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Dunstaple, DuFay, and Binchois: the influence of English music on continental composers through Marion Antiphons

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Dunstaple, DuFay, and Binchois: the influence of English music on continental composers through Marion Antiphons

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Content Copyright 2018 Tara Bailey DUNSTAPLE, DUFAY, AND BINCHOIS: THE INFLUENCE OF ENGLISH MUSIC ON CONTINENTAL COMPOSERS THROUGH MARION ANTIPHONS By Tara Bailey A Thesis Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERISTY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF ARTS (EARLY MUSIC PERFORMANCE) May 2018 ii Dedication To my parents, Steve and Nancy, you made this more than an idea, you made it a requirement in my life. Thank you for making me be the person I always wanted to be. To my touchstone, my heart, my other half: Miguel, you supported me in this endeavor when I thought I was not going to finish. Thank you for your love and support. Most important, thank you for our life. I dedicate this thesis to all of you. iii Table of Contents Page Chapter Index of Examples…………………………………………………………………..iv Introduction……………………...………………………………………………….1 I. The Blessed Virgin Mary……………………………………………………….4 The Antiphon………………………………………………………………..12 II. Historical Background………………………..………………………………..17 Composers…………………………………………………………………..20 III. Contenance Angloise……………………………………………………………26 IV. The Motet………………………………………………………………………..32 V. The Music……………………………………………………………………….39 Chant………………………………………………………………………...39 Faburden…………………………………………………………………….43 Polyphonic Settings of the Marion Antiphons …..……………………….46 Conclusion…………………………………………………………….…….57 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………...61 iv Index of Examples Figures 1.1 Buxtehuder Altar, 14 th century, by Betram of Minden…………………………....6 1.2 Ghent Altarpiece (1426-1429) by Jan van Eyck…………………………………..6 1.3 Coronation of the Virgin, 14th century Diptych, Florence by Maestro Daddesco..7 1.4 Jesus and Mary on the Throne, 12 th century mosaic, Basilica of St. Maria, Rome.7 1.5 Madonna della Misericordia, 14 th century, by Piero della Francesca…………….9 Musical Examples Ex. 1 Liber Usualis pg. 273, Alma redemptoris mater chant ………………………….41 Ex. 2 Liber Usualis, pg. 274, Gáude Virgo chant……………………………………...42 Ex. 3 Liber Usualis, pg. 1864, Ave Regina caelórum chant……………………………42 Ex. 4 Alma redemptoris mater from John Dunstable: Complete Works, pg. 106: opening………………………………………………………………….47 Ex. 5 Alma redemptoris mater from John Dunstable: Complete Works, pg. 106: setting of “Tu que genuisti”…………………………………………….48 Ex. 6 Ave regina celorum from John Dunstable: Collected Works, pg. 99: setting of “exora”………………………………………………………...49 Ex. 7 Alma redemptoris mater from John Dunstable: Collected Works, pg. 109: setting of “porta manens”………………………………………………49 Ex. 8 Ave regina celorum from John Dunstable: Collected Works, pg. 99: setting of “ et semper”…………………………………………………...50 Ex. 9 Alma redemptoris mater (ii) from Guillaume Dufay, Opera Omnia, pg. 121: opening………………………………………………………………….51 Ex. 10 Alma redemptoris mater (ii) from Guillaume Dufay, Opera Omnia, pg. 121: setting of “Virgo”……………………………………………………….52 Ex. 11 Alma redemptoris mater (ii) from Guillaume Dufay, Opera Omnia, pg. 118: ending…………………………………………………………………..53 Ex. 12 Ave regina celorum (ii) from Guillaume Dufay, Opera Omnia, pg. 121: setting of “Salve”……………………………………………………….53 Ex. 13 Ave regina celorum (ii) from Guillaume Dufay, Opera Omnia, pg. 121: setting of “Gaude”……………………………………………………...54 Ex. 14 Ave regina celorum from The sacred music of Gilles Binchois, pg. 183: setting of “O Maria flos”……………………………………………….55 v Abstract Throughout the 15 th century, composers used pre-existing material as the basis for many of their compositions, specifically in sacred music. Composers experimented with isorythmic motets and masses, cantus firmus, paraphrase and parody masses, and cantus firmus motets. In these sacred motets, the composer used the pre-existing material, usually from a chant source, to create new material. In particular, composers during the Renaissance focused on writing motets dedicated to the Virgin Mary, as she could act as an intercessor between the people and God. Three composers stand at the beginning of this movement: John Dunstaple (1390- 1453), Guillaume Dufay (1398- 1474), and Gilles de Bins dit Binchois (1400- 1460). As the mother of Jesus, the Virgin Mary is viewed as a powerful and prominent symbol of motherhood and goodness. Though the fascination with her by the church and the congregation began in 100 A.D., her importance came into stark focus in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. The political and religious climate combined with the desire to escape Purgatory created fervor for praise to the Blessed Virgin, inspiring the surge in interest in the Marion antiphons, monophonic chant, motets, and devotional services in the 15 th Century. Of all of the devotional texts to Mary, there are four famous Marion antiphons that are used numerous times across continental and political lines: Alma Redemptoris mater, Regina caeli letare, Ave regina caelorum, and Salve regina 1 . This study will define the function, use, and performance practice of these special antiphons. Chapter I will define the Marion culture and devotional practices and the 1 Allan W. Atlas, Renaissance Music: Music in Western Europe, 1400- 1600, (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998) 14. vi progress into the use and definition of the Antiphon. Chapter II will focus primarily on the religious strife in the 15 th Century, followed by the background and training of the formerly introduced composers. Chapter III defines the Contenance Anglois and its importance to the discussion of Dunstaple’s influence on the continental composers. Chapter IV and V move through the musical concepts that define the Contenance Anglois, with the Motet at the center of the discussion. The Motet and several subgenres are used to better define the Marion Antiphons. Through comparison of the chant to the settings of each composer, I will demonstrate the connection between the text and the musical settings, and argue that subject of the text in many ways drives the musical compositions. I will then focus on the settings for three voices, to demonstrate an English influence on the continental compositional styles of Dufay and Binchois through score analysis, regional compositional practice, and historical influences. Copyright 2018 Tara Bailey Copyright 2018 Tara Bailey Introduction As the mother of Jesus, the Virgin Mary is viewed by the Church as a powerful and prominent symbol of motherhood and goodness. Although the Church’s fascination with her began in 100 A.D., her importance came into stark focus in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. 2 Significant shifts in political and religious landscapes were contributing factors. In addition, the Church encouraged renewed Marian devotion. As a result, the fear of purgatory, where the unrepentant souls are sent until they cleanse the sins they incurred in life, rose. Because Mary, during the early 15 th Century, was viewed as the Mother, people believed that she could act as a guide through purgatory. It was also believed that by the common people that a person could bypass purgatory all together if they praised the Virgin Mary fervently. 3 A new vision formed by the people, “one without parallel in the late medieval evidence: the role of Mary as the intercessor.” 4 The Church endorsed this view as a way to require the purchase of indulgences, a way for people to buy their loved ones or themselves passage out of Purgatory. 5 The Church gained funding and land titles for their continued campaign to control political power and wealth. The political and religious climate combined with the desire to escape Purgatory created fervor for praise to the Blessed Virgin, inspiring the surge in interest in the Marion antiphons, monophonic chant, motets, and devotional services. Of all of the devotional texts to Mary, four famous Marion antiphons are used numerous times across 2 Atlas, 14. 3 Marina Warner, Alone of All Her Sex: The Myth and the Cult of the Virgin Mary, (New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1976) 317. 4 Robert L. Kendrick, Celestial Sirens: Nuns and their Music in Early Modern Milan, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996) 175. 5 Bonnie J. Blackburn, “For Whom Do the Singers Sing?” Early Music 25, no. 4 (Nov. 1997) : pg. 595. 2 continental and political lines: Alma Redemptoris mater, Regina caeli letare, Ave regina caelorum, and Salve regina 6 . Throughout the 15 th century, composers used pre-existing material as the basis for many of their compositions in sacred music. Composers experimented with isorythmic motets and masses, cantus firmus, paraphrase and parody masses, and cantus firmus motets. In motets, the composer used pre-existing material, usually from a chant source, to create new material. In particular, composers during the Renaissance focused on writing motets dedicated to the Virgin Mary, because she could act as an intercessor between worshippers and God. Three composers stand at the beginning of this movement toward a focus on Marion devotion: John Dunstaple (1390- 1453), Guillaume Dufay (1398- 1474), and Gilles de Bins dit Binchois (1400- 1460). The English composer John Dunstaple is lauded with expanding the polyphonic capabilities of sacred music. 7 Guillaume Dufay and Gilles Binchois, both living and working on the European continent, were prolific composers known for their diverse collection of works. 8 Although born in two separate countries, each of these composers wrote polyphonic settings of the famous Marion antiphons. Evidence suggests that Dunstaple traveled throughout Europe during the 15 th century. Although he was not the only English composer of his time, he was among the first to extend his influence to the 6 Allan W. Atlas, Renaissance Music: Music in Western Europe, 1400- 1600, (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998) 14. 7 Charles Van den Borren, “The Genius of Dunstable” Proceedings of the Musical Association 47, (1920- 1921) :87. 8 There are two collections for Dufay and Binchois: Heinrich Besseler, ed., Corpus Mensurabilis Musicae 1. 6 vols. Guillaume Dufay, Opera Omnia. 6 vols. . (Rome: American Institute of Musicology, 1951-1966). and Philip R. Kaye, ed., The sacred music of Gilles Binchois. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992). 3 continent. 9 Each of these composers, devoted several of their compositions to veneration of the Virgin Mary. Specifically, each composed vocal settings of Alma Redemptoris Mater and Ave Regina Celorum,. This study will define the function, use, and performance practice of these special antiphons. Chapter I will define Marion culture and devotional practices and the use and definition of the Antiphon. Chapter II will focus primarily on the religious strife in the 15 th Century, followed by the background and training of the formerly introduced composers. Chapter III will consider the Contenance Anglois and its role in Dunstaple’s influence on the continental composers. Chapter IV and V move through the musical concepts that define the Contenance Anglois, with the Motet at the center of the discussion. The Motet and several subgenres, used by these composers, to better define the Marion Antiphons. Through comparison of the chant to the settings of each composer, I will demonstrate the connection between the text and the musical settings, and argue that subject of the text in many ways drives the musical compositions. I will then focus on the settings for three voices, to demonstrate an English influence on the continental compositional styles of Dufay and Binchois through score analysis, regional compositional practice, and historical influences. 9 Ibid, 3. 