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Disrupting the homogenous leadership in post-secondary education by addressing the lack of women leaders of color: an innovation study

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Disrupting the homogenous leadership in post-secondary education by addressing the lack of women leaders of color: an innovation study

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Content Running head: WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 1

Disrupting the Homogenous Leadership in Post-Secondary Education by Addressing the Lack of
Women Leaders of Color: An Innovation Study
by
Jayzona A. Alberto

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2018

Copyright 2018 Jayzona A. Alberto

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 2
Abstract
The executive levels of leadership at colleges and universities have remained stagnant over the
last decade despite the everchanging gender and racial demographics in higher education
(Lennon, 2013; The White House Project Report, 2009). Results from previous studies indicated
a necessity to update recruitment and retention practices to be more inclusive of individuals from
varying underrepresented minorities (Flowers & Moore, 2008; Gasman, Kim, & Nguyen, 2011;
Nkomo & Al Ariss, 2014; Oldfield, 2010; Tran, 2014; Wolfe & Dilworth, 2015). In order to
investigate the underlying factors surrounding the homogenous landscape of leadership in post-
secondary education, this study explored the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences and solutions necessary for university administrators to increase leadership roles for
minority women. The researcher utilized a transformative explanatory sequential mixed methods
research design by collecting and evaluating survey and interview data from leaders at a health
professions education university. The outcomes from the data collection resulted in emergent
themes such as the influence of leadership on diversity and undefined goals toward diversity as
well as descriptive statistics for variables involving knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences. The researcher suggested using the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016) as a framework to develop, integrate, and evaluate the knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organizational factors driving stakeholders to achieve the organizational goal. If
the University successfully implements the recommendations, it can foster an environment in
which leaders are committed to addressing challenges related to workplace diversity and possess
the knowledge and skills to cast a wider net to attract and sustain leaders who exhibit diversity in
all aspects.

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 3
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I would like to thank God for this rewarding and challenging journey
to pursue my doctorate degree at USC.
Secondly, I would like to acknowledge my parents whose steadfast support and
encouragement helped me through the longest days and nights of work, then class, then
homework, and the most trying periods of procrastination. Dad, your work ethic has resonated
with me since I was a little girl. Thank you for instilling in me the values of hard work and
perseverance, and for always reminding me there will never be a goal too big for me to achieve if
I just put my mind to it. Mom, I would not be the woman I am today without your guidance.
I’m grateful that I can always turn to you for advice, that you always have my back, and that
you’ve continued to believe in me when I didn’t believe in myself. Thank you for everything
you have sacrificed so that I can reach my goals.
Next, I would like to acknowledge my family and friends. There are far too many to
name individually, but I’m forever grateful to all those who have been beside me since the day I
signed my letter of intent. I really appreciated the constant check-ins and recognizing when I
need a break from school or need to power through it. Thank you for being the greatest support
system I can ask for!
Finally, I want to recognize my USC family. To my dissertation chair, Dr. Picus, and my
committee members, Dr. Datta and Dr. Robles, thank you for your advice over the years and for
believing in me until the very end. And to the greatest group of classmates ever, Cohort 3. You
all are BOSSES and I’ve learned tremendously from every single one of you. Thank you for
being there to lean on in every aspect. You have all impacted me in the best ways possible, and
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 4
I’m happy leaving USC with such incredible relationships. This group is truly the epitome of
#NoDoctorsDown.

