theoretical concepts they have learned in their credentialing programs
(Robinson et al., 2008). This evidence highlights the need to have school leaders remain in their
administrative positions for at least five years to enact sustainable and effective change at a
school (Fullan, 1991), while having a mentor to support them.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to evaluate the degree to which CALSA is meeting its goal
of providing effective mentoring to its protégés. The analysis will focus on knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving the organizational goal. While a
complete performance evaluation would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes, the
stakeholder of focus on in this analysis is the protégé.
The corresponding questions that guide this study are the following:
1. To what extent is CALSA meeting its goal of providing effective mentoring to its
protégés?
2. What is the stakeholder knowledge and motivation related to achieving this
organizational goal?
3. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and
stakeholder knowledge and motivation?
Organizational Performance Goal
CALSA’s goal is to increase the number of mentoring opportunities and increase
effectiveness of CALSA leaders in public school administration in their formal mentoring
programs. The goal was created by the CALSA executive director and board to ensure Latino
administrators have the capacity and network necessary to succeed in their position (CALSA,
2017). By July 2019, 100% of CALSA cohort 14 protégés will complete the mentoring program.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 11
It is important to increase mentoring opportunities for CALSA public school administrators.
Mentoring provides an opportunity to build a formal or informal relationship with an
experienced administrator, which provides the necessary support needed to navigate the
complexities of being an administrator (Zirkel, 2002). Evaluating CALSA’s performance will
provide data for CALSA’s executive director and board, which can be used to analyze CALSA’s
mentoring program.
Stakeholder Group of Focus and Stakeholder Goal
While the joint efforts of all stakeholders will contribute to the achievement of the overall
organizational goal of 100% of cohort 14 CALSA protégés meeting their professional goals in
the mentoring program, it is important to evaluate the protégés in achieving the organization’s
mission because of their strong commitment to performance in the CALSA mentoring program.
Therefore, the stakeholders of focus are CALSA protégés in cohort 14. The stakeholders’ goals
are to complete the mentoring program and create and implement their established goals. Goals
for the protégés will be established in collaboration with the mentor during scheduled training
provided by the director of mentoring. Protégés may set goals to include specific job training,
creating strategic plans, and implementing the plans within their organization. Completion and
implementation of the protégé’s established goals will be measured during scheduled meetings
between the mentor and the protégé. The measurement tool used is written reflections about the
protégé’s goals. The mentor’s failure to support their protégé, will lead to unsuccessful
completion of the CALSA mentoring program. Failure to complete the CALSA mentoring
program reduces the opportunities for protégés to develop necessary leadership skills and
advance their careers.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 12
Review of the Literature
This literature review will examine the root causes of gaps in Latinos building leadership
capacity, the positive influences Latinos have on their communities, and their needed upward
mobility in administrative positions in public schools. The literature review begins with general
research on historical aspects of Latinos in administration and the importance of having Latino
administrators mirror the community, as well as the staff and students they serve. This is
followed by an overview on the impact mentoring has on building leadership capacity. The
review will present an in-depth discussion on the different types of mentoring used to increase
protégés effectiveness. This section includes current research on applying mentoring practices to
increase protégé and mentor knowledge within the public school system. Following the general
research literature, the review will focus on Clark and Estes Gap Analytic Conceptual
Framework and, specifically, knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on the
mentor and protégé relationship that impacts capacity building for Latinos in administrative
positions in public schools.
Latino Leaders in Public School Education
History of Latino Administrators in Public Education
Latinos in public school administration face not only a shortage in administrative school
leaders, but also, historically, a means to begin training them (Nieto, 2006). Currently, 11% of
administrators are Latino and the upward trend of Latino administrators has been stagnant over
the last ten years in California public schools (California Department of Education, 2018). As
stated by Lopez (2013) in a Pew Research survey, 75% of Latino participants reported the
importance of having a Latino leader who represents their community and values. Furthermore,
historically, Latino leaders in education lack the social and political capital associated with

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 13
upward mobility, which negatively impacts school reform in Latino communities (Nieto, 2006).
The lack of upward mobility is also attributed to the absence of networking opportunities for
Latino leaders (Nieto, 2004).
The Impact of Latino Administrators on Latino Communities
Latinos are leading existing and newly created educational systems, and are poised to
play a significant leadership role in our school systems (Ramirez, 2006). Latino leaders utilize
and access their unique leadership abilities, which correlate to the values of the Latino
communities they serve to lead their schools (Ramirez, 2006). Through this process, Latino
leaders inform their communities of their beliefs and values to forge better and more equitable
relationships with all stakeholders in their organizations (Ramirez, 2006).
Latino school administrators positively impact their school systems as role models
(Magdaleno, 2006). As school administrators lead their schools and work with their
communities to implement change, their leadership abilities influence the perceptions their
communities have of them as a leader (Magdaleno, 2006). Students are also influenced when
they see Latino leaders. Students learn from the racial and gendered cultural structuring in their
school systems by noting the race and gender of adults in professional positions (Magdaleno,
2011). School plays an influential role in the culture students develop because, like family,
school affects how students understand and pursue their life chances. Race and gender matched
role models may provide young people with a sense of having a place of value and importance in
the future (Zirkel, 2002). Having role models that are of the same race provides an institutional
ideology, socializing agents, and an experiential context within which students define and shape
the way they think about their personal dreams (Grant & Sleeter, 1988).

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 14
Mentoring Models for Public School Administrators
The Impact of Formal Mentoring on Administrators
Formal mentoring programs provide protégés a setting to develop their skills as a school
leader (Baugh & Fagenson-Eland, 2007). Formal mentoring may be developed to address a
variety of organizational needs and address the need to build capacity in school leaders (Baugh
& Fagenson-Eland, 2007). Formal mentoring programs are created with organizational
assistance, which allow protégés a platform to network, so they can develop the needed
relationships with stakeholders (Baugh & Fagenson-Eland, 2007). Mentoring also allows for
developmental opportunities that promote learning, growth, and attainment of goals for the
protégé (Bandura, 1986). Transformational leadership and mentoring follow the principles of
social cognitive theory, which allow for the protégés’ knowledge and skills to be developed in a
safe environment for learning (Bandura, 1986).
Building Leadership Capacity through E-Mentoring
Electronic mentoring is a method to ensure mentors and protégés are meeting, while
providing many of the same benefits of meeting face to face (Ensher, Heun, & Blanchard, 2003).
Due to the lack of Latino administrators, and a deep pool of mentors to access, e-mentoring
allows for greater access to mentors as it reduces the barriers of geography or time (Ensher et al.,
2003). Not having time to travel to meet with a mentor or the cost associated with travel is a
barrier to Latinos seeking and retaining a mentor. For a formal mentoring organization like
CALSA, e-mentoring reduces the costs in terms of administering the mentoring program,
conducting training, and reproducing materials (Ensher et al., 2003).

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 15
Mentoring Outcomes for Public School Administrators
Career Benefits Associated with Mentoring for Protégés
Protégés develop their leadership skills with their mentor to ensure they have the skills
necessary to move up within their organization (Godshalk & Sosik, 2007). Within this
relationship, mentors value personal learning by offering functions such as challenging job
assignments that help advance the protégés’ careers (Bandura, 1986). Furthermore, mentors
provide a career development function where he or she promotes professional growth by
providing needed information, challenging assignments, exposure, visibility, and protection by
exercising organizational leverage (Bandura, 1986; Godsalk & Sosik, 2007). Mentors are also
part of the network that the protégé is developing, which allows the mentor to promote the work
being done by the protégé to advance his or her career and increase their credibility as a school
leader (Godsalk & Sosik, 2007). Mentors fulfill psychosocial functions where he or she
promotes personal growth through emotional support, counseling, and providing acceptance and
guidance (Noe, 1988).
Analytic Conceptual Framework
Knowledge Influences
Knowledge and skills. The California Association of Latino Superintendents and
Administrators (CALSA) provides mentoring for public school administrators. One of the goals
of the program is to increase the effectiveness of public school administrators, in particular
Latino and Latina leaders. In order to achieve this goal, there are specific knowledge and skills
needed to ensure its success. First, protégés, will need to understand how to identify personal
and professional goals, which will help them in their administrative positions. Second, protégés
must understand how to develop and foster the relationships with the mentors to maximize the

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 16
achievement of their goals. Third, protégés must have the skill to implement their goals.
Finally, protégés must have the ability to reflect on and reset goals if necessary.
It is important for the mentors to help their protégés identify the gap in their knowledge
and skills. Clark and Estes (2008) refer to this as gap analysis, which is a vital step in
determining whether protégés know how to attain their goal(s). In this study, the gap analysis
will be used as a framework to guide the subsequent research, as well as the literature review
previously explored.
The literature reviewed in this paper will focus on specific aspects of knowledge and
skills that influence the attainment of protégés achieving their goals. In conjunction with the
literature review, there will be an in-depth analysis of the types of knowledge needed to
accomplish goals will be included. For example, procedural knowledge is an aspect of
knowledge identified by Krathwohl (2002), which addresses how specific knowledge and skills
can be used to accomplish the protégé’s goal.
Krathwohl and Anderson (2009) assert there are four knowledge types that are critical to
consider and distinguish when evaluating knowledge gaps. These four knowledge types are
factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive (Krathwohl & Anderson, 2009). Procedural
knowledge is best suited for protégés to accomplish their goals. Procedural knowledge is the
understanding of how to do something (Krathwohl, 2002). Protégés will need to identify and
understand how to develop and foster the relationship with the mentor to achieve their goals, and
most important, understand how to implement their professional goals. Literature supporting
procedural knowledge needed for protégés to attain their goals will be presented in the next
section.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 17
A consideration that must be made is the background of protégés and their lack of
experience fostering a mentoring relationship. This is a crucial consideration due to the
importance of the procedural knowledge protégés must have. Its importance is critical to
establish because information processing theory is a method to gauge the protégés’ procedural
knowledge (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). Information processing theory states that, depending
on how new information is presented, some information will quickly be forgotten, and some
information will be retained as part of long-term memory (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006).
Furthermore, Schraw and McCrudden (2006) state that a way in which information can be more
reliably part of long-term memory is to connect it to prior knowledge or experience. Therefore,
if mentors have never had an experience with being mentored, this lack of prior knowledge or
experience could be a factor for how well procedural knowledge is retained as part of long-term
memory.
Establishing ongoing support for the protégé. Protégés must understand how to
develop and foster the relationships with their mentors and understand how to implement their
goals. CALSA provides a platform for mentors and protégés to meet. During their meetings, the
protégé decides on the methods by which they will communicate with the mentor, the frequency
of the meetings, and their implementation goals. Finally, the meetings are used to develop the
type of relationship they will have, while building trust with each other.
Designing relationships for learning starts with the objectives of the program (McCauley
& Guthrie, 2007). The CALSA mentoring program has very specific objectives. For example,
CALSA is focused on addressing the needs of Latino and Latina students and dedicated to
increasing the number of highly effective Latino and Latina administrators. The CALSA
mentoring program addresses the strategic leadership roles protégés will be expected to fulfill in

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 18
their organizations and specifically targets their understanding of the procedural constructs of
creating meetings with mentors and network building. By successfully completing the CALSA
program, one of the many knowledge concepts protégés will learn is the integrated methods of
understanding how educational organizations work on a global level. Van Velsor and McCauley
(2004) use a framework to develop the declarative conceptual knowledge for implementation of
protégés goals. Van Velsor and McCauley’s framework consists of assessment, challenge, and
support. According to the researchers (2004), assessment refers to the formal and informal
processes for giving protégés information about their strengths, their levels of performance or
effectiveness, and their developmental needs. Challenge refers to all aspects of situations that
push individuals beyond their current capabilities and comfort zones, forcing them to learn and
develop in order to continue to be effective. Finally, Van Velsor and McCauley (2004) state that
support helps people handle the struggles and difficulties of learning and maintaining a positive
view of themselves as capable, and valuable persons who can learn and grow.
Kram (1985) notes that mentors develop their protégés by supporting their professional
needs and enhancing their interpersonal skills and inner growth development. More specifically,
Kram (1985) proposed that mentors provide two distinct but related sets of procedural mentoring
behaviors to protégés: career and psychosocial functions. Kram (1985) maintained that career
functions increase the likelihood of the protégé becoming successful and include activities such
as sponsorship, exposure and visibility, coaching, protection, and challenging work assignments.
Furthermore, psychosocial functions enhance the protégé’s sense of competence and professional
identity and include activities such as role modeling, acceptance and confirmation, and
counseling (Kram, 1985). Researchers have concluded that because of the complexity of