4 Chapter I: The Blessed Virgin Mary A powerful figure in religious history, the Virgin Mary has been a subject of fascination for scholars and spiritual devotees for centuries. Their interest has spawned numerous books, articles, chapels, and confraternities. The fascination with Marion interests has been referred to by historians as the Cult of the Virgin or Marion Cult. The earliest glimpse into the “Cult of the Virgin” survives in the Gospel of James from 100A.D. 10 Since then, a wealth of historical iconography, poetry, and writings demonstrate a growth in devotion to the Virgin Mary. This surge of interest by the Church can be attributed to the symbolic nature that the Virgin Mary represented. As the Holy Mother of Jesus Christ, the people viewed her as the Lunar Goddess, Goddess of earth, Goddess of animals, Goddess of death and the underworld, the Black Virgin, Goddess of War, Theotokos, Bride of God, Queen of Heaven, the return of Eve, and an intercessor and protector of the people. 11 In addition to her most prominent role as the Holy Mother, this study will only briefly cover the final five symbolic roles, listed above, of the Virgin Mary, beginning first with the return of Eve. Ne had the apple taken been, The apple taken been, Ne hadde never our Lady A been heaven’s queen. Blessed be the time That apple taken was! Therefore we may singen 10 Warner, 347. 11 Anne Baring and Jules Cashford, The Myth of the Goddess: Evolution of an Image, (London: Penguin Group, 1991), 537-608. 5 “Deo Gratias!” 12 An anonymous 15 th -century poet wrote this poem to describe his joy that Eve was exiled from the Garden of Eden because it brought forth the Virgin Mary. Traditionally, Eve existed as the embodiment of sin. Being a woman, she was viewed as inferior to her counterpart, Adam. She chose to eat the fruit in the Garden of Eden, although God forbade it. Encouraged by the serpent, symbolic of the Devil, Eve partook of the fruit and was punished by God for her actions and sent out of the Garden. Her sin and ultimate punishment allowed for the birth of the Virgin Mary. In the 5 th century St. Jerome explained the connection: “Death came through Eve, but life has come through Mary. And thus the gift of virginity has been bestowed most richly upon women, seeing that it has had its beginning from a woman.” 13 This parallel set Mary and Eve at opposite poles of an argument. Although both were women, Eve chose to disobey God and damn the world. Mary chose to obey God, and through her salvation was born. Mary’s virginity and the Immaculate Conception, the virgin birth of Jesus, “had redeemed the sin of Eve.” 14 In much of the iconography of the Virgin Mary, after her death she is enthroned with her son and often wearing a crown. The use of the crown and throne promotes the idea of Mary as the Queen of Heaven. The Panel found in the Buxtehuder Altar by Master Bertram of Minden (1345-1415) depicts Jesus crowning the Virgin Mary as she 12 Warner, 61. 13 Ibid, 54. 14 Ibid, 537. 6 sits next to him on the throne in Heaven. 15 In another rendering, as part of the Ghent Altarpiece by Jan van Eyck, she appears in the full dress of a royal figure, complete with jeweled adornments. These images illustrate Mary as the Queen of Heaven. Additionally because the images depict her body in the flesh, it promotes belief in the Assumption and Ascension of the Virgin Mary into Heaven. The Ascension into Heaven and the Assumption of her physical body set her apart from other women as only their souls may reach Heaven. 16 Figure 1.1 17 Figure 1.2 18 As the Queen of Heaven, Mary is the Bride of God. Referencing images of Jesus Christ and the Virgin Mary after the Assumption, the pair is depicted as a married couple. 15 Jaroslav Pelikan, David Flusser and Justin Lang, Mary: Images of the Mother of Jesus in Jewish and Christian Perspective, (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005), 26. 16 David Kinsley, The Goddess’ Mirror: Visions of the Divine from East and West. (New York: State of New York University Press, 1989), 244. 17 Buxtehuder Altar, 14 th century, by Betram of Minden. 18 Ghent Altarpiece (1426-1429) by Jan van Eyck. 7 Images show the couple holding hands, a symbol of matrimony, or Jesus has his arm wrapped around Mary, in yet another intimate gesture. In the Coronation of the Virgin from a 14 th Century Diptych in Florence created by Maestro Daddesco, Jesus and Mary join right hands, the symbol of marriage. Similarly in Rome a 12 th -century mosaic in the Basilica of St. Maria, Jesus and Mary on the Throne, show Jesus’ arm encircling the Virgin Mary. 19 Figure 1.3 20 Figure 1.4 21 Further depiction of the Virgin Mary as the Queen of Heaven and Bride of Christ comes from Christian interpretation of the Song of Songs. This book of love songs, thought to be written by King Solomon—a belief that has since been discredited by most scholars—became an allegory of romantic love between Jesus and the Virgin Mary. “The Virgin is no dowager queen mother, but the beloved Shulamite, bride of Christ.” 22 This 19 Baring and Cashford, 604-607. 20 Coronation of the Virgin, 14th century Diptych, Florence by Maestro Daddesco. 21 Jesus and Mary on the Throne, 12 th century mosaic, Basilica of St. Maria, Rome. 22 Warner, 122-125. 8 allegory appears as early as the fourth century and became the basis for the 86 sermons by St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153). 23 The view presented in the iconography combined with the Song of Songs established the theological belief that Mary symbolically embodies the church. Therefore, Christ is wedded, through Mary, to the church. The Song of Songs can be viewed as “a description of God’s love for his church and vice versa.” 24 Additional confirmation of Jesus and Mary as a wedded couple is called the Sacred Marriage or Hieros Gamos. 25 As a wedded pair, the two can stand as equals. However, as the image suggests, Jesus crowns the Virgin Mary as shown in the Buxtehuder Altar, making her and the church dependent upon him. 26 In addition to her role as the Bride and Queen, the Virgin Mary is the mother of God or Theotokos. Though the title was not officially ascribed to her until 431 at the Council of Ephesus, faithful devotees already identified her using that term. 27 As the mother of God, she was believed to have some influence with Him and her son/husband, Jesus. According to her devotees, she acts as intercessor and protector of the people of the church. She has no power to act on a prayer but can “intercede with her son, who as God is the only source of salvation.” 28 The living prayed for healing, protection, and mercy, hoping that she will intervene on their behalf. Piero della Francesca’s Madonna 23 Shai Burstyn, “Early 15 th -Century Polyphonic Settings of Song of Songs Antiphons” Acta Musicologica, 49, no. 2(July-December 1977): pg. 202-203. 24 Kinsley, 244-245. 25 Baring and Cashford, 659-675. Hieros Gamos is defined as the sacred marriage between a God and a mortal. It can also be viewed as the perfect union of masculine and feminine, the pairing of the sun and moon, and the distinction between energy and force. 26 Ibid, 245. 27 Pelikan, Flusser, and Lang, 82. 28 Warner, 286. 9 della Misericordia from the 15 th Century illustrates the Queen Mother as the protector of her people. 29 Figure 1.5 30 According to Marina warner, “The Virgin’s intercession with her son can bring healing and fertility and consolation to the living; but by far her greatest function in the Catholic scheme of salvation is to reprieve the sufferings of sinners after death.” 31 Mary 29 Baring and Cashford, 583. 30 Madonna della Misericordia, 14 th century, by Piero della Francesca 31 Warner, 315- 316. 10 as intercessor stands as a significant part of Marion devotion. Prayer to her, and the purchase of indulgences, could help a soul to be released from purgatory. Patrons procured indulgences sold by the church or earned through prayer to the Virgin Mary. 32 In her role of intercessor, Mary acts as a loving Mother and gives mercy to her “children” or her patrons suffering in purgatory by interceding on their behalf with God. In addition to iconography, Marian devotion inspired groups of followers that dedicated their lives to her praise. These groups, generally known as confraternities or confraternitates, although each faction has its own specific name and primary focus. The confraternities were brotherhoods that did not include women. The earliest confraternity, called Cîteaux, was formed in 1100 by St. Bernard of Clairvaux, founder of the Cistercian Order in the 12 th century. 33 However, the cult of the Mater Dolorosa predated St. Bernard at the end of the 11 th century. The leaders of these confraternities believed that the Virgin Mary felt human suffering and took it unto herself, causing her to suffer in kind. 34 St. Bernard focused more on the Song of Songs and Mary’s role as intercessor through which devotees could find redemption. He was instrumental in the development of abbeys dedicated to the Virgin Mary throughout Europe and encouraged others to pray to the Virgin Mary, as she was the most capable of providing redemption. 35 Later in the 13 th Century, St. Francis of Assisi would lead the Cistercians, though other confraternities would emerge as well. 36 In the 17 th Century Louis de Montfort would head a group of Marion devotees. He wrote a Treatise on True Devotion to the Blessed Virgin, which 32 Blackburn, 595. 33 Warner, 131 34 Ibid, 210. 35 Kinsley, 237. 36 Warner, 179. 11 outlines the causes for such ardent devotion. 37 Louis de Monfort was canonized in 1947, 800 years after the first confraternity was founded. 38 Attraction to the Virgin Mary, in her various incarnations, was at its zenith during from the 11 th to the 15 th Centuries, specifically in England. An argument can be made that some Marian devotion inspired courtly love songs of the troubadours in the 12 th century. 39 Though the songs were secular in nature, there were ulterior meanings in the texts. In the 13 th century, there were several collections of music dedicated to the Virgin, yet written in the vernacular. For example Gautier de Coinci (1177-1236) wrote a collection of Marion devotional songs in French. 40 However, “in the Middle Ages, it was not primarily continental theologians but English ones who were so eager to proclaim Mary’s power and her saving grace, her freedom from original sin.” 41 As a result of the English occupation of France and Normandy, there was more opportunity for the English to influence the continental religious factions in further Marion devotion. English clerics were given benefices throughout France and Normandy. 42 This was yet another possible opportunity though which the English influenced their continental peers. To proclaim their devotion, loyal followers of the Virgin, both English and Continental, wrote books, built chapels, and composed music based on ancient texts, known as Marion Antiphons. 37 Monfort Fathers. “Treatis on True Devotion to the Blessed Virgin.” http://www.ewtn.com/library/montfort/truedevo.htm (accessed February 16, 2010). 38 Ibid, Monfort Fathers. 39 David J. Rothenberg, The Flower of Paradise: Marian Devotion and Secular Song in Medieval and Renaissance Music. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 3. 40 Ibid, 7. 41 Gail McMurray Gibson, The Theater of Devotion: East Anglican Drama and Society in the Late Middle Ages, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 137. 42 Andrew Wathey, “Dunstable in France.” Music &Letters 67, no. 1 (January 1996) : 12. 12 The Antiphon The antiphon, largely syllabic, functions as a melodic refrain sung before and after the chanting of a whole psalm to a psalm tone; though its style is simple, its shapely melodic contours complement the neutral psalmody without unduly extending the performance. 43 This definition of the antiphon keenly outlines the differences between the standard antiphon and the Marion Antiphon. Specifically, Marion Antiphons are not connected to a psalm text, but are associated with Compline and, later, with Lady Masses. 45 Marion Antiphons, sometimes classified as votive antiphons, could be included a Votive Mass (Lady Mass) because they were separate from the Divine Office. Votive Masses were additional Masses designed for specific categories of worship, including Marion devotion. 46 As interest in Marion devotion grew, writers began the process of creating Marion texts. Alma Redemptoris Mater, Salve Regina, Regina caeli letare, and Ave regina caelorum, are considered “among the most beautiful creations of the late Middle Ages.” 47 Hermannus Contractus (1013-1054) is the likely author of the first two antiphons, while the Regina caeli is credited to Pope Gregory V, and there is no known author for the Ave Regina caelorum. 