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 5
Table of Contents
Abstract ...........................................................................................................................................2
Acknowledgments ..........................................................................................................................3
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................13
List of Figures ...............................................................................................................................14
Chapter One: Introduction .........................................................................................................15
Introduction to the Problem of Practice .....................................................................................15
Organizational Context and Mission .........................................................................................15
Organizational Performance Status/Need ..................................................................................16
Related Literature.......................................................................................................................17
Importance of Addressing the Problem .....................................................................................19
Importance of Organizational Innovation ..................................................................................20
Organizational Performance Goal..............................................................................................21
Description of Stakeholder Groups ............................................................................................21
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals...................................................................................22
Stakeholder Group for the Study ...............................................................................................24
Purpose of the Project and Questions ........................................................................................24
Conceptual and Methodological Approach ...............................................................................25
Definitions..................................................................................................................................26
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 6
Organization of the Study ..........................................................................................................27
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature.....................................................................................29
The Absence of Women Leaders of Color in Post-Secondary Education .................................29
Factors Deterring the Diversification of Leadership in Higher Education ................................29
Current Landscape of Higher Education....................................................................................30
Homogenous leadership .....................................................................................................30
Underrepresented groups in higher education ...................................................................31
Workplace diversity ...........................................................................................................32
Infrastructure Critical for Cultivating Diversity in Higher Education .......................................33
The glass ceiling ................................................................................................................34
Promotion and tenure .........................................................................................................35
Limiting leadership roles ...................................................................................................35
Recruitment, Employment, and Retention .................................................................................36
Distinctive employee benefits ............................................................................................37
Competitive candidate pools ..............................................................................................37
Professional development ..................................................................................................38
Summary of General Literature .................................................................................................38
Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Influences ..................................................................39
Knowledge and Skills ................................................................................................................39
Knowledge influences ........................................................................................................40
Understand barriers and benefits of diversity ....................................................................40
Monitoring progress of tasks and goals .............................................................................41
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 7
Reflection on identity awareness .......................................................................................42
Motivation ..................................................................................................................................45
Interest................................................................................................................................46
University Administrators’ Interest ...................................................................................46
Goals ..................................................................................................................................47
University Administrators’ Goals ......................................................................................48
Organizational Influences ..........................................................................................................50
General theory ....................................................................................................................51
Stakeholder specific influences..........................................................................................53
The organizational culture at HSU ....................................................................................53
Role of HSU leadership .....................................................................................................54
Absence of policies for hiring, promoting, and appointing women leaders of color.........56
Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ......................................58
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................58
Chapter Three: Methodology .....................................................................................................60
Purpose of the Project ................................................................................................................60
Research Questions ....................................................................................................................60
Research Design.........................................................................................................................60
Conceptual Framework ..............................................................................................................61
Unit of Analysis .........................................................................................................................65
Participating Stakeholders .........................................................................................................65
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 8
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale....................................................................................66
Position title .......................................................................................................................66
Length of tenure in current position...................................................................................66
Not serving as a clinical administrator...............................................................................67
Survey Sampling Recruitment Strategy and Rationale ..............................................................67
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale................................................................................68
Survey completion .............................................................................................................68
Woman of color .................................................................................................................68
Organizational ranking.......................................................................................................69
Interview Sampling Recruitment Strategy and Rationale ..........................................................69
Data Collection and Instrumentation .........................................................................................70
Surveys .......................................................................................................................................76
Interviews ...................................................................................................................................78
Data Analysis .............................................................................................................................80
Validity and Reliability ..............................................................................................................82
Credibility and Trustworthiness .................................................................................................82
Ethics..........................................................................................................................................83
Limitations and Delimitations....................................................................................................84
Chapter Four: Results and Findings ..........................................................................................87
Results ........................................................................................................................................87
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 9
Participating Stakeholders .........................................................................................................88
Knowledge Results ....................................................................................................................91
Effects of diversity .............................................................................................................94
Knowledge of university practices.....................................................................................94
Metacognition and decision making ..................................................................................95
Motivation Results .....................................................................................................................95
Personal interest .................................................................................................................97
Goal setting ........................................................................................................................98
Goal alignment ...................................................................................................................98
Organizational Results ...............................................................................................................99
Organizational culture ......................................................................................................102
Role of leadership ............................................................................................................102
Policies .............................................................................................................................103
Programs ..........................................................................................................................103
Findings....................................................................................................................................104
Participating Stakeholders .......................................................................................................104
Emergent Themes ....................................................................................................................104
Influence of leadership on diversity .................................................................................105
Maintain status quo ..............................................................................................106
Past and present leadership ..................................................................................108
College deans versus university leadership .........................................................109
Undefined organizational goals toward diversity ............................................................110
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 10
Diversity initiatives ..............................................................................................111
Diversity training .................................................................................................112
Formal mentoring programs ................................................................................113
Synthesis ..................................................................................................................................114
Chapter Five: Recommendations .............................................................................................117
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences ..................................................117
Knowledge Recommendations ................................................................................................117
Introduction ......................................................................................................................117
Procedural knowledge solutions ......................................................................................119
Motivation Recommendations .................................................................................................120
Introduction ......................................................................................................................120
Goals ................................................................................................................................122
Organizational Recommendations ...........................................................................................123
Introduction ......................................................................................................................123
Organizational culture ......................................................................................................127
Policies and procedures....................................................................................................127
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ......................................................................128
Implementation and Evaluation Framework ............................................................................128
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations ....................................................................129
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators ..................................................................................129
Level 3: Behavior .....................................................................................................................132
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 11
Critical behaviors .............................................................................................................132
Required drivers ...............................................................................................................135
Organizational support .....................................................................................................137
Level 2: Learning .....................................................................................................................139
Learning goals ..................................................................................................................139
Program ............................................................................................................................139
Components of learning ...................................................................................................141
Level 1: Reaction .....................................................................................................................144
Evaluation Tools ......................................................................................................................145
Immediately following the program implementation ......................................................145
Delayed for a period after the program implementation ..................................................146
Data Analysis and Reporting ...................................................................................................146
Summary ..................................................................................................................................147
Recommendations for Future Research ...................................................................................148
Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................149
Appendix A: Survey Items ........................................................................................................151
Appendix B: Interview Protocol ...............................................................................................155
Appendix C: Informed Consent for Survey ............................................................................156
Appendix D: Information Sheet for Survey ............................................................................160
Appendix E: Recruitment Email for Survey ...........................................................................162
Appendix F: Recruitment Email for Interviews .....................................................................163
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 12
Appendix G: Workshop Evaluation Survey ............................................................................164
Appendix H: Program Evaluation Survey ..............................................................................165
References ....................................................................................................................................166