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 19
contractual and political obligations in protégés organizations, ongoing meetings between the
mentor and protégé are necessary Kram, 1985).
Using reflection to support self-development and learning. Self-reflection is a
metacognitive skill and in order to effectively reflect upon one’s goals and make necessary
changes to them, emotional intelligence is necessary (Cherniss, 2004). Emotional intelligence
refers to the way in which people perceive, express, understand, and manage emotion in
themselves (Cherniss, 2004, Mayer & Salovey, 1997). According to Cherniss (2004), people
who have high emotional intelligence are better equipped to understand self-reflection because
they have a grasp of their emotions and know how to read others’ emotions. Goleman (1998)
states that emotional intelligence also helps people better read how others are feeling or might
feel, which allows people with high emotional intelligence to fully reflect and make necessary
changes to behavior to fulfill organizational goals. This points to the type of metacognitive
knowledge protégés need to have in order to be successful in completing their personal and
professional goals.
According to Cherniss (2004), emotional intelligence and mentoring seem to be related in
two basic ways. First emotional intelligence of both the mentor and the protégé influence the
quality of mentoring, which in turn, helps protégés achieve their goals. Second, the best
mentoring relationships often help the mentor and protégé become more socially and emotionally
competent. Both of the aforementioned emotional intelligences directly influence the reflective
writing required to achieve the established goals.
Motivation Influences
Whether or not a protégé successfully reaches his or her goals is largely dependent upon
their motivation (i.e., do they believe they are capable of learning the skills that are not their

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 20
strengths, and do they see the value of being an effective leader). Motivation is an important
factor to the success of the stakeholders’ goal because it describes the beliefs that a person
develops and prioritizes for themselves as learners and achievers (Rueda, 2011). Consequently,
motivation impacts whether or not a person starts, continues, or finishes a task (Rueda, 2011).
Within the CALSA organization, it is not only important that protégés have a mentor, but that
they make a commitment to the mentor and protégé relationship.
Motivation influences multiple factors for the protégé. For CALSA protégés two factors
are critical to the success of protégés in achieving their goals. First, protégés need to feel
confident in their ability to learn new skills that are not their strengths. Bandura (1991) describes
the feeling of confidence in his social cognitive theory. Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief
that he or she has the ability to successfully complete the task (Bandura, 1991). Second,
protégés need to see the value in being effective leaders. Expectancy value motivational theory
explains that when individuals place high value in the goal, they are most likely to be involved
and successfully complete it (Eccles, 2006).
Self-Efficacy Theory. Bandura (1991), describes the social cognitive theory as the key
element to positive outcomes and behaviors that support the successful achievement of goals.
Bandura (1991) also claims that self-efficacy is a foundational component of motivation. Thus,
individuals must believe they are capable; otherwise, they have little or no motivation to start,
engage, or complete the task.
There are several factors to consider regarding self-efficacy. One of those factors, called
mastery experience, is an individual’s positive experience throughout the performance (Bandura,
1991). If an individual believes that his or her performance went well, that experience raises
self-efficacy. Conversely, if the experience is negative, it lowers self-efficacy. Furthermore, the

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 21
feedback one receives is also critical to self-efficacy. This is categorized under social
persuasions, which if positive raises self-efficacy (Bandura, 1991). Finally, if an individual sees
that another person, who is similar in ability, models or demonstrates successful accomplishment
of the task, that type of modeling vicariously increases self-efficacy with the individual
(Bandura, 1991).
Protégés need to feel confident to accomplish their goals. Self-efficacy plays a major
role in having protégés believe that they can learn skills that are not their strengths. A qualitative
study reported that mentors selected protégés who were motivated and had a strong sense of
competence and learning orientation (Allen, Eby, Poteet, Lentz, & Lima, 2004). When one is
highly self-aware, he or she will experience the change process as more of a set of smooth
transitions (Boyatzis, 2007). Mentors help protégés self-reflect by asking questions, being
supportive, or offering insight (Boyatzis, 2007). Furthermore, the more self-aware and self-
reflective a protégé is, the more successful the role of the mentor is in provoking the conscious
epiphanies (Boyatzis, 2007).
Expectancy Value Theory. One way to describe the relationship between expectancy
value theory and self-efficacy is that self-efficacy is the belief that you can perform a behavior.
Expectancy is the likelihood that the behavior will have a successful outcome. Value is the
degree of the expected outcome (Eccles, 2006). Moreover, Expectancy Value Theory is defined
as the extent to which an individual believes the goal will enhance one’s personal and
professional goals. Eccles (2006) describes four models in which a person may find value in a
task. The first is intrinsic value, which is how positive a person feels during engagement of the
task. The second model is attainment value, which is based on an individual’s image of who
they are or want to be. The third is utility value, which is determined by how well a task might

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 22
satisfy a goal or plan. The fourth model is cost value, which relates to how much time, energy,
and money a person has to exert.
The aforementioned research indicates how value affects the accomplishment of goals
and the vital component of having protégés valuing themselves as effective leaders. The
combination of self-efficacy and motivation will assist protégés seeing themselves as capable
and effective leaders.
Protégés must see the value in being effective school leaders. The literature on the
effects of mentoring are similar. Most research documents antecedents or consequences of
protégé success with mentoring (Wanberg, Welsh, & Hazlet, 2003). Boyatzis (2007) asserts that
research supports the impact on behavioral change, the sustainability of such change, and the
long-term impact on a person’s aspirations. Our ideal self-image is critical to seeing oneself as
an effective leader. Boyatzis (2007) states that the role of the mentor can have two forms. First,
the mentor helps the protégé to see an aspiration of being an effective leader. Second, the
mentor models the desired behavior for the protégé to see the effectiveness of a leader. Because
of the trusting relationship between the mentor and the protégé, the mentor can “wake up” the
need for change for the protégé, thus allowing the protégé to vicariously realize the potential of
being an effective leader (Boyatzis, 2007). If a protégé simply relies on a serendipitous outcome
of authority merely through their administrative title, the protégé is less motivated to engage in
effective leadership than if the protégé understands the value of what an effective leader can do
to influence positive outcomes within their organization.
Similar to the approach on knowledge, the Clark and Estes (2008) framework highlights
the gap in motivation that exists with protégés achieving their goals. Table 1 shows the

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 23
organizational mission, global goal, stakeholder goal, motivational influences and motivational
assessments identified in the literature review.
Organizational Influences
It is paramount to define organizational culture before discussing the organizational goals
of mentoring and its effects on the organization. Schein (1985) states that organizational culture
is shared basic assumptions acquired by groups as they solve problems of external adaptation in
internal integration. Through this process, the author claims that because the assumptions of the
organization are taught as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel, these assumptions become
the assumed culture of an organization.
Clark and Estes (2008), argue culture is a large factor impacting performance and claim
culture is a way that goals, beliefs, emotions, processes, and core values are demonstrated and
instilled with stakeholders in a work environment over time. The following literature review
addresses two organizational influences: cultural models and cultural settings. Cultural models
and settings either negatively or positively affect the organization’s ability to accomplish their
goals. Rueda (2011) defines cultural models as shared belief structures of societal norms, that
shape how an organization is structured, including values, practices, policies, and rewards.
Rueda (2011) also defines cultural settings as the various social contexts where policies and
practices of an organization occur. Cultural models and settings interconnect, work together, and
are static (Rueda, 2011).
Cultural model influences. Within the CALSA organization, additional strategies are
needed to help foster successful mentoring relationships and account for protégés’ progress of
their goals. The needed strategies include 1) making mentoring goals very clear (Zellers,
Howard, & Barcic, 2008) 2) providing training to enhance mentors’ competencies (Johnson-

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 24
Bailey & Cervero, 2002); and 3) assuring that the organization within which the mentoring
occurs has a culture in which mentoring is valued and integrated into organizational beliefs,
structures, and rewards (Marcellano, 2011). Within the CALSA organization, consistently
accounting for the progress of protégés is needed to ensure protégés complete the mentoring
program. Brooks (2010) claims that forming communities of protégés and mentors, within
cohorts, into learning groups using face-to-face and online interactions is an effective manner to
foster an ongoing relationship, while being innovative about meeting and communicating with
each other.
Organizational culture impacts the use of nontraditional methods of communication
(Plakhotnik & Rocco, 2011). Many of CALSA’s members are veteran educators who have not
had sufficient or any exposure to new technologies that would allow them to virtually
communicate with colleagues. Ensher and Murphy (2005) state that organizations in which
technology and mentoring are valued, rewarded, or supported are more likely to be places where
employees engage in forms of virtual communication. CALSA will need to embrace new
methods of communication in order to create an organizational culture which consists of an
organization’s values, norms, and behaviors (Plakhotnik & Rocco, 2011). CALSA’s
organizational culture needs to be shaped by the dynamics and structure of technology use so
decisions are generated by individual members and groups create consensus (Kent, Feldman, &
Hayes, 2013).
Cultural setting influences. CALSA lacks a deep mentoring pool and therefore relies
on many of the same mentors to support protégés. Organizations, such as CALSA, that wish to
create a mentoring culture should focus more time on the values that emphasize the
differentiation of individuals as well as on the integration of individuals into the culture of the

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 25
organization (Chen & Eastman, 1997; Green et al., 2012; Kent et al., 2013). Creating a deep
pool of mentors for CALSA also requires attention to the political realities where the mentors
work. Mentors may be willing to mentor; however, the organization within which mentors work
may not be willing to support the time commitment and human resources needed to foster the
mentoring relationship (Gibson, 2006).
Having sufficient training is one of the main factors associated with mentoring failure or
success in organizations (Castanheira, 2016), and these elements are also found in the CALSA
mentoring program. Several authors (Hobson & Malderez, 2013; Kochan, Searby, George, &
Edge, 2015; Stephens, Doherty, Bennett, & Margey, 2014) state the importance of the selection
and matching of mentors and protégés, emphasizing that there needs to be sufficient training for
mentoring teams to foster a healthy relationship. Furthermore, clarity of roles and purposes that
come with training and goal setting for both mentor and protégé play important roles in
determining the success of a mentoring relationship (Castanheira, 2016). Mentors who do not
receive appropriate mentor training are more likely to face greater difficulties in the role (Hobson
and Malderez, 2013; Kochan et al., 2015; Lejonberg, Elstad, & Christophersen., 2015; Thornton,
2014). Lejonberg and colleagues (2015) claim that mentor and protégé training contributes to
lower levels of arbitrary feedback given to the protégé, which could stymie the process in
establishing a relationship and judgement.
Table 1

Summary of Assumed KMO Influences and Assessment

Stakeholder Goal
By June 2019, 100% of cohort 14 protégés will have met their established goals to support
their administrative position.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 26
Assumed Knowledge Influences Knowledge Influence Assessments
Knowledge (Conceptual) – Protégés need to
understand how to identify personal and
professional goals, which will help them in
their administrative position.
Interview question – Taking your experiences
working with your mentor, how do you
identify personal and professional goals? How
has your mentor helped you with this?
Knowledge (Procedural) – Protégés need to
understand how to develop and foster
relationships with mentors to achieve their
goals.
Interview question – Describe the ideal
relationship between protégé and mentor.
What support was given to you by CALSA to
develop your relationship with your mentor?
Knowledge (Procedural) – Protégés need to
understand how to implement their
professional goals.
Interview question –What are your
experiences with working with other leaders?
How does that compare to the support given
to you by your mentor to help you implement
and achieve your goals?
Knowledge (Procedural) – Protégés need to
be able to self-reflect about the progress of
their established goals.
Interview question – Tell me about a time
when you would have benefitted from asking
for help from an experienced administrator,
like your mentor to help you reflect about the
progress of your goals.
Assumed Motivational Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Motivation (Self Efficacy) – Protégés need to
believe they are capable of achieving their
goals.
Interview question – Describe the support
given to you to improve your leadership skills
in the CALSA mentoring program?
Motivation (Expectancy Value) – Protégés
need to see the value of being an effective
school leader.
Interview question – How have your
experiences in the CALSA mentoring
program influenced you as a leader? Describe
your experiences with the training you
received during the mentoring program to
help you create a relationship with your
mentor.
Assumed Organizational Influences Organizational Influence Assessments
Organization (Cultural model) -
Organization needs to account for progress of
protégés established goals.
Interview question – How does CALSA
account for your progress in the program?
Organization (Cultural model) -
Organization needs to be open to new
methods to engage both mentor and protégé
within their relationship.
Interview question - What is the ideal method
to engage the protégé and mentor?