48 The melodies are simple but enchanting and memorable. Many historians refer to the Liber Usualis for the chant forms of the Marion Antiphons as, “the oldest manuscript 43 Ross W. Duffin, ed. A Performer’s Guide to Medieval Music, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000), 9. 45 Michel Huglo and Joan Halmo. "Antiphon." Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.libproxy.usc.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/01023 (accesed March 16, 2011). 46 Tess Knighton and David Fallows, eds. Companion to Medieval and Renaissance Music. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 416. 47 Willi Apel, Gregorian Chant, (Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1958) 404. 48 Warner, 115. 13 which contains the hymn can hardly be older than the thirteenth century.” 49 For the purposes of this study, references will be made based on the chant forms collected and copied in the Liber Usualis. The Liber Usualis (LU) also organizes the Marion Antiphons into the order of the time of year that the Marion Antiphons are performed, all at Compline Services and feasts associated with a specific time of year. Additionally, Lady Services made use of the Antiphons, and could be held separately from the Divine Office. The Salve Regina is sung beginning Trinity Sunday through Saturday before the first Sunday of Advent. Ave Regina Caelorum is sung from February 2 through the Wednesday in HolyWeek and Regina Caeli is sung on Easter through the Friday after Pentecost. Alma Redemptoris Mater is sung from the beginning of Advent until February 2. 50 Alma Redemptoris Mater Alma Redemptoris Mater, quae pervia caeli Porta manes, et stella maris, sucurre cadenti, Surgere qui curat populo: tu quae genuisti, Natura mirante, tuum sanctum Genitorem, Virgo prius ac posterius, Gabrielis ab ore Sumens illud Ave, peccatorum miserere. Loving mother of the Redeemer, Gate of heaven, star of the sea, Assist your people who have fallen yet strive to rise again. To the wonderment of nature you bore your Creator, Yet remained a virgin after as before. You who received Gabriel’s joyful greeting, 49 Herbert Musurillo, “The Medieval Hymn, ‘Alma Redemptoris’: A Linguistic Analysis.” The Classical Journal 54, no. 4 (Jan. 1957) : 171. 50 "Mary, Blessed Virgin, Devotion to." New Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 9. 2 nd ed. Detroit: Gale, 2003. 266-271. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale. University of Southern California. 4 Feb. 2010 <http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GVRL&u=usocal_main>. 14 Have pity on us poor sinners. 51 Salve Regina Salve, Regina, mater misericordiae; vita, dulcedo et spes nostra, salve. Ad te clamamus exsules filii Hevae. Ad te suspiramus gementes et flentes in hac lacrimarum valle. Eia ergo, advocata nostra, illos tuos misericordes oculos ad nos converte. Et Iesum, benedictum fructum ventris tui, nobis post hoc exsilium ostende. O clemens, o pia, o dulcis Virgo Maria. Hail, holy Queen, Mother of mercy, Hail, our life, our sweetness, and our hope. To you we cry, the children of Eve; To you we send up our sighs, Mourning and weeping in this land of exile. Turn, then, most gracious advocate, Your eyes of mercy toward us; Lead us home at last And show us the blessed fruit of your womb, Jesus: O clement, O loving, O sweet Virgin Mary. 52 Ave Regina Caelorum Ave, Regina caelorum, Ave, Domina Angelorum: Salve, radix, salve, porta Ex qua mundo lux est orta: Gaude, Virgo gloriosa, Super omnes speciosa, Vale, o valde decora, Et pro nobis Christum exora. Hail Queen of heaven, Hail Mistress of the Angels, Hail root of Jesus, Hail the gate through which the Light rose over the earth. 51 Sister M. Jean Frisk, “Antiphons.” International Marian Research Institute Online, University of Dayton Online. https://udayton.edu/imri/mary/a/antiphons.php (accessed September 28, 2017). 52 Ibid. 15 Rejoice, Virgin most renowned And of unsurpassed beauty, And pray for us to Christ. 53 Regina Caeli Regina caeli, laetare, alleluia. Quia quem meruisti portare, alleluia. Resurrexit, sicut dixit, alleluia. Ora pro nobis Deum, alleluia. Queen of heaven, rejoice, alleluia: For He whom you merited to bear, alleluia, Has risen, as He said, alleluia. Pray for us to God, alleluia. 54 The Ave Regina caelorum praises the Virgin Mary as the Queen of Heaven. 55 Additionally, it describes her as a “gate” through which all mortals can ascend into Heaven. 56 The Regina Caeli echoes the sentiment of praising the Queen of Heaven. Both the Alma Redemptoris Mater and Salve Regina implore the Virgin Mary to intercede on behalf of her devotees. 57 However, the Alma Redemptoris Mater pleads with the Virgin Mary as the “Loving Mother.” The Salve Regina contains an obvious reference to Eve, the highlighting the contrast between the Virgin Mary and Eve. In combining the four antiphons, all of the roles of the Virgin Mary are presented. With interest in Marion devotion on the rise in the English church during the 15 th century, the monarchy, clergy, and laypeople spent much of their spiritual devotions in worship of the Virgin Mary. In response to the interest, composers looked to the devotional chants to create polyphonic compositions in honor of the Virgin Mary. Until 53 Ibid. 54 Ibid. 55 Baring and Cashford, 567. 56 Rothenberg, 36. 57 Warner, 287. 16 the mid-15 th century Marion devotional services and music were mostly confined to England. 58 However, as a result of the political and religious climate, this devotion spilled onto the continent. 58 Julie E. Cumming, “Motet and Cantelina” in A Performer’s Guide to Medieval Music, Ross W. Duffin, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000, 68. 17 Chapter II: Historical Background John Dunstaple, Guillaume Dufay, and Gilles Binchois were brought together through the political and religious circumstances that plagued both England and France. Politically, the 15 th century was a turbulent time in the history of England and France, one fraught with conflict between the two countries dating back to the beginning of the 14 th century. In 1346, the conflicts grew into a century of armed conflict. Commonly known as the Hundred Years War, it was in fact a series of battles and small conflicts fought almost entirely in France. Though there were many causes for tension between the two countries, there were three main catalysts: the battle for Aquitaine, the English claim to the French throne, and the end of the treaty between Scotland and France. 59 The English monarchy inherited the French duchy, Aquitaine in 1152, when King Henry II married the Duchess of Aquitaine, Eleanor. Although controlled by the English, the French monarchy wanted the English to pay homage to the French crown in exchange for being allowed to remain in control of the duchy. King John took the English throne in 1200 and refused to pay homage. As a result, he lost control of two other duchies that the English had also acquired, Normandy and Anjou. Although the English controlled several duchies, Aquitaine brought in more revenue than all of England, making it a battle- worthy asset. A series of battles for Aquitaine commenced over the next 100 years. Finally, on May 24, 1337 Philippe VI of France invaded and confiscated the duchy as a result of so many attacks by English and Gascons in defiance of the homage. King 59 Anne Curry. The Hundred Years War, 2d ed. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 52. 18 Edward III, not willing to give up Aquitaine, declared himself King of France in 1340, as he was the grandson of the previous French monarch Philippe IV. Hence, a marker for the beginning of the Hundred Years War. 60 After years of conflict and changes in the rival monarchy, Henry V, great- grandson to Edward III, came to the English throne in 1413. Frustrated by his father’s inadequacies, he began his political aspirations much earlier. 61 In 1420, he engineered the Treaty of Troyes. After several lengthy battles, the Treaty was put in place to identify Henry V as heir to the French throne. His son Henry VI, born in 1421, would inherit both counties while still at a tender age as a result of the early death of his father in the same year. 62 Consequently, his two uncles acted in his stead until he was of age to rule. Beginning in 1422 until 1435, John, Duke of Bedford and brother to Henry V, became Regent of France. Bedford continued the English campaign against the French and had the power to make decisions in the stead of the young king. 63 Younger brother to Bedford, Humphrey Duke of Gloucester, acted as protector in England while Bedford was in France. Though he was stationed in England with the council of advisors that handled the affairs of the monarchy, Gloucester lacked the power that Bedford possessed as Regent. 64 His frustrations with his plight led to disastrous ambitions. Gloucester married Jacqueline Countess of Hainault and Holland, in hopes of snaring her inheritance from her son Philippe of Burgundy from her previous marriage to 60 Peter Reid, Medieval Warfare: Triumph and Domination in the Wars of the Middle Ages (New York: Carol & Graf Publishers, 2007), 145-146. 61 Michael Hicks, Who’s Who in Late Medieval England 1272-1485 (Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 2001), 198. 62 Hicks, 211. 63 Ibid, 213. 64 Ibid, 212. 19 Jean of Brabant. The campaign failed and resulted in the imprisonment of Jacqueline by her son. Although Jacqueline was released, Gloucester’s unsuccessful attempt to regain Hainault and Holland proved too much for his relationship with the countess. He set her aside shortly after her return and married one of her ladies in waiting. The whole controversy caused significant embarrassment to the English monarchy. 65 In 1425, as a result of his brother’s actions, Bedford faced scrutiny by Philippe of Burgundy when at a meeting in Paris to discuss the Treaty of Amiens. However, Anne of Burgundy, Bedford’s wife was able to sooth Philippe who responded by allowing the Treaty to stand. In that same year, Henry Beaufort, bishop of Winchester and uncle to Gloucester and Bedford, implored Bedford to return to England to assist with the never- ending ambitions of Gloucester and to oversee matters of the country. 66 Bedford would not return to France until 1427, where he remained Regent until the King took the throne. He was then named governor general of France until his death in 1435. 67 After 1429, many of the battles ended in favor of the French. By 1439, the English had lost control of Paris and Upper Normandy, leaving Calais as the last of the English-occupied lands in 1451. 68 That year also marked the loss of the long-held Aquitaine to the French. 69 Eager for peace, Henry VI even married Margaret of Anjou to support his resolve. However, Gloucester was still interested in pursuing a war with France. His opposition to Henry VI and Beaufort led to his arrest and ultimately to his 65 Reid, 313. 66 Ibid, 314. 67 Curry, 95. 68 Ibid, 99 69 Reid, 363. 20 death. 70 On October 19, 1453 the Hundred Years War ended with the treaty at Bordeaux. 71 Aquitaine was lost, Scotland was independent of England, and the French throne was held by a French King. 72 The Composers Throughout the political strife between England and France, young musicians were educated and flourished on both continents. Among these young composers were John Dunstaple, Guillaume Dufay, and Gilles de Bins dit Binchois. Each experienced a different background but ultimately their compositional choices would unite them. English composer, astronomer, mathematician, and musician, John Dunstaple (1390- 1453) garnered respect throughout and after his lifetime. 73 Although there is very little information about his childhood or training, some documentation of his adult survives in court manuscripts. Dunstaple was a member of the Duke of Bedford’s traveling court before 1427. Bedford was the Regent in France, a position granted to him while King Henry VI of England was still an infant. As Regent, he was responsible for ruling in the absence of the King of England. The position required that he, along with his court, travel between the two countries. 74 After 1427, Dunstaple was a paid musician for Queen Joan (1370- 1437), the second wife of the English King Henry IV, until her death. 70 Curry, 99. 71 Reid 368. 