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 13
List of Tables
Table 1. Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals..................23
Table 2. Stakeholder Goal and Knowledge Influence, Type and Assessment for Gap Analysis ...43
Table 3. Stakeholder Goal and Motivation Influence, Assumed Influence and Assessment for
Motivation Gap Analysis................................................................................................................49
Table 4. Stakeholder Goal and Organizational Influence, Assumed Influences and Assessment
for Organizational Gap Analysis ..................................................................................................57
Table 5. Research Question Alignment Matrix ..............................................................................71
Table 6. Demographics of Survey Participants .............................................................................89
Table 7. Demographics of Interview Participants .........................................................................90
Table 8. Survey Items on Knowledge Influences ...........................................................................91

Table 9. Survey Items on Motivation Influences ............................................................................96

Table 10. Survey Items on Organizational Influences ..................................................................99
Table 11. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations ........................................117
Table 12. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations .........................................121
Table 13. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations .....................................124
Table 14. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes ......................130
Table 15. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for University Administrators .....133
Table 16. Required Drivers to Support University Administrators’ Critical Behaviors .............136
Table 17. Components of Learning for the Program ...................................................................142
Table 18. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program ....................................................144

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 14
List of Figures
Figure 1. Gap analysis process. Adapted from Clark and Estes (2008) .......................................26
Figure 2. Conceptual Framework for Enhancing Diversity in Higher Education Administration
through KMO Influences................................................................................................................64
Figure 3. Transformative explanatory sequential mixed methods research design for the present
study ...............................................................................................................................................80
Figure 4. HSU Administrator Recruitment and Retention Program Evaluation Dashboard......147