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 27
Organization (Cultural setting) –
Organization needs to increase experienced
pool of mentors for the protégés.
Interview question – What motivated you to
work with a CALSA mentor? Did your
mentor have the skills to help you achieve
your goals?
Organization (Cultural setting) –
Organization needs more training and time to
meet for the mentor and protégé to foster the
relationship.
Interview question – How have your
experiences in the CALSA mentoring
program influenced you as a leader? Describe
your experiences with the training you
received during the mentoring program to
help you create a relationship with your
mentor.

Conceptual Framework
Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation
Organizational change is a complex process to implement (Clark & Estes, 2008). Within
the organization, weaknesses must first be identified to ensure appropriate measures are taken to
move the organization forward. The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis is a fundamental tool to
assist with identifying and closing performance gaps. The Clark and Estes framework consists
of three categories: knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. These three
categories will be used as a conceptual framework for this research.
Evaluating perceived organizational strengths and weaknesses using the aforementioned
categories will help guide the organization toward appropriate and suitable methods to strengthen
and address the identified deficiencies. Robson and McCartan (2016) argue that without an
effective framework, an organization may design and implement the desired changes
erroneously. Furthermore, Robson and McCartan (2016) claim that using ineffective strategies
may not only fail to improve organizational performance, but may also hinder progress and
create more problems within an organization.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 28
The conceptual framework for this research will be designed to create a structure for
change while ensuring the concepts are effectively implemented (Maxwell, 2013). Maxwell
(2013), identifies the conceptual theory as a tool to facilitate the assessment and refinement
goals, development relevant questions, selection of an appropriate method, and identification of
potential validity threats to the desired outcomes.
Clark and Estes’s (2008) conceptual framework is designed by separating knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences. Moreover, they are organized by influence type and
method for assessing the influence. It is essential to understand that knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences are all interconnected as identified influences. Also, each classification
infers an influence may apply to another classification within the conceptual framework.
Knowledge influences may be impacted by motivation influences and motivation influences may
be influenced by knowledge. Also, organizational culture and influences may impact both
knowledge and motivation influences of stakeholders. For example, protégés may be
unmotivated to complete their established goals to support their administrative position.
Furthermore, the organizational culture may not embrace the development of protégés because of
negative historical experiences that led to previous failures with mentoring within the
organization (Boyatzis, 2007).
The conceptual framework for this study focuses on the knowledge and motivation
influences of protégés. The knowledge and motivation influencers are also a part of and related
to organizational influences and the overall success of organizational goals. The culture of the
organization in conjunction with organizational influences clout the knowledge and motivation
influences of protégés to achieve their goals. Moreover, the knowledge and motivation of
protégés affect organizational influences as well as the organizational culture.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 29
The below conceptual framework illustrates the complex relationship among knowledge
and motivation influences of stakeholders interconnected with organizational influences. The
knowledge and motivation influences affect the successful accomplishment of the organizational
goal. Knowledge and motivation influences are at the center of the figure to illustrate that they
are core components in accomplishing the organizational goal. All knowledge and motivational
influences depicted are needed to accomplish the organizational goals. Clark and Estes (2008)
state that organizational influences are arranged around the knowledge and motivation influences
to illustrate that organizational influences affect both the knowledge and motivation influences of
stakeholders.
The organizational influences are comprised of cultural model and cultural setting
elements. Knowledge influences involve declarative conceptual knowledge, procedural, and
metacognitive knowledge. Also, motivation influences include self-efficacy and expectancy
factors. The knowledge and motivation influences are combined as core factors which
complement each other to ensure the organizational goals are met.
Stakeholder knowledge, especially knowledge types and skills, is affected by motivation.
Conversely, the motivation of stakeholders, specifically self-efficacy and expectancy, is affected
by their knowledge. Moreover, organizational influences embrace both knowledge and
motivation influences to support stakeholders. Support of organizational influences are needed
otherwise the stakeholder’s knowledge and motivation are of little consequence to facilitate
accomplishing the organizational goal.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 30

Figure 1. Interactive Conceptual Framework

Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation

Interviews were the method of data collection used for this evaluation study. Interviews
provided the researcher qualitative data to access the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences of the stakeholders related to accomplishing the organizational goals of completing

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 31
the protégés established professional goals for the year. The following sections discuss the
methods used to collect data for this study.
Interviews
Interview protocol. The researcher used a semi-structured protocol for this study. A
semi-structured approach was the best approach because it allowed for interviewees to elaborate
on questions (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher used three types of
interview questions regarding the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. The
three types of questions used in the interviews elicited responses from the protégés about their
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impacted their self-efficacy as a leader
within their professional organization and the CALSA formal mentoring program (Bandura,
1993; Clark & Estes, 2008). The 16 interview questions used aligned with the conceptual
framework for this this research.
Interview procedures. The researcher conducted 10 interviews with protégés in the
CALSA formal mentoring program. The researcher selected protégés who completed the first
year of a two-year commitment in the mentoring program. All protégés were self-selected
participants. The researcher conducted interviews at the conclusion of the first year of the
mentoring program. This is the best time to interview protégés because they will have completed
a full year of mentoring. The researcher used 16 questions with each interviewee during a period
lasting about 45 to 60 minutes. Using a qualitative approach allowed the researcher to collect
data that would allow the protégés to respond using their experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The composition of the interview group ensured protégés that were currently in the program
provided a current perspective of the mentoring program. The interviews were conducted
synchronously face-to-face using Zoom video conferencing technology. In-person interviews

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 32
were conducted in the office of the person being interviewed. Conducting interviews in the
participants’ offices allowed for formality and a familiar environment for participants. All
interviewee responses were recorded with their permission and transcribed for use in the data
analysis phase of the study.
The protégés were interviewed using an emergent design method. According to Creswell
(2018), an emergent design does not rely on a well-defined initial strategy, but rather evolves
during data collection since the goal is to collect pertinent information from protégés relevant to
the problem of practice. The goal of each interview was to have a deep discussion and identify
any additional information not thought of during the research design.
Data Analysis
The researcher prepared reflective memos after each interview to capture initial thoughts
and conclusions about the data in relation to the conceptual framework and research questions.
The memos proved invaluable to initial data coding, and provided a critical framework for the
comprehensive analytic memos prepared by the researcher, as well as after completing interview
transcripts. The researcher used three phases to gather and analyze data. In the first phase,
documents were analyzed for evidence consistent with the concepts in the conceptual
framework. Analytic tools were then used to become familiar with the interview data to ensure
no aspects of the data were missed. The next step of phase one consisted of inductively deriving
in vivo codes from participant transcripts and deductively deriving a priori codes from the
conceptual framework. The second phase used by the researcher aggregated in vivo and a priori
codes into analytic/axial codes. In the third phase of data analysis, the researcher identified
pattern codes and themes from all data sources, documenting both reasoning and choices as the

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 33
analysis continued. The final step included identifying and defining all pattern codes into themes
to aid in their consistent application and to increase internal reliability.
Findings
The purpose of this research was to evaluate the degree to which CALSA is meeting its
goal of providing effective mentoring to its protégés. The literature review in this case study
resulted in the use of a conceptual framework, which used assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences to evaluate the ability of CALSA to evaluate and continuously improve
the CALSA mentoring program. Accordingly, research question 1 asked, “To what extent is
CALSA meeting its goal of providing effective mentoring to its protégés?” The study found that
the CALSA mentoring program is not currently meeting this goal due to several knowledge,
motivation, and organizational gaps. To support that finding, this section introduces the study’s
participating stakeholders, uses the KMO framework to organize and integrate all findings, and
concludes with a short synthesis section.
The corresponding questions that guided this study are the following:
1. To what extent is CALSA meeting its goal of providing effective mentoring to its
protégés?
2. What is the stakeholder knowledge and motivation related to achieving this
organizational goal?
3. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and
stakeholder knowledge and motivation?
Participating Stakeholders
The CALSA targeted population numbered 14 people, so purposive sampling was used
(Johnson & Christensen, 2015). Of the original 14 identified participants, 10 professionals were

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 34
invited to participate in the study, and they all accepted. The current CALSA cohort 14 consists
of 14 protégés and mentors. The participating stakeholders were selected from a current cohort
who have completed the first of a two-year commitment to the mentoring program. All
participants identified themselves as Latino. Five of the participants were male and five
participants were female. There was a balanced mix of employee types which were bifurcated:
five school site level administrators and five district level administrators. Job tenure, ranged from
two years to 20 years in public school administration.
The education levels of all participants were similar. Eight participants had both a
bachelor’s and master’s degree. Two participants also had a doctorate degree. All participants
had a clear administrative services credential from the California Teaching Commission.
Table 2
Demographic Summary of CALSA Protégés Interviewed
Participant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Median/Total
Employee Type SS DO DO SS SS DO DO DO SS SS T: 5DO, 5SS
Job Tenure (Years) 10 15 8 8 6 10 20 16 2 8 M: 10.3
Gender M F F F M F F M M M T: 5M, 5F
Degrees BM BM BM BM BM BMD BMD BM BM BM T: 8BM, 2BMD
Identified Ethnicity L L L L L L L L L L T: L
Interview (Mins) 45 44 44 45 50 45 50 55 45 40 M: 51.8

Key:
Employee Type: (SS) School Site, (DO) District Office Gender: (M) Male, (F) Female
Degrees: (BM) Bachelor’s, Master’s; (BMD) Bachelor’s, Master’s, Doctorate Identified Ethnicity: (L) Latino(a)

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 35
Knowledge Findings
Analyzing the knowledge within an organization can help identify gaps that prevent the
realization of desired outcomes (Clark & Estes, 2008). Accordingly, research question 2 asked,
“What is the stakeholder knowledge and motivation related to achieving this organizational
goal?” In response to the knowledge component, the study found that the CALSA protégés
require additional conceptual and procedural knowledge to effectively meet their organizational
goals.
Conceptual knowledge. The study assumed that the protégé must understand how to
identify personal and professional goals, which will help them in their administrative position.
This would include an understanding of identifying a framework and system to measure the
identified goals. McCormick (2001) states, that leaders must have an understanding of their
goals to be successful implementing them within their organizations.
The Model of Domain Learning (MDL) describes the acquisition of subject-matter
knowledge as foundational to moving a person from acclimation, to competency to expertise
(Alexander, 2004). Senge (2004) characterizes generative or value-producing learning as
knowledge, which can be gained through experience, education, or training (or a combination of
all three). This learning can create a transcendent ability to engage in problem finding and
knowledge creation. The data gathered in this study, however, revealed that all 10 interview
participants were not adequately prepared to set personal and professional goals that would help
them succeed in their organization. Many of the participants could not identify the leadership
components of their jobs, but could identify the managerial tasks they had to perform daily.
Despite this finding, all protégés have experientially gained some knowledge

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 36
regarding the potential shortcomings of identifying personal and professional goals that will help
them in their administrative position. All participants understood the value of setting
professional and personal goals. P1, for instance, explained that setting personal and
professional goals had helped him think globally as an administrator. P1 stated, “As much as
goal setting seems elementary and unnecessary…the goals help keep you
accountable...especially with your mentor.” P7, agreed, “Setting goals seems to be for the rookie
administrators only…it is sometimes perceived that setting goals…especially SMART
goals…means you don’t know what you are doing or you’re on a training program.”
P4 also described a shortcoming of goal setting as the lack of accountability and follow
through to completion. She noted, “There has been such a lack of follow through around here
with goals, nobody takes them seriously anymore unless they are on an evaluation.”
Accountability for goals is often forgotten and lost if there is not an accountability system in
place (Lee, Walker, & Ling Chui, 2012). P8 clearly explained another challenge stemming from
setting professional and personal goals:
Goal setting can be embarrassing if the goals are very simple and not complex. There is a
perception that being an administrator requires you to know all of the answers and have
solutions to all of the problems that are brought to you to handle. Being a female and a
Latina, puts more pressure on me to know it all.
P6 had a similar explanation:
It seems to be very clear that with goal setting, it is very different to set goals for yourself
if you are a Latinx and you have a mentor that does not have the same background as
you...it can be complicated…I would rather set simple goals that are easy to achieve
instead of complex issues around gender and leadership.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 37
These responses make clear that the CALSA protégés possess some awareness of setting
professional and personal goals. The protégés’ familiarity with the conceptual shortcomings
presented in the study, however, was confined largely to the organizations within which they are
currently working. The protégés’ familiarity with some of this conceptual knowledge, however,
provides a schema that can later be elaborated upon to organize new conceptual learning (Mayer
& Salovey, 1997).
Procedural knowledge. This study assumed that protégés in the CALSA mentoring
program understand how to develop and foster the relationship with the mentor to achieve their
goals, how to implement their goals, and how to self-reflect about their goal progress.
Procedural knowledge references to “how to” do something – the knowledge of subject-specific
skills, techniques, methods, and procedures, as well as of when and how to appropriately employ
each (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). The study found that protégés require an increase in the
procedural knowledge required to foster relationships with their mentor to achieve their goals,
understand how to implement their goals, and be able to self-reflect about the progress of their
goals.
Interview evidence supports the finding that although protégés in the mentoring program
could say that they have the ability to foster relationships with their mentor to achieve their
goals, they did not have a comprehensive understanding of how to do it or relied on guidance
from CALSA staff to ensure it happened. The relationships that were created through the
mentoring program were scheduled and coordinated by the CALSA mentoring program staff.
Protégés and mentors were not always paired based on the protégés’ needs and compatibilities;
rather, they were paired based on geographic region. Some participants described their
experience with fostering relationships as not fulsome; whereas, others were unsure what it