72 Curry, 129 73 Margaret Bent, "Dunstaple, John." In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.libproxy.usc.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/08331 (accessed March 14, 2011). 74 Margaret Bent, Dunstaple, (London: Oxford University Press, 1981) 2. 21 Dunstaple then worked for Humphrey, the Duke of Gloucester. Gloucester had many continental contacts. His association with Leonello d’Este in Ferrara may explain for the quantity of Dunstaple’s music found in a Ferrarese manuscript in Modena (a.X.1.11 (ModB)) at the Biblioteca Estense e Universitaria. 75 There is a plethora of scholarship about this particular manuscript, as it contains composers from different countries, including Dunstaple. Although he was a prolific composer, none of his works appear in the most famous English manuscript of his time, the Old Hall Manuscript. A contemporary composer, Lionel Power, was the choirmaster of the Duke of Clarence’s chapel during the compilation of the Old Hall Manuscript. His music dominates the entire manuscript, completely excluding Dunstaple. Power’s association with the Duke may account for the exclusivity of the manuscript. 76 Unable to have his music compiled in the primary English resource may account for why much of Dunstaple’s music is found in continental manuscripts. Without the ability to include his music with other English composers in the Old Hall Manuscript, Dunstaple expanded his reach through travel. Thus his works were included in foreign manuscripts. The scope of Dunstaple’s surviving work is primarily sacred. Of only five secular works some have spurious or contested authorship. For example, he may have composed a setting of O rosa bella, but it is attributed with stronger authority to John Bedyngham. 77 Dunstaple composed music for sections of the mass Ordinary but no complete mass setting. The bulk of his compositions are motets, including the isorhythmic motet. 75 David Fallows, Songs and Musicians in the Fifteenth Century, (Aldershot: VARIORUM, 1996), 192. 76 Atlas, 8. 77 Fallows, 78. 22 Guillaume Dufay (1395- 1474) was a French composer known for his sacred and secular compositional style. In addition to his musical duties as a composer, he was a church official. Payment documents record his work in the papal chapel choir in 1425 and 1438. 78 He received a benefice for the Cambrai Cathedral in 1437, and was the representative for Cambrai at the Council of Basle. 79 Although most composers during the 15 th Century were attached to the church as part of their work, Dufay’s intimate knowledge of church workings made him conscious of the styles of music that were favored among the clergy and the people. Entering the Cambrai Cathedral as a choirboy, Dufay studied music and in church administration. 80 He would return to Cambrai throughout his illustrious career, spending his final days within the Cathedral walls. As a young musician and composer he traveled throughout Europe composing for Malatesta family in Rimini in 1420, Cardinal Louis Aleman in Bologna in 1427, and becoming choirmaster or Kappelmeister in Savoy in 1433. 81 Dufay’s surviving musical output is much larger than Dunstaple’s. Unlike Dunstaple, Dufay composed at least seven mass settings and a significant number of sacred songs, antiphons, and motets. Several of his mass settings are based on pre- existing material. In addition to his motet, he wrote a paraphrase mass setting of the Ave regina caelorum. He also wrote an isorhythmic motet based on the Marion text, Salve 78 David Fallows, The Master Musicians: Dufay, (London: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd, 1982) 43. 79 Ibid, 49. 80 Ibid, 7. 81 Atlas, 99-100. 23 regina. 82 Again, unlike Dunstaple, Dufay also wrote a large number of secular pieces in French and Italian. He primarily utilized the three French forme fixes, but focused on the rondeaux and ballade. Friend and contemporary of Dufay and Dunstaple, composer Gilles de Bins dit Binchois (1400- 1460) was a member of the Burgundian court chapel during the 1420’s and remained so until his death. Like Dufay, Binchois was probably trained as a chorister. There are few records from when he was a child but he was raised near the court in Mons, which had strong relationships with the French and Burgundian courts. It is probable that he was trained in Mons as a chorister and made connections with the Burgundian court at that time. 83 Before reaching the Burgundian court, he may have been employed as a soldier for the Duke of Suffolk, William Pole, according to Johannes Ockeghem’s Deploration. 84 As Suffolk was an Englishman in occupied France, this may have been Binchois’ first exposure to English music. Although not ordained as a priest, Binchois was a member of the church administration and named an “honorary secretary” to the court in 1437. 85 Throughout his life Binchois would be ordained as a subdeacon and hold benifices at several churches surrounding the court including St. Donatian in Bruges, Sainte-Waudru in Mons, Saint- Pierre in Cassel and Saint- Vincent in Soignies, where he spent his final days. 86 82 Julie E. Cumming, The Motet in the Age of Du Fay, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 265. 83 Andrew Kirkman and Dennis Slavin, ed. Binchois Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, 3. 84 Sean Gallagher, “Binchois’s Years in Soignies,” in Binchois Studies, ed. Andrew Kirkman and Dennis Slavin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 41. 85 Philip Weller, “Rites of Passage,” in Binchois Studies, ed. Andrew Kirkman and Dennis Slavin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 69. 86 Andrew Kirkman and Dennis Slavin, ed. Binchois Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. 24 Binchois’ musical output bears some striking similarities to that of Dunstaple and Dufay. However, his overall output of music was much larger than that of Dunstaple. Although he composed a motet for the Ave regina caelorum, the majority of his works are the secular rondeaux. He composed no complete mass settings but, like Dunstaple, he composed several settings for the separate sections of the mass Ordinary. With the English nobility maintaining households in France throughout the Hundred Years War, opportunities arose for the English, French and Burgundian courts to meet and exchange ideas. These households included their resident composers. English musicians were present leading up to the Battle at Agincourt in 1415 and remained after the Battle. Among these musicians were the court chapel and Dunstaple. 87 This may have been the point at which Dufay and Binchois were further exposed to the English sound. 88 During this time both young composers were still choristers, developing their own talents and compositional style. As the years progressed, Dunstaple would appear on the continent again in the employ of the Duke of Bedford. Through the years spent with Bedford’s court, Dunstaple had ample opportunity to expose his compositional techniques throughout occupied France. Julie Cumming, author of The Motet in the Age of Dufay, argues that “it is certainly possible that composers such as Dufay, the Lantins, and Lymbugia heard and sang English music in the 1420’s.” 89 15 th -century Europe was also fraught with religious turmoil. The Great Schism in the Catholic Church became the focus of religious strife. In 1378 there were two elected Popes: Urban VI of Rome and Clement VII of Avignon, both elected as a reflection of 87 Cumming, 97. 88 Ibid, 97. 89 Ibid, 97. 25 the struggle between Italian nobility and the cardinals. 90 To end the conflict, the Council of Constance convened in 1414, in order to determine how to move forward with the election of a new Pope. The council met in Konstanz, Germany until 1417, at which time the cardinals elected Pope Martin V. During the three years of the conference, the clergy attended meetings and conducted services. This gathering also saw an intense exchange of ideas and music. Although Dunstaple was in Agincourt during the Council, there were English musicians present who may have presented his works and his compositional techniques. It is reasonable to suggest that both Binchois and Dufay were in attendance in the entourage of their patrons. 91 Their presence at the Council is another indication of how the English sound was transmitted to the continental composers. This transmission would later be termed the contenance angloise. 90 Atlas, 23. 91 Ibid, 100. 26 Chapter III: Contenance Angloise The transmission of the English sound to the continental composers in the mid- 15 th century has become known to modern scholars as the contenance angloise. Based on a poem written by Martin le Franc, and literally translated as the English countenance, it generally refers to the English manner or style in musical terminology. 92 Martin le Franc coined the expression in his epic poem Le Champion des Dames (1440-1442), setting Dunstaple as the leader of this musical sound. Though the poem, written in both support and defense of women and dedicated to Philip “the Good,” Duke of Burgundy, it contains six stanzas that reflect on the music and composers of the past and present. 93 Robert Deschaux transcribed a complete edition of the poem in 1999, the most accurate to date. 94 Though much of the poem discusses the valor of female heroes, including Joan of Arc much to the dismay of Philip the Good, it also describes the imminent end of the world. 95 According to the poetry, the evidence for the end of the world is found in “the way the arts have reached an unprecedented perfection in their own time.” 96 For the purposes of this study, I will refer only to the stanzas that relate to the contenance angloise. The poem is divided into five sections, each discussing the pros and cons of love and women. The fourth section contains aforementioned stanzas. Interestingly, this is the same section that 92 Ibid, 3. 93 Rheinhard Strohm, The Rise of European Music, 1380-1500, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993) 127. 94 Martin Le Franc, Le champion des dames, ed. Robert Deschaux. 5 vols. (Les Classiques Francais du Moyen Age, 127-31. Paris: Honor6 Champion, 1999). 95 Fallows,195. 96 Ibid, 195. 27 discusses the virtues of the Virgin Mary. 97 Below are the two stanzas and their translations. Tapissier, Carmen, Cesaris N’a pas longtemps si bien chanterrent Qu’ilz esbahirent tout Paris Et tout ceulx qui les frequenterrent Mais onques jour ne deschanterrent En melodie de tel chois- Ce m’ont dit qui les hanterrent- Que G. du Fay et Binchois. Car ilz ont nouvelle pratique De faire frisque concordance En haulte et en basse musique, En fainte, en pause et en muance; Et ont pris de la contenance Angloise, et ensuy Dompstable; Pour quoy merveilleuse plaisance Rend leur chant joieux et notable. Tapissier, Carmen, Cesaris, not long ago they sang so well that they amazed all Paris, and all those who frequented them. Yet they never discanted with such choice melody (this I was told by those who were wont to hear them) as Guillaume DuFay and Binchois. 98 For theirs is a new practice of making lively concord in loud and soft music 99 in such a manner that with its ficta, its phrasing (pausa), and melodic design (mutatio) it sounds pleasantly consonant. They have taken on the English way and have followed Dunstable, and their music is so wondrously agreeable that it produces joy and fame. 100 Defining the point of English influence and Martin le Franc’s interpretation of the contenance angloise are both problematic. Musicologists have differing opinions of what 97 Bent, 92. 98 Ibid, 125. 99 Ibid, 125. 100 Fallows, 196. 28 the stanzas infer and therefore, what the actual English influence may have been. 101 The controversy stems from the use of several key words: frisque concordance, fainte, pause, and muance. These words have been interpreted differently by scholars, creating a dialogue about what Martin le Franc was suggesting in his word choice. 102 According to David Fallows, the first part of the second stanza was not meant to be linked to the second part. His argument lies in the use of the word et in the fourth line rather than si, which would resolutely bind the two parts. 