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 15
Chapter One: Introduction
Introduction to the Problem of Practice
Institutes of higher education have made very little progress toward improving their racial
and gender homogenous leadership over the last decade (Lennon, 2013; The White House
Project Report, 2009). A disparity exists in the number of women of color who currently hold
positional leadership roles in post-secondary education across the country. This includes females
who identify with one or more of the underrepresented racial groups such as African American,
Asian American, Latina, and Native American (Lennon, 2013; Tran, 2014; The White House
Project Report, 2009). For example, The White House Project Report (2009) and its subsequent
report, Benchmarking Women’s Leadership in the United States (Lennon, 2013), indicated that
the number of female college presidents has not improved over the past 10 years and
approximately 30% of college and university boards of trustees are composed of women.
Collectively, minority women constitute approximately 17-18% of college or university
leadership (Lennon, 2013; Tran, 2014). The lack of diversity in higher education administration
poses cultural, societal, and educational ramifications in the fields of academia and
organizational leadership. The absence of women of color in administrative positions can result
in continuous opposition within the work place and sustained gender homogenous leadership
(Madsen, 2012; Tran, 2014). In order to overcome this problem, colleges and universities will
need to recognize the disproportionate percentages of academic leaders who identify with the
following underrepresented groups: women, racial and ethnic minorities, and those individuals
with intersecting identities of gender and race.
Organizational Context and Mission
Health Sciences University (HSU) is a small, private health professions institution that
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 16
offers graduate programs in medicine, dentistry, podiatry, optometry, nursing, pharmacy, public
health, physician assistant studies, veterinary medicine, physical therapy, and biomedical
sciences. The mission of HSU is to graduate healthcare providers who, through their humanistic
nature and extensive knowledge and skills, will improve the longevity and quality of life of the
communities in which they work. HSU was founded in 1977, and began as a singular medical
educational institution. Over the past 40 years, the school expanded to include more colleges
and one satellite campus. Currently, there are approximately 2,000 students enrolled in 21
graduate degree programs. The University’s recent human resource statistics indicate that the
University employs approximately 1,100 full-time faculty members, staff members, and
administrators. About 114 administrators serve in leadership positions within at the college and
university level. The chief responsibilities of the executive administration team entail providing
leadership, decision making, and ensuring smooth operations for their respective college or the
university (“About Health Sciences University,” n.d.).
Organizational Performance Status/Need
The leadership at Health Sciences University is not diverse in comparison to other model
colleges and universities. The highest administrative levels of the University, as well as the
Board of Trustees, are dominated by older Caucasian men. Of the 114 university administrators
at HSU, the number of those individuals who identify as a woman of color is 14, or 12% (“About
Health Sciences University,” n.d.). Due to this low percentage, HSU wants to implement a plan
of action to increase the percentage of women of color in its administrative ranks. As a relatively
young institution of higher education, HSU does not yet have the reputation or prestige to attract
competitive candidates for leadership. Because of this, the University faces a limited pool of
applicants when seeking to employ or appoint individuals to leadership roles. Furthermore, the
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 17
organization currently has no plan in place to cast a wider net in recruiting and identifying more
candidates who are women leaders of color. The organization also does not have an established
formal retention program for mentoring current faculty and staff members that can act as a
platform for encouraging and empowering them to advance up the organizational hierarchy at the
institution. Without recruitment or retention plans to guide the resolution of the problem of
practice – the lack of diversity in its administrative ranks – the University is at a clear
disadvantage in realizing its goal to increase the percentage of minority women leaders.
Related Literature
Workplace diversity has been a withstanding issue that is often studied in management
research, primarily focusing on demographics of an organization (DiTomaso, Post, & Parks-
Yancy, 2007). Research across various fields indicates that women and ethnic groups are in less
powerful positions of authority compared to their Caucasian male counterparts (Smith, 2010).
Notably, the research illustrates that there is conflicting evidence on the benefits of workforce