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 38
meant to foster a relationship. In those instances, the researcher explained that fostering
relationships meant creating an environment for positive interactions, so that teams and groups
can have a better learning space (Kuwabara, Watanabe, Ohguro, Itoh, & Maeda, 2002).
When asked how they would foster a relationship with a CALSA mentor, P10 replied, “I
would first establish trust and keep my commitments and meetings with them…I would want
them to be honest with me and understand how to take me under their wing.” P5 answered, “I
have several mentors for different situations. It would be ideal for that person to provide a level
of cover and protection from my organization when I’m trying to change the culture...but I am
not sure how to foster that level of trust and relationship.” P2 noted, “A mentor that has been
around the block would know how to foster the relationship…I would rely on the mentor to
foster the relationship…if they can’t do it, they shouldn’t be a mentor.” In response to the same
question, P6 stated, “I would want a person that is honest and I would want that person to keep
things confidential.” These responses confirm that there is not an understanding of how to foster
relationships between the mentor and protégé.
Additionally, when asked, “Give me examples of how you have fostered the relationship
with your mentor?”, none of the participants described examples of how they foster the
relationship. Instead, every participant gave me examples of what they wanted from a
relationship. For example, P9 replied, “I am not sure how I would effectively foster the
relationship…I would simply try to build trust by keeping to our goals and helping the person to
the best to my ability.” Other responses indicate process gaps as well. For example, the
comments of five participants included the need for intensive training prior to becoming a
mentor or protégé.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 39
Furthermore, this study also assumed that protégés understand how to implement their
professional goals. The major factor influencing transfer often indicates a need for a mix of
information, job aids, training, and education (Clark & Estes, 2008). This study found that
protégés require an increase in procedural knowledge required to implement their professional
goals.
Interviews revealed that although protégés were able to identify professional goals, they
did not consistently understand how to implement their goals in their organizations. None of the
participants identified a common strategy to implement their goals or the full range of success
measures. Some participants described their implementation strategies as a void in their
leadership skill set. To fill the void of procedural knowledge, the researcher explained that the
more that leaders enable people to learn and use their new knowledge and skills, the greater the
level of transfer achieved (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Asked about the support given in relation to implementing their professional goals to
improve their leadership skills in the CALSA mentoring program P7 replied, “I am given time to
discuss and set my goals. I use a variety of methods to set and implement my goals. I wish we
had more time to discuss the practical implementation of our goals.” P1 answered,
“Implementing goals is the toughest part of leadership…setting the goals and talking theory is
very easy to do…the rubber meets the road when you implement…I don’t have enough time to
talk about the implementation of the goals.” In response to the same question, P1 remarked “I
can talk theory all day long, but when I talk about how I implemented certain things at my
school, the conversation gets personal because I struggle.” P5 concurred, “I wish I had a model
like SMART goals that we would all use in education…as simple as that seems we do things

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 40
without structure and follow through…our time at CALSA meetings should be less on theory
and more on how to.”
Moreover, all participants mentioned the use of SMART goals when developing their
goals, but there were varying levels of understanding on how to implement SMART goals.
There was a lack of understanding of the steps needed to implement goals. P2 stated, “Nobody
really monitors how we implement something…the only time it gets attention is if people
complain or we mess something up.” P8 noted, “Unless your boss is intentional about mentoring
you, they just want to see results. They expect you already know how to do things like
implement. I’ve never been mentored at work.” P6 posited, “I don’t recall ever getting any
education about implementing goals in any of my administrator credential programs…most
everything is theory and not a lot about how to or this is how I did it.” Other responses indicate a
process knowledge gap as well. All 10 participants identified the need to have their knowledge
increased with regard to implementation of organizational goals.
Another procedural knowledge gap that was identified in this study concerned the ability
of protégés to self-reflect about the progress of their established goals. Zimmerman and Moylan
(2009) state that metacognition refers to knowledge, awareness, and regulation of a person’s
thinking. Therefore, for this study, it is important to note the metacognitive processes to learn
were not merely a question of competence, but also a question of motivation to explain
willingness, effort, and persistence (Zimmerman & Moylan, 2009).
Half of the participants (50%) demonstrated understanding of thought processes, systems
thinking, and how they learn. All of the participants use self-reflection in their current
administrative positions. However, the participants indicated that they use self-reflection in
different contexts. For example, “P10 stated, “I self-reflect weekly about what I accomplished or

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 41
didn’t accomplish…but I don’t pull out my professional goals and measure them through self-
reflection. P2 noted, “I use self-reflection as therapy, but I don’t do it enough…I don’t write
anything down unless I have to…like for CALSA.” In response to the same question, all 10
participants stated that self-reflection is rarely mentioned or conducted as an exercise for
administrators. However, they all mentioned that they ask teachers to self-reflect, especially new
teachers in BTSA programs.
Other responses indicated a knowledge process gap with self-reflection in meeting their
professional goals. For example, 60% of participants stated that they used self-reflection;
however, it was used as mental therapy to collect and gather their thoughts instead of focusing on
their professional goals. When the researcher prompted participants to explain their use of self-
reflection, their responses clarified that they were not self-reflecting to improve themselves as
leaders. Rather, they were using self-reflection to slow themselves down in their busy lives and
accomplish a futile writing exercise for the CALSA mentoring program. These responses
demonstrate the need for greater staff procedural knowledge in how to foster relationships with
their mentor to achieve their goals, understand how to implement their goals, and be able to self-
reflect about the progress of their goals.
Motivation Findings
Evidence suggests motivational factors account for half of all performance successes
(Clark & Estes, 2008); therefore, motivation influences are extremely important to analyze in
any performance gap analysis. Accordingly, research question 2 asked, “What is the stakeholder
knowledge and motivation related to providing effective mentoring to its protégés?” In response
to the motivation element of that question, the study found that CALSA protégés could benefit
from increased self-efficacy, as well as the development of expectancy value. As previously

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 42
mentioned, the motivation findings relied upon interview responses in a semi-structured
interview environment.
Self-efficacy. The study assumed protégés need to believe they are capable of achieving
their goals. Bandura (2006) states that self-efficacy is concerned with people's beliefs in their
ability to influence events that affect their lives. This core belief is the foundation of human
motivation, performance accomplishments, and emotional well-being (Bandura, 2000; 2006).
Unless people believe they can produce desired effects by their actions, they have little incentive
to undertake activities or persevere in the face of difficulties (Bandura, 2006). This study found
evidence that CALSA protégés need to increase their self-efficacy.
Seventy percent of study participants expressed a lack of confidence in their ability to
achieve their professional goals. There were two low confidence areas that emerged: 1)
implementing change and 2) getting support to ensure they accomplished their goals. When
asked, for example, the confidence level of meeting the goals, P9 replied:
I am not sure if I can meet my goals for the year. I guess I could make them very low
level and focused on managerial type tasks instead of leadership type tasks. I am not sure
if the goals I write down will be the same by the end of the year. There is a lot of change
right now and a lack of leadership vision.
Replying to the same question, P2 demonstrated confidence in creating the goals to
succeed, but was unsure how to implement the goals and what strategy to use. P3 also stated
confidence with creating the goals, but was unsure if the implementation process would work.
Additionally, P1 commented, “I can probably get my goals done by the end of the year if
I had someone who I would check in with regularly at work…we don’t meet frequently enough
to gauge the progress of what we do.” P5 noted, “It is sometimes harder for a female to exude

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 43
confidence or even celebrate the achievement of goals…I know I can accomplish my goals, but I
wouldn’t share them with anyone.” P3 responded, “I wish we had our professional goals as part
of our evaluation at the end of the year…there are years I don’t get evaluated.”
Expectancy value. This study assumed that protégés in the CALSA mentoring program
shared a belief in its ability to see the value of being effective school leaders. Expectancy value
is the likelihood that the behavior will have a successful outcome (Eccles, 2004). Moreover,
expectancy value theory is defined as the extent to which an individual believes the goal will
enhance one’s personal and professional goals (Eccles, 2006). This study found evidence that
the CALSA protégés do see the value of being an effective school leader.
During this study, every participant confirmed they understood the value of effective
leadership. A common theme that evolved from the interview data: all protégés had negative and
positive experiences throughout their K-12 education that motivated them to become a public-
school administrator. When asked how the CALSA mentoring program had influenced them as
a leader, all 10 participants stated that being a part of the CALSA organization, and especially
the mentoring program, gave them confidence and a sense of belonging in public school
administration. P10 stated:
I am the only white administrator in my organization and there are days that I feel I don’t
belong, but I have to remember that I have brothers and sisters in the CALSA program
that look like me and support me.
Replying to the same question, P2 remarked, “I was told I was either a part of the problem or a
part of the solution…they told me to stop complaining and change the system, so I did. I became
an administrator.” In response to that same question, P8 replied:

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 44
Having people…my brothers and sisters that look like me, talk like me…helps with my
motivation. I say to myself, if they can do it so can I. I wouldn’t be where I am today
without CALSA. CALSA has helped me move up in administration. I feel that the sky is
the limit because I have a lot of support.
Participant 4 expressed the view that:
Being a Latino administrator is very important. I see myself as a good leader because of
the opportunities I ensure all of our students are getting, but also Latino students. I also
feel that there is a lot of pressure on me because I am Latino. I really hate the perception
that people get about the position I have. People think that I only got the position
because I am Latino. Being an administrator is also important, so that our kids have role
models that look like them.
Other participants expressed self-confidence too. All participants had experienced
hardships while attending school and had educators that helped them overcome obstacles along
the way. P5 remembered, “My colleagues complain about how hard this job is…I think about
how hard it was to overcome the things I had to as a child and I think to myself, this is a great
job…there are days I can’t believe I get paid to do it.” Answering the same question, “P7
posited, “I know what I do matters, because of the culture changes I’ve seen at my school that I
have influenced.”
These responses, while not indicative of a need for improvement, suggest that the
CALSA protégés have a clear understanding of the importance of being an effective leader.
These findings are perhaps unsurprising given the context of each participants’ background and
level of support through the CALSA mentoring program. First, it is important to remember that
all of the participants have been in education as a teacher and/or an administrator for at least 10

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 45
years. Given that level of experience, the education system is not new to them. As a result, they
have spent most of their child, adolescent and adult lives in education and have experienced the
changes and impact of many school administrations as educators.
Organizational Findings
As with knowledge and motivation, an improved understanding of organizational
performance gaps can be gained through an examination of organizational work processes and
material resources (Clark & Estes, 2008). Accordingly, research question 3 asked, “What is the
interaction between organizational culture, context, and stakeholder knowledge and motivation?”
In response to this question, the study found that there are gaps in the CALSA mentoring
program, which inconsistently account for progress of protégés’ goals, reluctance to try new
methods to engage the mentor and the protégé, a lack of a deep pool of experienced mentors, and
insufficient time to meet to foster a relationship between the protégé and the mentor.
Cultural models. This study assumed that protégés in the mentoring program were
inconsistently having their goals accounted for throughout the two-year commitment to the
mentoring program. Without this type of program accountability in place, the protégés are held
responsible for outcomes over which they have very little influence. The study found that
protégés are encouraged to submit their progress on their goals through written reflections, which
is the manner CALSA accounts for their progress. However, there is no accountability if the
protégé does not submit their reflections to the director of the CALSA mentoring program.
While a component of CALSA’s mission is to increase the number of highly effective
Latino and Latina leaders, there is no identified measure of quantifying the increase of highly
effective leaders within the organization. Interviews revealed that many protégés do not value
the reflection process because of the inconsistent feedback given. When asked to describe the