103 This conjecture calls into question the nouvelle pratique that has since been linked to English composers, Dunstaple at the forefront. In his assertion, frisque concordance, also in the first part, has no relation to the description of the contenance angloise in the second part. Defined as ‘pleasant consonance,’ this was the primary characteristic assigned to English music by Martin le Franc, making Fallows’ argument questionable. 104 Rob Wegman described the term frisque concordance as a “delightful and pleasing” but also referenced other sections of the poem, where frisque is a term associated with “elegant or fashionable dress.” 105 He goes on to suggest that frisque is a term used to describe the music of Dufay and Binchois based on Martin’s portrayal. 106 As the music of Dufay and Binchois was influenced by Dunstaple, according to Martin, frisque concordance relates to both. 101 Cumming, 291. 102 Thomas Brothers, “Contenance angloise and accidentals in some motets by Du Fay,” Plainsong and Medieval Music 6, 1 (1997) : 25. 103 Fallows, 197. 104 Ibid, 197. 105 Rob Wegman, “New Music for a World Grown Old: Martin Le Franc and the ‘Contenance Angloise’.” Acta Musicologica 75, no. 2 (2003) : 235. 106 Ibid, 235. 29 Fainte, pause, and muance can be defined strictly in the musical sense of the words as ficta, rest, and mutation. However, each word has a more intricate definition. Martin may have used these words to simply continue the rhyme scheme but there are ulterior definitions that fit as well. However, each definition must coincide with the definition of the other two words. Though Fallows states that the strict musical definition of the words is correct, Wegman asserts that the explanation of the words is decided by Martin’s definition of pause. He discovered another use for the term pause in the French language: “This was the conventional French designation for a musical interlude in a theatrical play, known also as silete or pausa in Latin.” 107 This makes pause either a musical term or event. If Martin intended pause to be defined as an interlude, fainte and muance had to take on different definitions. “Fainte was the term used for stage machinery, but by extension could be applied to plays and theatrical productions as a whole.” 108 This definition is directly related to the theatrical definition of pause. Both Fallows and Wegman view muance as a change, either in the musical sense or other. Wegman goes as far as to equate muance with “changes of scene.” 109 Martin’s intent with all three words could have been simply musically based or poetically driven. However, he also had knowledge of the other definitions of the words. Possibly his careful word choice, as suggested with the rest of the poem, Martin was familiar with the additional definitions and cleverly meant them in both the musical and theatrical senses. 107 Ibid, 229. 108 Ibid, 230. 109 Ibid, 230. 30 Similar to the interpretation of Martin le Franc’s poem, the actual point and vessel of the English influence is also quite controversial. Theorist and contemporary of Martin le Franc, Johannes Tinctoris (1435- 1511) wrote several treatises regarding counterpoint, dissonances, and polyphony. In the dedication to his Proportionale musices, Tinctoris seemingly echoes Martin’s prose in asserting that Dunstaple was the leader of the new English sound prevalent on the continent. 110 David Fallows suggests that the influence was gradual and we should not attempt to find an exact moment when the continental compositional techniques began to imitate that of the English composers. 111 However, based on the compositional formats that appeared on the continent, Cumming opposes Fallows. 112 Cantelina motets and cantus firmus Mass cycles are notably English conventions that appear on the continent only as a result of the English influence. Both Cumming and Thomas Brothers find this to be a more specific connection to an actual moment of influence. 113 Rob Wegman agrees with some of his colleagues that the basic meaning of the contenance angloise refers to the use of consonances and dissonances. However, he takes it a step further to suggest that Martin le Franc and Tinctoris were describing a musical Renaissance, the birth of a new art form. 114 Philip Kaye cites evidence of a possible meeting between Dufay and Martin le Fanc at the Council of Basle (1431- 1349) and the Congress of Arras (1434). 115 Martin had access to the music of 110 Johannes Tinctoris and Albert Seay, “The "Proportionale Musices" of Johannes Tinctoris.” Journal of Music Theory 1, no. 1 (Mar., 1957) : 27. A complete translation. 111 Fallows, 205. 112 Cumming, 291. 113 Thomas Brothers, “Contenance angloise and accidentals in some motets by Du Fay.” Plainsong and Medieval Music 6, no. 1 (April 1997) : 28. 114 Wegman, 205. 115 Philip Kaye The ‘Contenance Angloise’ In Perspective: A Study of Consonance and Dissonance in Continental Music, c. 1380- 1440, (New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 1989), 9. 31 Dufay and may have formed his opinions from those meetings. Kaye also suggests that the poet may have been speaking in terms of singing practices rather than knowledge of compositional technique. “A change in the manner of singing is arguably much more likely to attract the attention of a poet than changes in the actual musical language.” 116 However, speaking of the singing practices does include how the pieces were constructed. Similar to Wegman, Reinhard Strohm defines the contenance angloise as the treatment of consonances and dissonances in English compositions, however, he suggests that English compositional styles were used long before Martin le Franc’s poem and that the resulting shift in style was a collaborative effort between English and continental composers. 117 Additionally, the poem praised three friends who also represent the three political powers: France, England, and Burgundy. Of the differing opinions, it is imperative to not only view the compositional advancements during this period but also the religious and political climates. With this additional criteria in mind, it is evident that the contenance angloise almost certainly refers to an English compositional style spearheaded by Dunstaple, that influenced continental composers such as Dufay and Binchois. However, a gradual transference of information over several years is more plausible than a single event. The specific musical connections will be discussed in the following chapters. 116 Kaye, 7. 117 Strohm, 129. 32 Chapter IV: The Motet To fully understand the English influence and its mode of transference, it is important to define the motet and its uses. Musicologists and historians have debated the actual name for the settings of Marion Antiphons generated by Dunstaple, Dufay, and Binchois. Some musicologists simply identify these pieces as Antiphons or “song- motets.” 118 Heinrich Besseler, editor of Opera Omnia, defines Dufay’s setting of the Alma redemptoris mater (ii) and Ave regina celorum (ii) as simply Antiphons. 119 However, many more classify them as some type of motet. The generic term for their works could be classified as motets, as they are based on sacred text and use more than one voice line. 120 However, there are other definitions to consider. According to Julie E. Cumming “we lack a general generic label for this English repertory of three-voice Marion polyphony.” 121 This chapter aims to provide options for labeling the Marion Antiphons of the 15 th century. Allan Atlas quotes Johannes Tinctoris in his definition of the motet as, “a composition of moderate length, to which words of any kind are set, but more often those of a sacred nature.” 122 There are a number of sub-genres for motets. This study will identify and define several of those sub-genres including: the English discant style, cantus firmus motet, equal discantus motet, declamation motet, antiphon motet, and 118 Howard Mayer Brown, “Dufay and Early Renaissance” Early Music 2, no. 4 (Oct., 1974): 219. 119 Heinrich Besseler, ed., Corpus Mensurabilis Musicae 1. 6 vols. Guillaume Dufay, Opera Omnia. 6 vols. (Rome: American Institute of Musicology, 1951-1966), 121. 120 Ernest H. Sanders, et al. "Motet." In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/40086pg2 (accessed January 26, 2010). 121 Cumming, 88. 122 Atlas, 86. 33 cantelina motet. All of these sub-genres use pre-existing music to then create a polyphonic composition. Each is based on a three-voice structure, contrasting the four- voice structure of the late 15 th century. At the beginning of the 15 th century, composers continued to compose using a technique called isorhythm. The isorythmic motet is built on reiterated rhythmic and melodic passages and could use sacred or secular texts. Friedrich Ludwig originally coined the term isorythm for motets that were written in the 14 th century. 123 The repetitive rhythmic patterns, termed talea by Ludwig, were inserted throughout the motet. Color, or the melodic patterns, were also repeated throughout the motet. One intriguing aspect of isorhythmic technique is that the talea and color need not always sync with one another making for a rich and complex texture. 124 Typically favored by French composers, isorhythm was also used by English and continental composers. 125 For example, Italian composer Johanes Ciconia (1370-1412) employed the use of isorhythm in his motet Ut te per omnes/Ingens alumnus Padua. However, he combines French rhythmic complexity with simplistic melodic passages consistent with Italian compositions. 126 Dufay was one of the most notable composers to employ isorhythmic techniques, but Dunstaple and Binchois were also proficient in the procedure. The use of isorythm demonstrated a technical skill in composing by means of the most complex procedure. 127 For that reason Dufay and Dunstaple used these motets for special occasions. 128 An because it 123 Strohm, 39. 124 Ibid, 16. 125 Atlas, 28. 126 Ibid, 39. 127 Fallows, Dufay, 104 128 Ibid, 103. 34 represented a certain level of style, it gave them the opportunity to display their skill to the public. The Marion Antiphons considered in this study do not use isorythm. However, it is important to note that these two composers were familiar with and using similar compositional techniques. By the middle of the century continental composers were moving to alternate styles of composition. 129 English Discant English discant style is typically identified as a 14 th -century procedure for handling sacred texts in a three-voice setting. However, as this style was in prevalent into the first part of the 15 th century, it is worth exploring in this context. Julie E. Cumming offers this definition: English discant is a method described in some English treatises for composing or improvising additional voices around a chant melody in a primarily note-against- note texture (the precise nature of the technique of English discant is much debated by modern scholars. 130 With this definition, it distinguishes much of the music from these sub-genres, and most importantly, the Marion Antiphons of this study, as utilizing the English discant style. Dunstaple was known to compose using this style. The remaining sub-genres are used to catalogue the Marion Antiphons. Cantus Firmus 129 Ibid, 103. 130 Cumming, in “Motet and Cantelina”, 66. 35 The French cantus firmus motets of the 15 th century are characteristic of Ernest Sanders’ definition of the motet genre in that they are based on pre-existing music and sacred texts. 131 According to Ernest H. Sanders: This “type of music based on a cantus firmus, assigns the pre-existent melody, with ornamental elaboration, to the superius. The uppermost voice is consequently of central importance to the piece. To this voice is added first a tenor, then a contratenor.” 132 Additionally, the text from the cantus firmus did not have to reflect the text used in the other voices. Lionel Power, a contemporary of Dunstaple, used the chant Alma redemptoris mater as the cantus firmus for his setting of the Salve Regina. 133 During this period, composers explored beyond the cantus firmus motet but Dufay does paraphrase the chant in the upper voice his settings of Alma Redemptoris Mater and Ave Regina Celorum, making it similar to the cantus firmus style. 