diversity (DiTomaso et al., 2007). van Knippenberg, De Dreu, and Homan (2004) discusses how
diversity can have both negative and positive effects on an organization. For example,
workplace heterogeneity may result in increased conflict and low task performance while
positive effects may include enhanced creativity and innovation within an organization.
Although there is a growing body of literature on workplace diversity in regards to women and
ethnic groups, more studies must be conducted that draws focus on this problem specifically in
higher education administration.
There is not enough robust research that addresses the problem in which institutions of
higher education lack women leaders of color in senior-level administrative positions. Women
of color in academia are unable to move into senior-level leadership positions due to obstacles
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 18
related to promotion, tenure, and professional development programs. Although more women of
color obtain higher degrees, this minority group is significantly underrepresented throughout all
levels of higher education, accounting for approximately 3% of professors, 6% of associate
professors, and 9% of assistant professors (The White House Project, 2009). Furthermore, a
staggeringly low 4.4% of all college presidents are women of color (The White House Project,
2009). Smith (2010) argued that individuals of various backgrounds are “essential to the
capacity of institutions to make fully informed decisions at all levels” (p. 141), but colleges and
universities may struggle with expanding their organizational capacity because of the low
percentages of minority women leaders.
Women leaders of color in post-secondary education have challenging hurdles to
overcome, such as inequitable gaps in salary and promotion as well as lack of resources,
including comparable role models and professional development programs. Tran (2014)
discussed that the absence of formal mentoring programs at colleges and universities affects
upward mobility for women leaders of color. The researcher explained that the participants
reported mentoring as an absent, yet important element to one’s success in her career through
conducting interviews with four women of color who held senior administrative positions at a
minority-serving institution. Failing to diversify the leadership of universities and colleges with
more women leaders of color may prevent progression and innovation in higher education. By
denoting the low percentages of ethnic women in academic leadership, it is evident that the
problem of practice needs to be tackled, and an achievement of Health Sciences University’s
performance goals can contribute to resolving the issue.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 19
Importance of Addressing the Problem
Although the United States has seen an increase in women leaders of color in post-
secondary education, the percentage remains low and does not represent the student population
in which these leaders serve (The White House Project, 2009). Inequity of employment and
promotion opportunities for women leaders of color in higher education administration is a
significant problem to address for multiple reasons. To combat this problem, institutes of higher
education will need to make a concerted effort to address the underlying root causes at hand.
Failure to address the problem of practice may potentially result in dire consequences for Health
Sciences University.
A significant repercussion of ignoring the problem is homosocial reproduction (Nkomo
& Al Ariss, 2014) in which groups select leaders based on characteristics like their own, thus
resulting in a cyclical process of appointing Caucasian men. It is possible that the University is
at risk of becoming complacent rather than experiencing innovative growth (Stevens, Plaut, &
Sanchez-Burks, 2008) and positive organizational change (Tran, 2014). Additionally, the
University will fail to achieve one of its important strategic plan objectives, which is to
“strengthen their [sic] human resources for current and future success through the growth and
development of their [sic] people” (“About Health Sciences University,” n.d.). Smith (2010)
explained that although universities and colleges openly express their commitment to diversity,
not representing this in their workforce will portray the organization as misleading and insincere.
If the organization continues to ignore the problem, the administration would be sending
a clear signal of the types of individuals who are appointed to senior leadership, as well as
disregarding a significant strategy emphasized in the strategy plan to "support the recruitment of
a diverse faculty, staff and student body” (“About Health Sciences University,” n.d.). The
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 20
consequences of avoiding this problem can possibly result in high turnover, low morale, and
unspoken oppression of individuals who identify with minority groups (DiTomaso et al., 2007).
These low percentages of minority women leaders at all levels of higher education illustrates a
necessary push for enhancing workplace diversity, not just at HSU, but at colleges and