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 46
support given to improve leadership skills, P5 responded, “Sometimes the reflective writing
doesn’t make sense to me…it is supposed to help me as a leader, but I just don’t understand it
that way.” In response to the same question, P7 stated, “Protégés have to ask for the help. You
get what you put into the relationship and the program…some of my colleagues in the program
have had better experiences than others.” Additionally, P10 said:
There is so much that goes into creating that ideal relationship with your mentor. I
believe that everyone in the program is truly trying to help, but sometimes I feel that I’m
out on my own. I have a great mentor, but because we have two different jobs, I don’t
have the same type of influence to go back to my school and make the immediate
changes I would like. I’m not really sure if I am making the progress in the CALSA
program.
In response to the same question, P4 noted, “I am not sure how I am progressing in the program,
but my relationship with my mentor is great.” Moreover, P2 remarked, “For me, joining the
mentoring program was about developing myself, without the pressures of meeting someone’s
criteria.” P9 concurred, “It is made clear that you have to attend the mandatory functions, but
there are no repercussions if you don’t.”
These responses indicate that there is no clear expectation regarding how an effective
leader is defined in the CALSA mentoring program. There is also a lack of follow through and
measurement of success with the goals of each protégé. This has potential implications for
protégé motivation because protégés believe that they will get the support needed in the CALSA
mentoring program to be successful in their administrative position (Cherniss, 2004).
Furthermore, research suggests that when members of an organization are not intellectually
respected, emotionally connected, actively involved, and empowered, they become less engaged

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 47
and motivated, and therefore less likely to realize organizational goals (Berbarry & Malinchak,
2011).
Also, within the organizational cultural model, this study assumed the CALSA
organization was resistant to trying new methods to engage both the mentor and protégé within
their relationship. Without mentor and protégé engagement, the relationship between both
groups will fail and the protégés will not reap the benefits of a meaningful experience. This
study found that CALSA must embrace new methods to engage the mentor and protégé, to
improve communication and close a gap of geographical barriers between mentors and protégés
to increase learning and network opportunities.
Interviews confirmed that there is reluctance to try new engagement methods. All 10
participants confirmed that they would be open to trying new methods to communicate to
increase their engagement. When asked, for example, “Describe your ideal relationship between
the protégé and mentor”, every participant indicated a willingness to use virtual or electronic
methods to communicate. In response to the question, P1 replied, “I do not like talking on the
phone, unless I am driving…I would prefer to face time with someone or do a Zoom meeting
like we are doing now…it is much more personal.” P6 agreed, “If we had the opportunity to do
something virtual, it would increase the chances of being paired with someone that is more
compatible.” P7 described the potential to do meetings virtually:
Most schools are using computers and technology as a learning tool. Many of the adults
in the schools did not grow up with the technology and are afraid of it. Whenever I have
tried to do a Zoom meeting or Facetime with my mentor, there is a fear and reluctance to
use it. I hear people talk about how impersonal it would be to do things virtually and I
don’t agree with that at all. This meeting we are having now on Zoom allows me to see

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 48
you and the gestures you are making or not making. And most importantly, I now you
are paying attention to me. How easy is it to share documents using Zoom too? We
should be doing more with this technology.
The participant responses in this study suggest that CALSA needs to increase the
engagement between the mentor and the protégé. Using tools like Zoom and Facetime can
increase opportunities for learning and networking for both the mentor and the protégé.
Cultural settings. This study assumed that there is not a large pool of experienced
mentors due to geographical barriers. CALSA lacks a deep mentoring pool and therefore relies
on many of the same mentors to support protégés. Organizations that wish to create a mentoring
culture should focus more time on the values that emphasize the differentiation of individuals, as
well as on the integration of individuals into the culture of the organization (Chen & Eastman,
1997; Green et al., 2012; Kent et al., 2013).
Interviews confirmed that there is not a large pool of experienced mentors from which the
CALSA program can select. The researcher asked the question, “What motivated you to work
with a CALSA mentor and did the mentor have the skills to help you achieve your goals?” In
response to that question, P4 replied,
Ideally, I would like to have a like gender mentor. Being a female administrator whether
Latina or white or whatever, is very different for women than men. It is so important to
find the right person to be your mentor. It took me a while to open up to my mentor. My
husband was not keen on the idea of me having a male mentor, so I got switched and
probably didn’t get as strong of a mentor, but they live nearby…it has worked out…but it
is not ideal. In my instance, I would have been paired with a mentor from northern
California, but I live in LA and meeting them in person or face to face would have been

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 49
impossible. I wanted to be with a veteran administrator that had gone through a lot.
Experiences matter in administration.
P9 had a similar response:
It would have been good to have someone who is of the same gender, has the experience
in the position that I am in administratively, and lives close by, so we can meet
regularly… Even living in LA, trying to meet with my mentor face to face could take half
of my day, we should do more meetings virtually…like we are doing now, this is so easy
to do.”
Every participant stated they had a good relationship with their mentors, but they wished they
could be a part of the process to select their mentors, instead of being placed with mentor. P1
stated,
Being placed with someone takes time to build that trust…we only have two years with
the person and we don’t meet face to face regularly enough to really build a strong trust.
We sometimes get mentors that are willing to commit to mentor and they are great
people, but they may not be the best match.
These participant responses suggest that CALSA lacks a large experienced pool of mentors due
to geographic barriers. Using technology to eliminate the geographic barriers to better match
mentors and protégés is necessary.
Also, within the organizational cultural setting, this study assumed that there is
insufficient training and time to meet for the mentor and protégé to foster a relationship. Having
sufficient training is one of the main factors associated with mentoring failure or success in
organizations (Castanheira, 2016). Mentors who do not receive appropriate mentor training are

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 50
more likely to face greater difficulties in the role (Hobson & Malderez, 2013; Kochan et al.,
2015; Lejonberg et al., 2015; Thornton, 2014).
In response to the question, “Describe your experiences with the training you received
during the mentoring program to help you create a relationship with your mentor?”, all 10
participants responded that they wanted to work with an experienced mentor who would help
them in their current position as an administrator and that they did not get enough training and
guidance. P3 stated, “My mentor has been great, but they were never a protégé in the CALSA
program…it hasn’t hampered my relationship…it would be good if they would have gone
through the same experience.” In response to the same question, P10 noted, “My mentor has
been really helpful, but wasn’t a protégé in the program. They have experience and that has
helped me.” Furthermore, P3 recalled:
I wanted to have a mentor that had gone through the protégé program, but my mentor has
been great regardless. We definitely need more guidance and time to meet. She knows
her stuff and has done it all. She guides me through whatever situation I am going
through. She has a good sense of what I need and she never gives me answers to my
questions. She always asks me reflective questions. However, I wish we had a system to
follow for the program. It seems like we just follow whatever has happened in the past
and leave things to chance instead of being strategic about it.
In response to the same question, P5 said:
I wanted to have a mentor that would groom me for my next position and make me better
in my current position. I thought that going through the CALSA program would be more
formal. We need more time to meet. It definitely gave the perception of being formal
because of the interview process you have to go through. I thought that there would be

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 51
more structure to what we are doing given that the program has been around for many
years. Adding structure to the program would give it more credibility and it would
probably get even more support from districts.
All 10 participants said they wanted the program to be more formal and appreciated all of the
support. Every participant also claimed that they need more time to meet. P8 remarked, “I want
to get more involved, but my superintendent wants to see more research and data driven
programs…it’s hard to get away from work when I can’t articulate that.”
Combined with the knowledge and motivation findings in this study, these participant
responses suggest that CALSA needs to increase its training for protégés and mentors entering
the CALSA mentoring program. The additional training would assure that protégés and mentors
would receive the factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge and skills required to
effectively manage and lead their organizations.
Synthesis of Findings
The conceptual theory which guided this study was that protégés in cohort 14 would
successfully complete the CALSA mentoring program by June 2019. That theory was
corroborated, as the protégés in cohort 14 identified the successes and shortcomings in the
current mentoring program. Findings also provided answers to the study’s research questions.
Research question 1 asked, “To what extent is CALSA meeting its goal of providing effective
mentoring to its protégés?” The study found that the CALSA mentoring program is providing
opportunities for mentoring to its protégés, but there is not a systemic or a data driven method to
fully determine CALSA’s effectiveness.
Research question 2 asked, “What is the stakeholder knowledge and motivation related to
achieving this organizational goal?” The findings suggests that CALSA protégés require

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 52
additional factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge to effectively meet their organizational
goals. Interview data also suggests that protégés could benefit from increased self-efficacy, as
well as the development of expectancy value.
Finally, research question 3 asked, “What is the interaction between organizational
culture and context and stakeholder knowledge and motivation?” In response to this question,
the findings suggest that there are gaps in the CALSA mentoring program, which inconsistently
account for progress of protégés’ goals, display a reluctance to try new methods to engage the
mentor and the protégé, showcase a lack of a deep pool of experienced mentors, and structure
insufficient time to meet to foster a relationship between the protégé and the mentor.
Overall, since 2004, the only substantive changes to the CALSA mentoring program have
been with personnel related (staff change for the director serving as the director of the mentoring
program). There have been some gradual changes to how meetings are conducted for mentors;
however, the ideology and philosophy of what the program is intended to provide has not
changed.
Recommendations
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. Through the use of Krathwohl’s (2002) framework, the assumed
knowledge influences in this study found that the CALSA protégés are lacking conceptual
knowledge to identify personal and professional goals, which will help them in their
administrative position. The data gathered in this study also revealed that all 10 interview
participants were not adequately prepared to set personal and professional goals, which would
help them succeed in their organization.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 53
Procedural knowledge in the program was also lacking. The study found that protégés
require an increase in the procedural knowledge required to foster relationships with their mentor
to achieve their goals, understand how to implement their goals, and be able to self-reflect about
the progress of their goals. It is suggested that protégés’ knowledge of subject-specific skills,
techniques, methods, and procedures, as well as of when and how to appropriately employ each,
is increased (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011).
Table 3
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Principle(s) and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Knowledge
(Conceptual) –
Protégé must
understand how to
identify personal and
professional goals,
which will help them
in their administrative
positions.
Conceptual knowledge includes
categories, principles, and
models. One way to determine
if members of the organization
understand how goals are
associated with conceptual
knowledge is to assist them with
identifying their goals and the
category in which the goal falls
within the conceptual framework
(Krathwohl, 2002).
Provide a model framework and
list of personal and professional
goals for protégés to use as an
exemplar when creating their
goals.
Knowledge
(Procedural) –
Protégé must
understand how to
develop and foster the
relationship with the
mentor to achieve
their goals.
Procedural knowledge allows
one to describe how to do
something and can be general or
subject-specific (Krathwohl,
2002; Rueda, 2011).
Provide opportunities for the
protégé to meet with the mentor
and provide the needed resources.
Knowledge
(Procedural) –
Protégé must
understand how to
implement their
professional goals.
State, a way in which
information can be more reliably
part of long-term memory is to
connect it to prior knowledge or
experience. Therefore, if
mentors have never had an
experience with being mentored,
this lack of prior knowledge or
experience could be a factor
Provide a framework or model
for the protégé so they have a
system to reference when
implementing their goals.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 54
with how well procedural
knowledge is retained as part of
long-term memory (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
Knowledge
(Procedural) –
Protégé must be able
to self-reflect about
the progress of their
established goals.
Self-reflection is a
metacognitive skill and in order
to effectively reflect upon one’s
goals and make necessary
changes to them, emotional
intelligence is necessary
(Cherniss, 2004).
Provide training and a model or
framework to the protégé about
how to self-reflect about their
goals.