134 He has two settings of the first and three settings of the second; however, the subsequent antiphons utilize the original chant in another voice. Perhaps there is yet a better definition for these pieces. Equal Discantus In Italy during the late 14 th /early 15 th centuries, the equal discantus motet was a popular compositional genre. Rather than building two other vocal lines around a single vocal melody, as in the cantus firmus motet, the equal discantus motet has two equal 131 Ernest H. Sanders, et al. "Motet." In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/40086pg2 (accessed January 26, 2010). 132 Samuel Emmons Brown, “The Motets of Ciconia, Dunstable, and Dufay.” Ph.D diss., Indiana University, 1962, 141. 133 Strohm, 212. 134 Howard Mayer Brown, 225. 36 discantus voices that move above the freely-composed tenor line. 135 These two voices are in equal range above the tenor and sometimes have a fourth voice that doubles the top voice but cadences an octave lower. Although this style was associated primarily with Italy, Dufay also composed in this style. 136 His Gaude virgo mater is identified as an equal discantus motet. 137 Though it does not set the text of a Marion Antiphon, it is dedicated to the praise of the Virgin Mary. Declamation Motet Dunstaple composed several declamation motets. The declamation motet was primarily an English concept during the 14 th century. However, this declamatory style was also used on the continent. Specifically, Dufay composed his Ave Regina Celorum I in this style. The declamation motet requires a homophonic structure, with all voices utilizing the full text. 138 The importance placed on the text for this style makes it a good candidate for identifying the Marion Antiphon composed by Dufay. However, the declamation motet is closely linked to another English-based motet: the cantelina motet. Cantelina Motet Defined as a three-voice setting of text, the cantelina motet places the lyrical melody in the top voice. 139 This term originates from the Latin word meaning “song” and was used to categorize pieces based on free-form texture without pre-existing text. 140 In Engand, the cantelina was a separate genre to that of the motet. It was used in Marion 135 Robert Nossow, “The Equal-Discantus Motet Style after Ciconia.” Musica Disciplina, 45 (1991) : 223. 136 Ibid, 223. 137 Ibid, 225. 138 Cumming, “Motet and Cantelina,” 71. 139 Ibid, 66. 140 Cumming, The Motet in the Age of Du Fay, 85. 37 worship but did not have to use pre-existing musical material. Once on the continent, it composers viewed it as a sub-genre of the motet. 141 It can resemble the cantus firmus motet. However, the music does not have to precede the piece in another format. Cumming notes a further distinction within the cantelina motet: those with pre-existing chant melodies and those without. 142 This blending of genres makes these pieces difficult to categorize. Additionally, text and melody drive this sub-genre. Thomas Brothers suggests that Dufay would have been drawn to this sub-genre for those very reasons. 143 His understanding of melodic composition, from his experience composing French chanson and isorhythmic motets, allowed him to create several secular works that are classified as cantelina motets. Brothers also suggests that Dufay’s Alma redemptoris mater and Ave regina celorum (ii) are cantelina motets. 144 However, the original chant from the Marion Antiphons is paraphrased in the upper voices, making them either cantus firmus motets or cantelina motets with pre-existing material. As stated earlier by Cumming, musicologists utilize differing terms to describe a similar genre, as demonstrated here by Brown and Brothers. Antiphon Motet Athough musically similar to the other genres, the antiphon motet is defined by its text. Polyphonic Latin music can seem to fit this genre, however the text must an antiphon and be through-composed. 145 Strohm identified a connection between the Italian lauda, a strophic setting Latin-texted music, and antiphons settings but antiphons are not 141 Ibid, 89. 142 Ibid, 87. 143 Brothers, 29. 144 Ibid, 28. 145 Howard Mayer Brown, 219. 38 strophic in nature and the text is liturgical, not a requirement of lauda. 146 Strohm further identified Dufay’s Ave regina celorum (I) as an example of an antiphon motet. However, this definition corresponds closely to the Marion Antiphons identified in this study. Though the terms cantelina motet and antiphon motet are modern inventions, they do reflect the intent of musicologists for the Marion Antiphons. The text and original chant used in most of the Marion Antiphons by Dunstaple, Dufay, and Binchois, highlighting the two definitions. Manfred Bukofzer, editor of the John Dunstable: Complete Works, is specific in his definitions of the Marion Antiphons. He lists Dunstaple’s Alma redemptoris mater as a “motet on the Virgin for Various Liturgical Occasions” and Ave regina celorum as a “polyphonic Setting of Plainsongs for the Office.” 147 Similarly, Philip Kaye defines Binchois’ Ave regina celorum as an “antiphon to the Blessed Virgin Mary.” 148 Although the works are more specified with these definitions, the Marion Antiphons can still be categorized as antiphon motets. Ultimately, the crossing of genres by these composers makes it difficult to fully categorize the Marion Antiphons. After reviewing the many opinions of musicologists on this topic and the compositional trends of the time, this study will hereafter refer to Marion Antiphons in question as antiphon motets. 146 Strohm, 160. 147 Manfred F. Bukofzer, ed. Musica Britannica, vol. 8, John Dunstable: Complete Works. (London: Stainer and Bell, 1953), 106. 148 Philip R. Kaye, ed., The Sacred music of Gilles Binchois. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 183. 39 Chapter V: The Music As suggested in Chapter III, identifying a specific English sound in the 15 th century is a point of contention among musicologists. However, many agree that the treatment of consonances and text are the primary candidates for the compositional style. English treatment of consonances and text is decidedly different than the compositional technique employed on the continent at the end of the 14 th century. However, by the middle of the 15 th century, composers on the continent began to use English techniques in their works. In addition, the continental composers began composing using the same subject as the English composers: the Virgin Mary. This chapter will discuss the compositional techniques and text usage employed on the continent as influenced by the English style. Specifically, this chapter will analyze the Marion Antiphons Ave regina celorum and Alma redemptoris mater composed by Dunstaple, Dufay, and Binchois as examples of antiphon motets and the English influence on the genre. Chant To begin, it is important to review the original chants to which these pieces are set. Alma redemptoris mater is the first Marion Antiphon listed in the section dedicated to antiphons to be sung during Compline, and, as the number 5 is at the beginning of the chant indicates, is in the 5 th mode. The second antiphon listed is the Ave regina caelorum, in the 6 th mode. As is common in chant notation, neither chant identifies a mensuration 40 sign as they were written before that type of rhythmic categorization, but they do make use of ligature figures with approximate duration value. There are no rests but there are “divisions or pauses” used within each piece to mark breaks in both the musical line and text. 149 The actual notation is in the form of nuemes, block-like figures that can be transcribed into modern notation. The notational system is called mensural notation. The length of each neume is determined by several factors: 1) a flag attached to the neume, 2) shape of the neume, 3) pattern of the neume in relation to the whole line, and 4) placement in a ligature. As previously noted, there is no indication of actual length of each neume, but based on the figures given, it can be determined which neumes should be held longer than others and which should move quickly. Perhaps this is in conjunction with the textual stress. Alma redemptoris mater, quae pervia caeli porta manes et stella maris, succurre cadenti, surgere qui curat, populo. Tu quae genuisti (natura mirante) tuum sanctum genitorem, virgo prius ac posterius, Gabrielis ab ore sumens illud Ave, peccatorum miserere. 150 Ave Regina caelórum, Ave Dómina Angelórum: Sálve radix, salve pórta, Ex qua múndo lux est órta: Gáude Virgo gloriósa, Super ómnes speciósa: Vále, o valde decóra, Et pro nóbis Chrístum exóra. 151 There have been numerous discussions about how to notate rhythm in chant. There are three schools of thought on rhythm in chant: equalist, mensuralist, and 149 Liber Usualis missae et officii pro dominicis et festis: cum cantu gregoriano ex editione vaticana adamussim exerpto et rhythmicis signis in subsidium cantorum a solesmensibus monachis diligenter ornate, (Parisiis: Desclée & Socii, 1950) xiij. 150 Richard H. Hoppin, ed. Anthology of Medieval Music, (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1978) 1. 151 Liber Usualis, 274-275. 41 Solemnes. 152 The mensuralist method assigns a strict rhythm to the chant. The Solemnes method requires a free rhythm but accents specific notes. However, these accents are not based on the text. 153 Based on the work of several scholars, it is my opinion that in this particular case, “the free rhythm reflects the oratorical nature of the chant,” and falls into the category of equalist. 154 The equalist method essentially states that the rhythmic stresses are based on the textual structure. 155 There are other approaches to rhythm but this seems most appropriate for Alma redemptoris mater and the Ave regina caelorum. For example, many of the stressed syllables are paired with longer neumes, several neumes in a grouped pattern, or several fast moving neumes. The opening word Alma, meaning nourishing or bountiful, has a neume (melismatic pattern) on the stressed syllable of the word (Ex. 1). 156 Ex. 1 from Liber Usualis pg. 273. The same can be said for the Ave regina caelorum, however not in the first phrase. Gáude Virgo gloriósa only has three ligatures and very few minims (divisions of the breve), demonstrating how this phrase will move slower than the preceding phrases by simply changing the neume (Ex. 2). The music also extends to the highest point during that 152 Lance W. Brunner, “The Performance of Plainchant: Some Preliminary Observations of the New Era” Early Music 10, no. 3 (July, 1982), 318. 153 Ibid, 319. 154 Ibid, 318. 155 Ibid, 319. 156 Musurillo, 171. 42 phrase. The text is written in celebration of the Virgin Mary. The musical notation combined with the text is another example of text imposing rhythm on the phrase. Ex. 2 from Liber Usualis, pg. 274. Binchois differs from his peers in choosing a benediction antiphon to base his polyphonic setting of Ave regina caelórum (Ex. 3). Set in Mode 1, the chant is less florid than the Alma redemptoris mater but still employs the use of text-driven rhythm and phrasing. The form of the chant is also syllabic, which is very from the neumatic and melismatic forms of the others. This antiphon has a different text than the settings by Dunstaple and Dufay, however, the intent is the same: to glorify and praise the Virgin Mary. This chant would typically be sung at the end of the service as a final prayer for guidance to the Virgin Mary. Ex. 3 from Liber Usualis, pg. 1864 43 Faburden 15 th -century English composers explored new ways of setting chant. The goal was to improvise simple polyphony around an existing chant or plainsong to create a three- voice texture for liturgical purposes. The process may have originally been accomplished through improvised additional voices. However, in England, composers developed the system of faburden with specific rules for the creation of polyphony around an original chant melody. 157 As a result, composers created the basic structure for polyphonic motets. Later motets would not follow the rules of faburden unerringly but do show some of the basic characteristics. On the continent a similar form of improvisation developed, fauxbourdon. Scholars have claimed that faburden was the product of fauxbourdon but later researchers have shown that faburden was part of the contenance angoise that influenced French style in creating fauxbourdon. Besseler claimed that fauxbourdon was created by Dufay, after he was influenced by faburden. 158 However, Kaye, contradicts Besseler. He noted that there are far more uses of dissonance in Dufay’s use of fauxbourdon than there are present in English faburden. 