Conceptual knowledge. The results and findings of this study indicated that 50% of
public school administrators need more in-depth conceptual knowledge about how to identify
personal and professional goals to help them in their administrative position. A recommendation
centered in education has been selected to close the conceptual knowledge gap. According to
Clark and Estes (2008), education is a knowledge and skill enhancement type in which people
acquire conceptual knowledge and skill which will help handle problems and challenges protégés
will encounter. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest providing learners with education, which would
support learning. The recommendation then is to provide models of professional and personal
goals, which will help public school administrators in their position. Van Velsor and McCauley
(2004) use a framework to develop the declarative conceptual knowledge for implementation of
protégés’ goals. The frameworks would include an array of possible responsibilities a public-
school administrator would have, which would be divided into two areas: leadership and
managerial skills. Frameworks would also include immediate, intermediate, and global goals, to
ensure a timeline used for measurement and assessment of the goals. Conceptual knowledge
includes categories, principles, and models (Krathwohl, 2002). One way to determine if members
of the organization understand how goals are associated with conceptual knowledge is to assist

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 55
them with identifying their goals and the category it falls within the conceptual framework
(Krathwohl, 2002).
Procedural knowledge. The results and findings of this study indicated that CALSA
protégés need a better understanding of procedural knowledge on how to implement their
professional goals. Schraw and McCrudden (2006) found that how individuals organize
knowledge influences how they learn and apply what they know. This would suggest that
providing learners with a framework or similar model would support their learning. The
recommendation then is to provide protégés training on how to self-reflect using a framework or
model. The framework or model would illustrate the types of strategies and needed resources to
successfully implement their personal or professional goals.
Van Velsor and McCauley’s (2004) framework consists of assessment, challenge, and
support. According to the researchers, assessment refers to the formal and informal processes for
giving protégés information about their strengths, their levels of performance or effectiveness
and their developmental needs. Challenge refers to all aspects of situations that push individuals
beyond their current capabilities and comfort zones, forcing them to learn and develop in order to
continue to be effective. The results and findings of this study indicated that CALSA protégés
do not have the capacity to self-reflect about the progress of their established goals. CALSA
protégés need more time to self-reflect about their goals, thus increasing their metacognition. A
recommendation rooted in emotional intelligence theory has been selected to close this
metacognitive knowledge gap. This would suggest that providing learners with the appropriate
feedback to become more astute in professional, political, and social settings is needed to support
their learning. The recommendation is to have CALSA protégés self-reflect and obtain the
needed feedback to reach professional and personal goals. Self-reflection is a metacognitive skill

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 56
and, to effectively reflect upon one’s goals and make necessary changes to them, emotional
intelligence is necessary (Cherniss, 2004). According to Cherniss (2004), people who have high
emotional intelligence are better equipped to understand self-reflection because they have a grasp
of their emotions and know how to read others’ emotions.
Motivation Recommendations

Introduction. Using Rueda’s framework (2011), the assumed motivational influences
among CALSA protégés in this study found the need for self-efficacy. As Table 4 the indicates,
the researcher suggests that protégés must have their mentor provide feedback and
encouragement about the progress of their goals during scheduled meetings to increase self-
efficacy. The self-efficacy finding was supported by the fact that all 10 participants expressed a
lack of self-belief that they could meet their goals. The researcher also suggests that protégés set
annual goals focused on leadership skills that are tangible and meaningful to their job
performance. The mentor must provide accountability for the progress of the goals during
scheduled meetings throughout the year.
Self-efficacy. The researcher found that the participants were not confident they could meet
their goals without feedback and support from their mentor. Also, every participant stated that
they did not believe they could be effective school leaders without mentoring support. Rueda
(2011) states that motivation is essential in learning and achieving set goals because it describes
the beliefs that a person develops as learners and achievers. Consequently, motivation impacts
whether or not a person starts, continues or finishes a task (Rueda, 2011). This would suggest
that within the CALSA organization, it is not only important that protégés have a mentor, but
that they make a commitment to the mentor and protégé relationship.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 57
Motivation influences multiple factors for the protégé. For CALSA protégés, two factors
are critical to the success of protégés in achieving their goals. First, protégés need to feel
confident in their abilities to learn new skills that are not their strengths. Bandura (1991)
describes the feeling of confidence in his social cognitive theory. Self-efficacy is an individual’s
belief that he or she has the ability to successfully complete the task (Bandura, 1991). Second,
protégés need to see the value in being effective leaders. Expectancy value motivational theory
explains that when individuals place high value in the goal, they are most likely to be involved
and successfully complete it (Eccles, 2006).
Expectancy value. The assumed influence suggested protégés need to believe the value
of being an effective school leader. This study found evidence that the CALSA protégés do see
the value of being an effective school leader. Protégés in the CALSA mentoring program are
setting annual goals focused on leadership skills that are tangible and meaningful to their job
performance. The mentors are providing accountability on the progress of the protégés’ goals
during scheduled meetings. These findings suggest that given the context of each participants
background and level of support through the CALSA mentoring program, protégés do have a
positive belief about the value of being an effective school leader. While this finding is not
indicative of a recommendation for improvement, the researcher does suggest that the CALSA
mentoring program continue to support protégés through increased accountability with more
face-to-face meetings throughout the school year.
Table 4

Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 58
Motivation (Self
Efficacy) Protégés need to
believe they are capable of
achieving their goals.
Whether or not a protégé
successfully reaches their
goals is largely dependent
upon their motivation, i.e.,
do they believe they are
capable of learning the
skills that are not their
strengths, and do they see
the value of being an
effective leader.
Motivation is an
important factor to the
success of the
stakeholders’ goal
because it describes the
beliefs that a person
develops and prioritizes
for themselves as learners
and achievers (Rueda,
2011).
Protégés must have their
mentor provide feedback and
encouragement about the
progress of the protégés’
goals during scheduled
meetings to increase protégé
self-efficacy.
Motivation (Expectancy
Value) Protégés need to
believe the value of being an
effective school leader.
Protégés need to see the
value in being effective
leaders. Eccles’s (2006)
expectancy value
motivational theory
explains that when
individuals place high
value in the goal, they are
most likely to be involved
and successfully complete
it.

Protégés must set annual
goals focused on leadership
skills that are tangible and
meaningful to their job
performance. The mentor
must provide accountability
on the progress of the goals
during scheduled meetings.

Organizational Recommendations
Introduction. As with knowledge and motivation, an improved understanding of
organizational performance gaps can be gained through an examination of organizational work
processes and material resources (Clark & Estes, 2008). Accordingly, the study found that there
are gaps in the CALSA mentoring program, which inconsistently account for progress of
protégés’ goals, display a reluctance to try new methods to engage the mentor and the protégé, a

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 59
lack of a deep pool of experienced mentors, and structure insufficient time to meet to foster a
relationship between the protégé and the mentor.
Cultural model. Within the organization, weaknesses must first be identified to ensure
appropriate measures are taken to move the organization forward (Clark & Estes, 2008). The
Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis is a fundamental tool to assist with identifying and closing
performance gaps. While a component of CALSA’s mission is to increase the number of highly
effective Latino and Latina leaders, there is no identified measure of quantifying the increase of
highly effective leaders within the organization. Within the organization, weaknesses must first
be identified to ensure appropriate measures are taken to move the organization forward. This
study found that protégés in the mentoring program are inconsistently having their goals
accounted for throughout the two-year commitment of the mentoring program. The study also
found that protégés are encouraged to submit their progress on their goals through written
reflections. However, there is no accountability if the protégé does not submit their reflections to
the director of the CALSA mentoring program. This study suggests monthly check-ins between
the mentor, protégé, and director of the mentoring program. Organizational effectiveness
increases when leaders trust their teams and grant them accountable autonomy (Rath & Conchie,
2008). Furthermore, the study suggests the progress of the protégés goals should be monitored
monthly by the mentor.
Additionally, within the organizational cultural model, this study found the CALSA
organization resistant to trying new methods to engage both the mentor and protégé within their
relationship. Without mentor and protégé engagement, the relationship between both groups will
fail and the protégés will not reap the benefits of a meaningful experience. This study found that
CALSA must embrace new methods to engage the mentor and protégé to increase

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 60
communication and close a gap of geographical barriers between mentors and protégés to
increase further learning and network opportunities. There is a growing emphasis on the use of
computer mediated communication in mentoring relationships, which will lead to the increasing
use of electronic mentoring (Ensher et al., 2003). Evidence in this study suggests virtual tools
like Zoom are necessary for protégés and mentors to have face-to-face meetings to increase the
number and pool of experienced mentors.
Cultural settings. This study found an insufficient experienced pool of mentors for the
protégés due to geographic barriers. Not having time to travel to meet with a mentor or the cost
associated with travel is a barrier to CALSA protégés. The researcher suggests that the use of
virtual tools like Zoom for face-to-face meetings. Using Zoom meetings for this study was
advantageous in providing all 10 participants an example of how virtual meetings could
potentially be conducted with their mentors. For a formal mentoring organization like CALSA,
e-mentoring reduces the costs in terms of administering the mentoring program, conducting
training, and reproducing materials (Ensher et al., 2003). Using electronic computer-based tools
like Zoom will lead to an increased use of a unique form of mentoring (Ensher & Murphy,
2005).
Additionally, within the cultural setting, this study found insufficient training and time to
meet for the mentor and protégé to foster a relationship. Having sufficient training is one of the
main factors associated with mentoring failure or success in organizations as (Castanheira,
2016). Several authors (Hobson & Malderez, 2013; Kochan et al., 2015; Stephens et al., 2014)
that state the importance of the selection and matching of mentors and protégés, emphasizing
that there must be sufficient training for mentoring teams to foster a healthy relationship.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 61
Furthermore, clarity of roles and purposes that come with training and goal setting for
both mentor and mentee play important roles in determining the success of a mentoring
relationship (Castanheira, 2016). Mentors who do not receive appropriate mentor training are
more likely to face greater difficulties in the role (Hobson & Malderez, 2013; Kochan et al.,
2015; Lejonberg et al., 2015; Thornton, 2014). Lejonberg and colleagues (2015) claim that
mentor and protégé training contributes to lower levels of arbitrary feedback given to the
protégé, which could stymie the process in establishing a relationship and judgement.
Within this relationship, mentors value personal learning by offering personal reflections
about being mentored (Bandura, 1986). The researcher found that while geography is a barrier
to mentor, attention to the political realities where the mentors and protégés work must be
considered. Mentors and protégés may be willing to participate in a mentoring program;
however, the organization within which mentors and protégés work may not be willing to
support the time commitment and human resources needed to foster the mentoring relationship
(Gibson, 2006).
Table 5

Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations

Assumed
Organization
Influence
Principle and Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
Organization
(Cultural model) -
Organization
inconsistently
accounts for progress
of protégés
established goals.
Within the organization,
weaknesses must first be
identified to ensure appropriate
measures are taken to move the
organization forward. The Clark
and Estes (2008) gap analysis is a
fundamental tool to assist with
identifying and closing
performance gaps.
Monthly check in between the
mentor, protégé, and director of
the mentoring program are
necessary. Progress on goals will
be monitored monthly by the
mentor.
Organization
(Cultural Model)
There is a growing emphasis on
the use of computer mediated
Virtual tools like Zoom are
necessary for protégés and

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 62
Organization is
resistant to trying
new methods to
engage both mentor
and protégé within
their relationship.
communication in mentoring
relationships, which will lead to
the increased use of electronic
mentoring (Ensher et al., 2003).
mentors to have face-to-face
meetings to foster the
relationship.
Organization
(Cultural setting) -
Lack of a deep
experienced pool of
mentors for the
protégés due to
geographic barriers.
Not having time to travel to meet
with a mentor or the cost
associated with travel is a barrier
to Latino’s having a mentor. For
a formal mentoring organization
like CALSA, e-mentoring
reduces the costs of administering
the mentoring program,
conducting training, and
reproducing materials (Ensher et
al., 2003).

Virtual tools like Zoom are
necessary for protégés and
mentors to have face-to-face
meetings and increase the pool of
mentors.
Organization
(Cultural setting) -
Insufficient training
and time to meet for
the mentor and
protégé to foster the
relationship.
Within this relationship, mentors
value personal learning by
offering personal reflections
about being mentored (Bandura,
1986).
A letter of support for the mentor
and protégé must be included in
the protégé and mentor
application process prior to being
accepted into the mentoring
program. All mentors and
protégés must complete training
prior to beginning the CALSA
mentoring program.

Limitations and Delimitations
There were several limitations of this study. The limitations of this study included: 1) a
very compressed time schedule with limited resources; 2) a limited number of protégés willing to
participate; 3) the truthfulness of the participants; 4) knowledge of the participants; and; 5) the
potential for other interpretations of the qualitative data. Delimitations included: a
phenomenological research design relying upon a literature review, deciding on a qualitative
study, and the use of the Clark and Estes KMO framework.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 63
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to examine the California Association of Latino
Superintendents and Administrators organization and evaluate the degree to which it is meeting
its goal of providing effective mentoring to its protégés. Using the Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis framework, knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences were studied and
evaluated through the review of literature and interviews with CALSA protégés. Based on the
findings identified through data collection and analysis, recommendations were suggested to
close knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps affecting CALSA’s ability to accomplish
its goal.
The Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) New World Model was used to create an
implementation and evaluation plan to infuse the suggested recommendations using a research-
based model. Participants in the mentoring program must possess specific knowledge, skills, and
attitudes to support the performance. Following the implementation of the recommended
solutions, protégés will be able to demonstrate leadership skills within their organizations,
articulate characteristics of exemplary leadership, demonstrate the ability to be confident about
their leadership skills, demonstrate the ability to implement their goals, and understand how to
foster a relationship between the protégé and mentor.
The aforementioned learning goals will increase the knowledge and motivation of
protégés and will be achieved through training. To develop the protégés’ knowledge and skills,
they will be provided training, education, and coaching sessions by their mentors. This training
will be ongoing since cohorts are launched annually. Each year, protégés will participate in
training during the CALSA summer institute. Additionally, protégés will receive in-person
training during the summer institute by CALSA members who have been mentors and protégés

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 64
in the program. Following the training, the protégés will receive feedback and will be provided
with encouragement from educational leaders throughout the state of California.
The fundamental takeaway from this research was that the CALSA mentoring program
has committed educational leaders who are dedicated to growing and learning as leaders. The
CALSA mentoring program is also a very familial organization, with its membership willing to
help each other no matter the circumstance. The CALSA mentoring program conceptual and
procedural knowledge can be developed through the use of the written reflection criteria already
established. The conceptual and procedural knowledge can also increase with more
accountability for the protégé and the mentor through the use of models, meaningful reflective
feedback and establishing strict timelines for evaluation of protégé goals. Protégé self-efficacy
can also be cultivated through the use of the written reflections.
Organizationally, CALSA can improve its mentoring program by using virtual meetings
to connect protégés appropriately, so they have access to mentors that suit their personal,
professional, and personal goals. Also, using virtual meetings can reduce the cost of meeting
four times a year throughout California, for protégés, mentors, and the CALSA organization. The
CALSA organization will be able to use the findings in this study to apply for grants for its
mentoring program and to motivate others in the CALSA organization to continue to study and
evaluate the mentoring program.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 65
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Appendix A: Participating Stakeholders and Interview Sampling Guide

Participating Stakeholders

The stakeholders for this study were 10 protégés in cohort 14 of the CALSA mentoring
program. The protégés were current administrators serving in California public schools. The
protégés administrative positions in California public schools ranged from school site
administration to district level administration. The protégés also had varying years of experience
in California public schools.
Interview Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Criterion 1. Participants must complete the first year of the CALSA mentoring program.
Criterion 2. Participants must hold an administrative position in a California public
school.
Criterion 3. Participants must be active members in good standing with CALSA.
Interview Sampling Recruitment Strategy and Rationale
Convenience sampling was used through the selection of protégés in the CALSA
mentoring program. Stakeholders were contacted by phone, email, and in-person to solicit
interest in participating in this study. Out of 14 targeted participants, 10 professionals were
solicited. Interviews were conducted by phone and Zoom video conference. CALSA has
approximately 300 alumni from the mentoring program. The choice of participants was
strategic. Protégés who had completed the first year of the mentoring program were interviewed.
Stakeholders were interviewed at the beginning of the study. The researcher used an emergent
design methodology to interview 10 participants. Creswell (2018) states that an emergent design
does not rely on a perfectly-defined strategy; rather, it evolves during data collection since the
goal of qualitative research is to collect pertinent information from participants relevant to the

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 74
problem of practice. Also, Merriam and Tisdale (2016) suggest that an emergent and flexible
qualitative research design is ideal as the design is responsive to changing conditions of the
research study.
A set of 16 interview questions were used at the outset of each interview. The goal of
each interview was to have an in-depth discussion to get at the root of whether protégés were
successfully meeting their professional goals with the guidance of their mentor. Interviews were
used to collect data for this study. Interviewing protégés provided the researcher qualitative data
to assess the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences of the stakeholder group as it
related to accomplishing the organizational goal.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 75
Appendix B: Interview Guide
Thank you for agreeing to be a part of my research. This research will help inform the
CALSA mentoring program about it progress in meeting its organizational goal of building
capacity with protégés and increasing the number of effective public-school administrators. I am
a doctoral student in the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California,
and I will adhere to all University policies and procedures related to research. Your participation
is strictly voluntary and you may opt out of answering any question or withdraw from
participation at any time. I will use a pseudonym instead of your real name when recording and
presenting my data. All data will be kept in a secure location and maintained for at least 3 years
following the conclusion of the study. All data associated with is research and all information
will be destroyed after three years. May I have your consent to audio record this interview? The
recording will be pass protected and deleted after I have had a chance to record its contents. Do
you have any questions before we begin?

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 76
Appendix C: Interview Questions
1. Tell me about a typical day as a leader in your organization.
2. Tell me more about your typical day.
3. What are your organization's values and your responsibilities as an administrator?
4. Explain and describe the expectations your organization has for leaders in your organization.
5. Taking your leadership experiences into consideration, describe your leadership role within
your organization and how are you are supported in your position?
6. Tell me about a time when you would have benefitted from asking for help from an
experienced administrator, like your mentor to help you reflect about the progress of your goals.
7. What are your experiences with working with other leaders? How does that compare to the
support given to you by your mentor to help you implement and achieve your goals?
8. Taking your experiences working with your mentor, how do you identify personal and
professional goals? How has your mentor helped you with this?
9. How does CALSA account for your progress in the program?
10. What motivated you to work with a CALSA mentor? Did your mentor have the skills to help
you achieve your goals?
11. Describe the ideal relationship between a protégé and mentor. What support was given to
you by CALSA to develop your relationship with your mentor?
12. Would you say you have this type of relationship? Tell me about it.
13. And as a result, what kind of relationship has been created with your CALSA mentor?
14. What is the ideal method to engage the protégé and the mentor?
15. Describe the support given to you to improve your leadership skills in the CALSA
mentoring program.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 77
16. How have your experiences in the CALSA mentoring program influenced you as a leader?
Describe your experiences with the training you received during the mentoring program to help
you create a relationship with your mentor.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 78
Appendix D: Information Sheet for Study Participants
Effects of Mentoring on Public School Administrators:
An Evaluation Study

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Constantino Aguilar at the
University of Southern California, because you are a member of the California Association of
Latino Superintendents and Administrators (CALSA). This study is funded by the author of this
study. Your participation is voluntary. You should read the information below, and ask
questions about anything you do not understand, before deciding whether to participate. Please
take as much time as you need to read the consent form. You may also decide to discuss
participation with your organization’s superintendent or the executive director of CALSA. If you
decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this form. You will be given a copy of this form.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this project is to evaluate the degree to which CALSA is meeting its goal of
providing effective mentoring to its protégés. The analysis will focus on knowledge, motivation
and organizational influences related to achieving the organizational goal. While a complete
performance evaluation would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholder to
be focused on in this analysis is the protégé. Using the gap analysis conceptual and
methodological framework, the researcher seeks to investigate what knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that may be impacting the progress of CALSA protégés.

STUDY PROCEDURES
This study will consist of an evaluation of the CALSA formal mentoring program. The author
will evaluate the program by interviewing 10 protégés in cohort 14. If you volunteer to
participate in this study, you will be asked to partake in a face-to-face interview using Zoom,
consisting of sixteen questions surrounding the effectiveness of the mentoring program.

FACE-TO-FACE INTERVIEWS
Participation in this study is entirely voluntary and anonymous. The participants of this study
will be asked to partake in an interview consisting of sixteen questions regarding the
effectiveness of the CALSA formal mentoring program. The date, time, and location of this
interview will be determined at a later date and should only require approximately one hour of
your time. If interested in being interviewed for this study, you are instructed to respond to this
request with your name, and contact information. If you should choose to participate in the
interview-using Zoom, your personal information will be required for the purpose of
communication with the author of this study.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
Although the design of this study has not revealed any potential risks to its participants, if a
participant should experience a risk or discomfort, please make it known to the author of this study
immediately.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
In the process of preparing for this study, it was discovered that no study of this kind has been
conducted with the CALSA formal mentoring program. Providing the results of the evaluation

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 79
study to CALSA will benefit the organization by providing necessary data to improve and
validate the services being provided to protégés.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
There will be no compensation for participation in this study.

POTENTIAL CONFLICTS OF INTEREST OF THE INVESTIGATOR
There are no identified conflicts of interest associated with this study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law. However, if we
are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about you. The members
of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection
Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. Interviewees will be assigned a pseudonym of
P1, P2, P3, and P4, etc., for the purpose of this study. Participants will be identified by this
pseudonym within the works of this study. This identifiable information is for academic
research only and will be retained in safe keeping by the author of this study. Information
gathered for this study will remain with the author for academic purpose only and will not be
made available to any entity unless mandated by law. When the results of the research are
published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable information will be used.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss of
benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time and
discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or
remedies because of your participation in this research study.

INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact:

Principle Investigator/researcher:
Constantino Aguilar
constama@usc.edu or caguilar@muhsd.org
(209) 756-1374

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 80
Appendix E: Credibility and Trustworthiness

Ensuring credibility and trustworthiness was critical to limit researcher bias because the
researcher served as a component of deriving the qualitative data. The researcher conducted all
of the interviews with the protégés, and coded and analyzed all of the collected data. The
emergent, qualitative research design was a method used to increase credibility and
trustworthiness while limiting researcher bias. The data collected during interviews was used to
solicit information in subsequent interviews to triangulate data. The use of triangulation to
collect data from multiple sources increased the credibility and trustworthiness of the study while
limiting researcher bias (Creswell, 2018; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
There were other methods used to increase credibility and trustworthiness for this study.
Transcripts were created verbatim, which produced robust data for analysis (Maxwell, 2013).
Creating transcripts ensured no relevant data was excluded from the study. The researcher also
used member checks on initial data to solicit necessary feedback from the protégés (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Respondent validation was used when protégés were also asked follow up
questions for clarification, which gave participants a chance to review their responses from the
interview to confirm or clarify if needed (Creswell, 2018; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) assert that member checking is an opportunity to solicit
feedback from participants to ensure that researchers have captured participants’ perspectives
without the researcher’s bias. Maxwell (2013) identifies member checking as a vital step in a
qualitative study to ensure that participants’ words are not misinterpreted and to identify possible
researcher bias. Finally, I used a colleague to review collected data and findings to determine
plausibility of the findings, which is a validity strategy recommended by Merriam and Tisdell
(2016).

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 81
Appendix F: Ethics
All aspects of this study were honored with integrity and were abided by the University
of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) policies and procedures. Merriam
and Tisdell (2016) state that a researcher must conduct research with integrity when collecting
data, analyzing data, and reporting data. Before any data is collected, the researcher obtained
informed consent from all participants. All participants were given consent forms at the
commencement of the study. Glesne (2011) states that informed consent must occur so that the
participants are aware that their participation is voluntary, all the discussions will be kept
confidential, and participants are allowed to withdraw at any point without penalty. When the
researcher approached the participants to be a part of the study, it was emphasized that their
participation was voluntary. The researcher also informed participants that they would not
receive any form of compensation or personal benefits from participating.
Furthermore, prior to the start of the interviews, permission was requested to audio record
the interviews. The researcher protected the privacy of participants by giving them a
pseudonym. All data was linked to the pseudonym. All notes and recordings were stored in a
locked and secure location, and will remain there for three years after the study is complete.
After three years, all informed consent forms will be destroyed by shredding the documents. It is
important to note that the researcher is a current member of CALSA. The researcher does not
hold an elected position, a position of power, or title in the CALSA organization. The researcher
has also been a protégé and a mentor in the CALSA formal mentoring program.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 82
Appendix G: Implementation and Evaluation Plan
The implementation and evaluation plan that was used for this study is based on the New
World Kirkpatrick Model. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) state that there are three reasons
to formally evaluate improvement programs: 1) improve programs, 2) demonstrate value, and 3)
maximize the conversion of learning into employee behavior changes that facilitate the
achievement of goals. The New World Kirkpatrick Model consists of four levels of training and
evaluation: (4) Results, (3) Behavior, (2) Learning, and (1) Reaction (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). Level 4 consists of the outcomes to which the objectives of the organization are being
met. Level 3 consists of required behaviors which must be evident and executed by individuals
to achieve the desired results. The desired behaviors of the organization must also be monitored
to ensure consistent performance and staff must be encouraged to reinforce the continued use of
the desired behaviors of the organization. Level 2 assesses the participants’ learning through
measuring knowledge, self-efficacy, and the commitment toward the desired behavior. Level 1
evaluates an individual’s reaction to the desired behavior including the level of engagement and
satisfaction for the learner. The New World Model will provide the needed framework to allow
the organization to measure its success, while providing evidence for continued improvement
during the implementation of the evaluation plan.
Organizational Purpose, Needs, and Expectations
The purpose for this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the California Association
of Latino Superintendents and Administrators (CALSA) mentoring program using Clark and
Estes’s (2008) knowledge, motivation and organizational influences model. Through the review
of literature and interviews conducted with protégés in the CALSA mentoring program, several
influences were determined as areas for improvement for the CALSA mentoring program. The
identified influences include: 1) providing a model framework and list of personal and