159 Dufay was proficient enough in the procedure to use faburden correctly. Kaye suggests that the technique is more likely a simple way to create liturgical music. 160 It is possible, however, that the concept of improvised liturgical music was influenced by English composers. In either 157 Trowell, Brian, “Faburden and Faubourdon.” Musica Disciplina 13, (1959) : 47. 158 Trowell, 46. 159 Kaye, Contenance Angloise’ In Perspective, 303. 160 Ibid, 303. 44 determination, from this point, “fauxbourdon or faburden was the fundamental form of functional polyphony from the early fifteenth century onwards.” 161 The term faburden may be derived from several sources. Allan Atlas states that the term ‘burden’ is from the French word ‘bourdon’, meaning the lowest voice and ‘fa’ references the tonal position of note, indicating a 4th. 162 Paul Doe sets out the controversy on the ‘fa’, asserting that it is possible that the ‘fa’ could represent a shortening of the word false but is more likely in reference to solmization. 163 However, Brian Trowell describes the faburden voice as 3rds and 5ths, with no reference to 4ths at all. 164 The consensus of scholars including, Trowell, Flasdieck, and Bessler, is that “burden” refers to the lowest voice. Later in his article, Faburden and Fauxbourdon, Trowell discusses the larger controversy as to the origin of the word faburden. He states that the earliest known use of the term faburden was in a letter dated 1432 from Richard Cliffe to the Prior of Durham, describing the attributes of Sir John Rocliff. Among those attributes was his ability to use faburden. 165 By using the term faburden, Cliffe’s letter dates the actual origin of the word much earlier. 166 Many modern researchers refer to Brian Trowell’s articles about faburden. He conducted an extensive study on an anonymous treatise called The Sight of Faburden that 161 Caldwell, John. “Plainsong and polyphony 1250- 1550.” In Plainsong in the age of polyphony, ed. Thomas Forrest Kelly (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 19. 162 Atlas, 9. 163 Doe, Paul, “Faburden and Fauxbourdon.” Music & Letters, 53, No. 4 (Oct., 1972) : 479. 164 Trowell, 53-54. 165 Ibid, 71. 166 For a full transcription of the letter, review Trowell, Brian, “Faburden and Faubourdon.” Musica Disciplina 13, (1959) : 71 or Harrison, Frank Ll, “Faburden in Practice Musica Disciplina 16, (1962) : 12. 45 was copied into the Lansdowne Manuscript 763 by John Wylde. 167 The treatise describes the English process for using faburden and its dissimilarity from fauxbourdon. Faburden places the original chant or plainsong in the middle voice. The lowest voice, faburden voice, must then imagine a 3 rd or unison above the middle voice and then sing a 5 th below that. The result is a vocal line pitch a 3 rd or 5 th below the middle voice. The top voice would then sing a 4 th above the middle voice. The only person with any real options on what to sing was the faburdener. 168 Though the sound is similar to that of faburden, the construction of fauxbourdon is a bit different. Fauxbourdon moves the plainsong into the top voice, making both lower voices improvised. The bottom voice would sound a 6 th or an octave below the chant. The middle voice, or fauxbourdon, would then sing a 4 th below the chant. 169 In both faburden and fauxbourdon, the sound produced was mostly homophonic, with little ornamentation. Heinrich Bessler asserts that faburden was taken to the Continent. He contends that Dufay and his contemporaries expanded the faburden concept to mimic the French chanson, creating fauxbourdon. Trowell builds on this idea by suggesting that fauxbourdon may have been generated in England and the transferred to the Continent. 170 The main question remains, when did the plainsong move to the top voice, in England or on the Continent? Though Besseler champions Dufay as the main proponent in the use of 167 Brian Trowell. "Faburden." In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.libproxy.usc.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/09199 (accessed May 9, 2012). 168 Trowell gives a literal transcription with modern transliteration of how to use faburden from The Sight of Faburden in “Faburden and Faubourdon” , 47. For more general understanding, Allan Atlas, Julie Cumming, and Rheinhard Strohm provide basic definitions. 169 Atlas, 10. 170 Trowell, 72. Trowell suggests that fauxbourdon could have been a result of the constant flux between English and French/Burgundian courts. 46 fauxbourdon, Trowell suggests that Binchois was using more English devices in his music and had more opportunity to learn and develop this new concept as part of a traveling court. 171 Guilielmus Monachus, a music theorist in Italy, wrote a treatise called De Preceptis Artis Musicae in the late 15 th Century. He described tree ways of singing faburden: 1)the discant is sung above the cantus firmus, 2)the cantus firmus is sung in the top/tenor voice, and 3)faburden can be used in 4-voice pieces with the cantus firmus in the top voice. 172 Monachus discusses faubourdon as a technique used by the English, perhaps interchanging the two terms. 173 In either case, it remains another example of the English influence on Continental composers. Polyphonic Settings of the Marion Antiphons The three-voice settings of these antiphons by Dunstaple, Dufay, and Binchios represent a growing trend in the 15 th century. Because Dunstaple was one of the few English composers to have his works in continental manuscripts, his influence can also be seen in the works of his contemporaries on the continent. English composers set the Marion Antiphons in three-voice antiphon motets and through Dunstaple, carried that tradition into France. Dunstaple wrote two settings of the Alma redemptoris mater and Salve regina and only one setting of the Regina caeli letare and Ave regina celorum. Overall, he composed nine settings of Marion Antiphons, though there are two others also may be attributed to 171 Ibid, 76. 172 Ibid, 68. 173 Ibid, 65. 47 him. The original chant is written in the top voice of the Ave regina celorum. He does this through many of his other compositions as well. Dunstaple sets the first word “Ave”, as a solo and uses the original plainchant for music. 174 The original chant appears in the top voice throughout the piece. Unlike Ave regina celorum, Dunstaple’s setting of Alma redemptoris mater does not obviously employ the use of the original chant in the top voice. However, there are fragments of the chant in the beginning in the top voice (Ex. 4) and throughout the lower voice. The antiphon is phrased similarly to the chant. Bent suggests that it is unclear whether the use of the chant was intentional. 175 However, the example below adds x’s to indicate where the original chant can be found in the first part of the motet. Though the lower voice is present and mimics the top voice rhythmically, it is difficult to ignore the similarities between this opening in the top voice and the beginning of the chant both in the actual notes and melismatic flourish on the word Alma. Ex. 4 Alma redemptoris mater from John Dunstable: Complete Works, pg. 106. Both settings are transposed up a 5 th from the original chant and are rhythmically set in perfect tempus of circle time as indicated by the sign (O). Setting the work in 174 Bukofzer, 106. 175 Bent, Dunstaple, 41. 48 perfect mensuration was considered more complete by composers and their patrons as it represented the Holy Trinity and was typical for addressing the Virgin Mary. 176 They also each have a duet section with the top voice. The Ave regina celorum has two duet sections: one between the top and middle voices and the other between the top and bottom voices. The uninterrupted top voice heightens the appearance of the chant. In the Alma redemptoris mater there is a similar situation that occurs during the duet. In this case there is only one duet during the piece, and the top voice remains constant. However, the two voices act more like a duet, each having their own independent lines with some rhythmic imitation between the voices (Ex. 5). Ex. 5 Alma redemptoris mater from John Dunstable: Complete Works, pg. 106 They each take their motivic shape primarily from the top voice, a traditionally English method in the cantelina motet or English discant styles. 177 Dunstaple intended the chant to be present in the motet setting of Alma redemptoris mater, and he emphasized the text as he did with the Ave regina celorum. The phrases in both are defined and shaped by the accesnts of the text. For example, in the Ave regina celorum, the phrase Salve radix sancta begins on a triad built on the final note and cadences on an open fifth 176 Tanay, Dorit. “The Transition from the Ars Antiqua to the Ars Nova: Evolution or Revolution?” Musica Disciplina 46, (1992) : 90. 177 Cumming, The Motet in the Age of Du Fay, 88. 49 built on the final, therefore opening and closing the phrase. Few of his works cadence using the third above the final sonority, which was part of the English compositional style during that period. 178 Dunstaple does this in several places throughout the piece, including the final phrase of the work (Ex. 6). Ex. 6 Ave regina celorum from John Dunstable: Collected Works, pg. 99. Dunstaple uses this same method in the Alma redemptoris mater (Ex. 7). Ex. 7 Alma redemptoris mater from John Dunstable: Collected Works, pg. 109. In both antiphon motets, the text drives the rhythm, which is primarily an English concept. 179 Textual concepts created reason for specific rhythmic choices. Word stresses are written into the musical language. Continental composers were focused on the 178 Bent, Dunstaple, 29. 179 Atlas, 4. 50 complexity of their writing techniques, unlike the English composers. Additionally, the use of thirds, sixths, and triads, classified as imperfect cadences at that time, was highly favored by the English composers and can be seen in many of Dunstaple’s works. 180 They were moving away from the parallel consonances, while continental composers continued to use as a primary structure of their work. Dunstaple placed dissonances on weaker beats or did not use them at all. 181 Example 8 from the Ave regina celorum demonstrates how quickly Dunstaple moves the top voice through dissonances. This treatment of dissonances, consonances, and text amounts to a portion of the “English Sound” of the early 15 th century. Ex. 8 Ave regina celorum from John Dunstaple: Collected Works, pg. 99. Dufay’s seven settings of the same Marion Antiphons employ both his talent for melodic writing and strong use of the original chant. Of those, two set the Alma redemptoris mater and three set the Ave regina celorum. In his second settings of both the Alma redemptoris mater and the Ave regina celorum, there are strong parallels to the 180 Ibid, 4. 181 Susan Ann Pietrus, “The Marian Antiphon Settings of John Dunstaple: Musical and Textual Analysis with Performance Editions for Women’s Choirs.” (D.M.A. diss., University of Southern California, 1993), 64. 51 English Sound in the 15 th century. Both employ the use of the original chant in the top voice and begin with either part of the chant, as in the Ave regina celorum (ii), or with the chant drawn out with rhythmic note values, as in the Alma redemptoris mater(ii). Similar to Dunstaple’s settings, both of Dufay’s motets are transposed up a 5 th from the original chant. In the Alma redemptoris mater (ii) the top voice enters first, the other voices entering seven measures later. The late entry of the other voices establishes the location of the original chant within the motet (Ex. 9). The x’s, provided by Besseler, indicate the original chant melody. 182 The lower voices act more as support for the often melismatic cantus. Dufay uses the original chant almost completely, making it instantly recognizable to the ear. Ex. 9 Alma redemptoris mater (ii) from Guillaume Dufay, Opera Omnia, pg. 121. While the relationship to the original chant is unmistakable, major differences are obvious. The motet is written for 3 voices, the lower voices written for tenor and contratenor. The piece uses “almost no imitation, but rather a strong prevalence of free 182 Besseler, 117. 52 counterpoint.” 