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 83
professional goals for protégés to use as exemplars; 2) providing a virtual meeting structure like
Zoom to increase meeting opportunities for the protégé to meet with the mentor; 3) providing
training for the protégé about how to self-reflect about their goals; 4) providing meaningful
feedback about the progress of goals to increase self-efficacy by the protégé; 5) setting goals
focused on improving protégé leadership skills; and 6) providing a virtual platform like Zoom
for protégés and mentors to foster a meaningful relationship and increase the pool of experienced
mentors. The proposed solutions to mitigate the gaps include successful implementation and
training for the protégés and mentors in the CALSA mentoring program. The desired outcome
for these proposed solutions is to increase the effectiveness of protégés in the CALSA mentoring
program.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 84
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
The table below identifies the desired outcomes, both internal and external, the metric(s)
used to measure success, and the method(s) for collecting the data to evaluate Level 4 results of
the implementation and execution plan.
Table 6
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes.
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Increase the number of
experienced mentors by
using a virtual platform
like Zoom.
Annual assessment of the increased
number of experienced mentors
applying due to the use of Zoom.
Annual survey to the
protégés and mentors.
Increase meaningful
meeting opportunities
between the mentor and
the protégé.
Use of Zoom meetings. Annual survey to the
protégés and mentors
about the increased
number of meaningful
interactions for the year.
Internal Outcomes
Increase protégé’s
proficiency about
establishing meaningful
goals.
Annual assessment of protégés’
goals.
Annual review of the
protégés goals by the
mentoring committee.
Increase the protégé’s
self-efficacy about their
leadership abilities.
Protégés self-disclosed level of
self-efficacy discussing their
leadership abilities.
CALSA interviews with
the protégés at the
conclusion of the
mentoring program.

Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are the protégés in the mentoring
program. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), critical behaviors are actions that
managers must consistently demonstrate to achieve Level 4 outcomes. In this case, the first
critical behavior protégés must demonstrate is the ability to apply the knowledge and skills
acquired during their training to demonstrate their leadership skills. The second critical behavior

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 85
is that CALSA must be open to trying new virtual methods to increase the number of
experienced mentors and increase the meaningful meeting opportunities for protégés. The
supporting metrics, methods, and timing for each critical behavior are presented in the following
table.
Table 7
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Protégés commit to
applying the knowledge
and skills acquired
during their training to
demonstrate their
leadership skills.
Number of protégés
implementing their
goals.
Knowledge and/or
confidence
assessment.
At the end of each
year of the
mentoring program.
2. CALSA shows
commitment to increase
the number of
experienced mentors and
increase the virtual
meeting opportunities for
protégés.
Number of
experienced mentors
accepted into the
mentoring program
and increase of
meetings.
CALSA reviews
the level of
experienced
mentors and
increased number
of meetings.
At the end of each
year of the
mentoring program.

Required drivers. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), required drivers
provide an additional level of support and accountability to ensure implementation of the
proposed solutions through reinforcement, monitoring, and encouragement. Furthermore,
protégés and mentors will need support. The CALSA mentoring program must provide
organizational support to the protégés and mentors as they work to close the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational gaps. The following table outlines the required driver methods,
timing, and critical behaviors supported.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 86
Table 8
Required Drivers to Support HR Staff Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing Critical Behaviors Supported
Reinforcing
Follow up with additional
training.
Quarterly 1
Evaluation of progress on
goals.
Monthly 1
Model leadership skills
during scheduled meetings.
Ongoing 1
Encouraging
Feedback and ongoing
coaching from CALSA
mentoring committee.
Quarterly 1,2
Rewarding
Individual performance
awards by acknowledging
progress.
Quarterly 1, 2
Monitoring
Report to the CALSA
membership about the
progress of increased
mentors.
Annual 2

Organizational support. The organization must provide the needed resources to support
the program’s goals. First, the organization must establish the expectation that all protégés shall
apply their goals within their organizations and demonstrate leadership skills throughout the
program at all CALSA events by leading educational break-out sessions. The executive director
of the mentoring program must make this an expectation. Second, the organization must commit
to using a virtual platform to increase the pool of mentors and foster the relationship between the
protégé and mentor. Third, the CALSA organization must ensure that all mentoring participants
have the training needed to be involved in the mentoring program.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 87
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Participants in the mentoring program must possess specific knowledge,
skills, and attitudes to support the performance of Level 3 critical behaviors listed in Table 8.
Following the implementation of the recommended solutions, protégés will be able to:
1. Demonstrate leadership skills within their organization (procedural knowledge).
2. Articulate characteristics of exemplary leadership (declarative knowledge).
3. Demonstrate the ability to be confident about their leadership skills (self-efficacy).
4. Demonstrate the ability to implement their goals (declarative knowledge).
5. Understand how to foster a relationship between the protégé and mentor (conceptual
knowledge).
Program. The aforementioned learning goals will increase the knowledge and
motivation of protégés and will be achieved through training. To develop the protégés
knowledge and skills, they will be provided training, education, and coaching sessions by their
mentors. This training will be ongoing since cohorts are launched annually. Each year, protégés
will participate in training during the CALSA summer institute. Additionally, protégés will
receive in-person training during the summer institute by CALSA members who have been
mentors and protégés in the program. Following the training, the protégés will receive feedback
and will be provided with encouragement from educational leaders throughout the state of
California.
Components of learning. The New World Kirkpatrick Model identifies five
components of learning: knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment (Kirkpatrick
& Kirkpatrick, 2016). These components parallel and complement the Clark and Estes gap
analysis framework). Protégés must demonstrate knowledge to provide evidence of learning,

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 88
while also demonstrating procedural knowledge. Protégés must find value in performing the task
and demonstrate the necessary confidence in their ability to successfully complete the task.
Table 9 identifies the recommended evaluation method and time element for each learning
outcome.
Table 9
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Methods or Activities Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks during scheduled
meetings.
Quarterly
Written reflections. Monthly
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Demonstrate leadership skills. Monthly
Articulate elements of exemplary leadership. Monthly
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Mentor feedback. Monthly
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Mentor feedback. Monthly
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Developed list of actionable goals. During in-person training

Level 1: Reaction
The reaction of protégés must be measured to ensure accountability. Assessing the
reaction of protégés is necessary to determine if they are engaged during training, perceive the

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 89
training as valuable, and consider the training relevant to their jobs. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
(2016) state that reactions can be measured by observations of the leader, dedicated observer, or
surveys. Table 10 outlines the methods used to determine reactions by protégés and their level
of engagement during training.
Table 10
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tools Timing
Engagement
Survey At the conclusion of training during the
summer institute.
Dedicated observer During all mandatory sessions with the
mentor.
Relevance
Survey At the conclusion of quarterly mandatory
meetings.
Observations of the leader At the conclusion of the quarterly mandatory
meetings.
Participation Satisfaction
Survey At the conclusion of the mentoring program.
In person exit interview At the conclusion of the mentoring program.

Evaluation Tools
Immediately following program implementation. Participants will complete a survey
(see Appendix H). The survey will indicate the participants’ satisfaction, commitment, attitude,
the degree to which they valued the training, as well as their level of confidence in applying what
was learned. Additionally, a dedicated observer will indicate observations of participants’
attitudes and engagement during training. Finally, the director of the mentoring program will
complete an exit interview of each of the protégés completing the program (see Appendix I).

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 90
Delayed for a period after program implementation. The organization will administer
a blended evaluation survey instrument approximately 90 days after each learning event. The
delay allows for sufficient time for critical behaviors and required drivers to take effect
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The survey will contain a combination of questions to assess
the following: 1) the protégé’s satisfaction and relevance of the training in the mentoring
program (Level 1); 2) knowledge, skills, confidence, attitude, commitment and value of applying
the learning (Level 2); 3) the ability to demonstrate leadership skills (Level 3); and 4) the extent
to which protégés can implement their goals (Level 4).
Data Analysis and Reporting
The goal of this implementation plan is to provide the CALSA mentoring program the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational support to increase the effectiveness of the mentoring
program, so that it increases the number of effective Latino and Latina leaders in public schools.
Multiple metrics will be used to measure the effectiveness of the mentoring program. The
implementation plan report will be reported bi-annually during the CALSA Focus on Results
symposium and the summer institute. Sharing the implementation plan during these events will
publicly demonstrate to all of CALSA’s stakeholders its commitment to sustaining the mentoring
program. The findings of the report will be presented with research-based report, complete with
supporting evidence to show the impact of the mentoring program. Findings will be illustrated.
Figures 2 and 3 provide a sample of an illustration of results.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 91

Figure 2 Sample visual dashboard data presentation approach.

Figure 3. Sample visual dashboard data presentation approach.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 92
Summary
The implementation and evaluation plan used the Kirkpatrick New World Model to
evaluate the CALSA mentoring program and its progress to increase effective Latino and Latina
public school administrators. The New World Model enabled the study to be based on a research
model, which was included an evaluation and implementation plan. The New World Model also
focused on behavioral outcomes with additional attention to the application process. The plan
clearly states the desired outcomes and the critical organizational support needed to ensure the
plan is successful. If the plan is properly executed, CALSA will see an increase in the
effectiveness of its protégés in public school settings.

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 93
Appendix H: Initial Blended Evaluation Instrument (Levels 1-2)

For each of the questions below, circle the appropriate response about your experiences with the
CALSA mentoring program.

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Agree Strongly
Agree
1. There was encouragement
throughout the program.
1 2 3 4
2. I found value in the mentoring
program.
1 2 3 4
3. I will do my job better because of
what I learned in the mentoring
program.
1 2 3 4
4. I will recommend this program to
other administrators.
1 2 3 4
5. I will implement what I have
learned into my job.
1 2 3 4
6. The feedback I received in the
mentoring program increased my
confidence as a leader.
1 2 3 4
7. My discussions with my mentor
helped me understand how to be a
better leader.
1 2 3 4

Please provide feedback for the following questions:

1. What part of the mentoring program was the most beneficial to you?

2. What part of the mentoring program was the least beneficial to you?

3. What are the major concepts you learned in the mentoring program?

EFFECTS OF MENTORING 94
Appendix I: Subsequent Blended Evaluation Instrument (Levels 1-4)

For each of the questions below, circle the appropriate response about your experiences with the
CALSA mentoring program.

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Agree Strongly
Agree
1. I have the opportunity to use what
I learned in my job.
1 2 3 4
2. I found value in the time spent
learning about leadership.
1 2 3 4
3. After the mentoring program, I am
confident about applying my learning
to my job.
1 2 3 4
4. I received support from my
mentor to apply what I learned.
1 2 3 4
5. I am seeing positive results from
what I learned in the mentoring
program.
1 2 3 4

Please provide feedback for the following questions:

1. Describe any challenges you are facing implementing what you learned?

2. Provide possible solutions to overcome the challenges you are facing with
implementing what you have learned?

3. How could the mentoring program be improved?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this project is to evaluate the degree to which the California Association of Latino Superintendents and Administrators (CALSA) is meeting its goal of providing effective mentoring to its protégés. Leadership programs are being redesigned to ensure administrators are successful in their positions and remain in their positions with a support system. Without effective mentorship and leadership, turnover in the administration becomes an obstacle to school improvement efforts. This study used a modified gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008), to evaluate knowledge, motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences related to CALSA providing effective mentoring to its protégés. Following a review of literature, assumed KMO influences were examined through a qualitative, emergent design. Assumed influences were validated or invalidated through the use of interview data. A comprehensive implementation plan using the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) is presented to measure its effectiveness of the recommendations.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Aguilar, Constantino Mario (author)

Core Title Effects of mentoring on public school administrators: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 07/25/2019

Defense Date 05/08/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Latino administrators,Latino leaders,mentoring,OAI-PMH Harvest,school leadership

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Freking, Frederick (committee chair), Brady, Melanie (committee member), Krop, Cathy (committee member)

Creator Email caguilar@muhsd.org,caguilar7@sbcglobal.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-192483

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Document Type Dissertation

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