183 If not for the highly ornamented top voice, the piece would be quite homophonic (Ex. 10). The motet utilizes exact rhythmic patterns that are absent in its chant version. Ex. 10 Alma redemptoris mater (ii) from Guillaume Dufay, Opera Omnia, pg. 121. As a composer known for isorythmic motets, Dufay was not always bound by his texts. Dufay received a baccalarius in decretis (Bachelor of Canon Law), and was therefore skilled in the art of rhetoric and oration. 184 In fact, “some exceptions, like the block chords to stress important phrases in several motets, and the wonderfully expressive minor triads in Ave regina celorum.” 185 Though they are different texts, the similarities are stark. In the Alma redemptoris mater (ii), he employs the use of block chords to emphasize the important text at the end of the motet, a trait that was uncommon on the continent at this time (Ex. 11). The piece concludes with this series of block chords emphasizing the final 2 lines of text. 186 These block chords were called exclamatio 183 Gustave Reese. Music in the Renaissance, (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1959) 81. 184 Elders, Willem. “Guillaume Dufay as Musical Orator.” Tijdschrift van de Vereniging voor Nederlandse Muziekgeschiedenis 31, No. 1(1981) : 2. 185 Howard Mayer Brown, 231. 186 Ibid, 225. 53 in terms of rhetoric. The setting can also be called a noema because of the emotional content of the text. 187 Willem Elders used these terms of rhetoric from George J. Buelow’s writing on rhetoric and oriation in music in the 16 th through the 18 th centuries. 188 Ex. 11 Alma redemptoris mater (ii) from Guillaume Dufay, Opera Omnia, pg. 118. The Ave regina celorum (ii) has an identical opening to that of Dunstaple’s setting. It begins with an exclamation of the word “Ave” using the chant notation. Then all of the voices enter together on a G in octaves rather than the open 5 th from Dunstaple’s setting. He uses textual accents to heighten the use of particularly complex rhythmic passages on the correct stressed syllable (Ex. 12). Ex. 12 Ave regina celorum (ii) from Guillaume Dufay, Opera Omnia, pg. 121. 187 Elders, 7. 188 Ibid, 1. 54 Structurally, a strong comparison can be made between Dufay’s settings of these antiphons and those set by Dunstaple. Like Dunstaple, Dufay’s Ave regina celorum employs the use of duet sections to heighten the chant text. As seen in Dunstaple’s work, the top voice remains constant through both duets. Though more rhythmically complex than those by Dunstaple, Dufay places many of the dissonances on the weaker beats. Dufay’s piece also uses the parallel 3rds and triads that are a part of the English Sound. Ex. 13 demonstrates the presence of parallel 3rds and 6ths within the Ave regina celorum. Ex. 13 Ave regina celorum (ii) from Guillaume Dufay, Opera Omnia, pg. 121. Overall, the compositions have strong similarities but there are some differences. As stated, Dufay uses complex rhythmic patterns, perhaps a nod to his chanson and isorythmic motet techniques or because of personal style. He does use more dissonances than Dunstaple, though in a much more subtle manner. In a study, Philip Kaye, stated that there are actually not more dissonances in the writings of continental composers, but rather a different treatment of dissonances. 189 Early 15 th -century English composers used few dissonances in their duet passages and shied away from using them on the first 189 Kaye, 366. 55 minim in a passage. 190 Dufay and other continental composers did not strictly follow those ideas. The result is a more present sound of dissonance. In another example of dissonance (the last chord in measure 63 of Ex. 11), Dufay’s closes the word “peccatorum” on a dissonance. However, a measure later, he closes the entire phrase with an octave cadence. With the similarities so prominent, it seems that the English influence is present, and Marion Antiphons can be viewed as one of many sources for that influence. Perhaps another composer’s structure of Marion Antiphons can further confirm this assertion. Most known for his secular songs, Binchois also set several Marion Hymns, but only one antiphon: the Ave regina celorum. However, he differs from Dufay and Dunstaple. The Ave regina celorum that serves as the basis for his motet is from the Chants for Benedictions. 191 The text and purpose are vastly different from the antiphons used by Dufay and Dunstaple. However, there are still several similarities. Peter Wright describes how his sacred pieces had a “strong emphasis for triadic writing, both melodic and harmonic.” 192 While Strohm asserted that sound to be “very English.” 193 Yet, Kaye stands away from these assertions in that the English sound is not simply triadic but rather avoids of most imperfect consonances. 194 Like his peers, Binchois consistently uses the original chant throughout the whole piece, though he used it in both the discantus and the tenor rather than in a single 190 Ibid, 246. 191 Liber Usualis, 1864. 192 Wright, in Binchois Studies, 93. 193 Strohm, 247. 194 Kaye, 231. 56 voice. 195 Additionally, he does not open the piece with a reminder of the original chant, but rather begins with the top two voices and the bottom voice joining a measure later. His setting is less rhythmically complex and at points appears quite homophonic (Ex. 14), similar to moments in the works of his peers. Ex. 14 Ave regina celorum from The sacred music of Gilles Binchois, pg. 183. Though Binchois’ works are not obviously influenced by English styles, editors have mistaken this work as composed by Dunstaple. Strohm states that though there are no glaring English techniques, there is an overall feeling and sound similar to that produced by the English composers. 196 In many of his compositions, Binchois used the fauxbourdon technique. As reviewed in an earlier chapter, fauxbourdon may have been influenced by the English faburden through the influence of consonances but could also be disputed as a way to create simple liturgical music. 197 For example, he wrote his Te Deum using fauxbourdon. It has the simple construction which was favorable in the style of fauxbourdon. The Te Deum was often performed. It was even pulled from a 195 Haggh, in Binchois Studies, 21. 196 Strohm, 245. 197 Kaye, 368. 57 choirbook belonging to Gaffurius of Milan to create a new improvised piece years after its original creation. 198 With attention to his style in the Ave regina celorum, Binchois employs the open 5 th at cadences and uses a number of 1 st inversion triads present in works by Dunstaple. He also highlights the text at the beginning of phrases. Strohm also suggests that Binchois uses duets similarly to Dunstaple, however, there are no duets used in this particular piece. 199 Binchois’ sacred style of composition is most accurately outlined in his use of faubourdon. In essence, the overall feel of his sacred works could have been influenced by Dunstaple, unlike Dufay whose works have actual structural similarities to the English composer. Conclusion Influx of Marion devotion influenced the continental composers of the 15 th century. English clerics were given benifices and their own chapels on continent, expanding continental devotional practices. England led the way in building the first of the Lady Chapels dedicated to the Virgin Mary and continuing the struggle against the ever-changing monarchy. The Virgin Mary’s perceived dedication to the common man and the church made her a strong symbol for the people. Perceived as an intercessor with her son, Jesus, she was a more accessible means by which to obtain answered prayers. Her role as mother and protector also gave people comfort in their time of need, whether 198 Fallows, David. "Binchois, Gilles de Bins dit." In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/03094 (accessed February 1, 2010). 199 Strohm, 245. 58 it was spiritual or earthly. This intense devotion became the perfect setting for the development of the Marion Antiphons. English composers, specifically Dunstable, traveled the continent with their patrons during Hundred Years War, exposing continental composers to their compositional style and techniques. There is documented evidence of English presence at Council of Constance, where continental composers would have been exposed to the English sound. Martin le Franc was at two councils with Dufay, the Council of Basle and the Council of Arras. At both points, Martin had the opportunity to evaluate the music of Dufay and Binchois. He was able to form opinions based on his understanding of the music. Dunstaple and his English sound set the stage what Martin le Franc would term the contenance angloise. The term referred to the musical sounds produced in England and how Dunstaple influenced the continental composers, specifically Dufay and Binchois. Though musicologists have yet to agree on the Franc’s actual meaning in his poem, nor the point of actual English influence, it remains that he had an informed opinion about the music of Dunstaple, Dufay, and Binchois. There is an argument for faburden as the point of influence for creation of fauxbourdon. Though, Kaye established that the treatment of consonances was most important in English composition, he also notes that the use of increased dissonances suggests that Dufay may not have been influenced by faburden. However, it is argued here that there was an expansion on the concept of faburden to create faubourdon. In this technique, fauxbourdon is more closely related to the style of the French chanson. 59 The English monarchy commissioned the first three-voice motets dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Called cantelina motets, antiphon motets, or cantus firmus motets, they were all developed in devotion to the Virgin Mary. Scholars may continue the debate about how to name this genre, but English composers were at the beginning of the development of the genre. As a result of the English and French struggles for the French throne, it is possible that devotional practices were influenced as well as the music. IN the words of Cummings, “Just when the English cantelina arrived on the continent, continental Marian devotions, perhaps inspired by the English example, were on the rise. There was a new interest in polyphonic settings of Marian texts.” 200 Once continental composers were exposed to the trend in religious devotions and these antiphons, a stylistic shift isnoted in their writing. As seen in the comparisons of the Ave regina celorum and Alma redemptoris mater, there are structural and melodic similarities that are traditionally English conventions. The use of duet passages is a common theme in English compositions, which is seen more on the continent after the influx of English music. Consonances are no more prominent, as previously thought, but it is in the treatment of dissonances that amplifies a consonant sound in continental compositions. The use of the same texts, which were predominately enjoyed in England, is what connects the compositions. Further research into the sacred genres of Dunstaple, Dufay, and Binchois is needed. Perhaps then a more firm connection may be established. Specifically, there is little scholarship on the early life and training of Binchois. That may also point to further 200 Cumming, Motet and Cantilena, 70. 60 (or less) connections. Until that point musicologists will continue to debate the meaning of Martin le Franc’s poem and Tinctoris’ assertion of Dunstaple as the leader of this new sound. This author maintains that the development of the Marion Antiphons was an instrumental part of the English influence. 61 Bibliography "Alma Redemptoris mater." In Grove Music Online. 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Creator Bailey, Tara Celeste (author)

Core Title Dunstaple, DuFay, and Binchois: the influence of English music on continental composers through Marion Antiphons

School Thornton School of Music

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Early Music Performance

Publication Date 02/23/2018

Defense Date 02/23/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Binchois,Contenance Angloise,DuFay,Dunstaple,Marion Antiphons,motet,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Gilbert, Adam Knight (committee chair), Gilbert, Rotem (committee member), Yoshida, Jason (committee member)

Creator Email tarabailey@ymail.com,tbailey@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-478913

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