universities across the country. Although this problem is daunting, it has a significant influence
on the climate of colleges and universities nationwide, and ultimately all of society, as students
graduate and enter various fields of the workforce.
Importance of the Organizational Innovation
It is important for the organization to implement recruitment and retention plans for a
variety of reasons. One major impact of a more heterogeneous administration at post-secondary
institutions would be an increased likelihood of ingenuity and diversity of thought (van
Knippenberg et al., 2004). Further studies have shown that diversity has resulted in positive
organizational outcomes for workplaces, including enhanced creativity and innovation
(DiTomaso et al., 2007; Stevens et al., 2008). Notably, women leaders of color have unique
background experience that their white male counterparts do not have, which leads to novel ways
of thinking or new solutions to existing problems (Dugger, 2001). The varying perspectives and
experiences of women of color can contribute in large part to bettering institutions of higher
education and “serve as a catalyst for creating institutional change” (Tran, 2014, p. 315). For
example, Dugger (2001) emphasizes that women and ethnic faculty have incorporated fresh
insight, novel research interests and studies, and noteworthy revolutions in the classroom.
Finally, researchers accounted several leadership competencies that women cultivate and
contribute to their institutions that are necessary for the fast-paced, forward-moving society
(Madsen, 2012; Turner, Norwood, & Noe, 2013). In order to challenge the status quo, stimulate
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 21
innovative ideas and conversations, and disrupt the ever-changing landscape of higher education,
colleges and universities need to dissuade against maintaining the current homogenous
leadership, and begin appointing more women leaders of color.
Organizational Performance Goal
By 2025, the percentage of appointed women leaders of color at the college and
university level at Health Sciences University will increase from 12% to 24% in order to reflect
the students and communities it serves. This goal will involve aspects such as the development
of a recruitment plan and establishment of a retention program. The Provost established this goal
after the strategic planning retreat in which University stakeholders participated in small group
discussions ultimately resulting in the establishment of various themes and strategies, of which
included supporting the recruitment of diverse faculty and staff (“About Health Sciences
University,” n.d.). The achievement of HSU’s goal in this matter will be measured by the results
of data collected by the Strategic Plan Task Force from surveys and questionnaires to the campus
community, as well as reports from the “horizon scanning” groups designed to assess the goals
(“About Health Sciences University,” n.d.).
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are several stakeholder groups that can contribute to the realization of the
University’s performance goal. The first group would consist of the 3,862 students who are
obtaining an education at the University and will serve as a mirror for the gender, racial, and
ethnic composition of the administration (“About Health Sciences University,” n.d.). The
University currently employs approximately 276 faculty members, tasked with delivering
educational content to and evaluating competency of the students as well as additional
obligations such as providing mentorship, treating patients, and conducting research, make up
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 22
the second stakeholder group (“About Health Sciences University,” n.d.). Faculty members
contribute to the organization’s performance goal in that they may advance within the
organizational structure to higher positions of leadership. Additionally, there are approximately
710 staff members who support operations throughout the organization, and may potentially
move up the ranks into administrative roles (“About Health Sciences University,” n.d.). Another
stakeholder group would include the 114 college and university administrators who oversee the
operations of the organization, are involved in the decision-making process, and move the
organization toward realizing its vision, mission, and strategic plan. Administrators mentor and
empower potential leaders as well as appoint and hire women leaders of color into positions of
leadership. Finally, the Board of Trustees is composed of 11 appointed individuals who are
community leaders responsible for participating in a checks and balances process with the
President and university administrators in regards to decision making. The University’s Board of
Trustees self-appoints members, and thus may initiate the appointment of women leaders of
color to the Board, further assisting the organization in reaching its performance goal.
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals
The university administration will need to accomplish a set of performance goals in order
to achieve the overarching organizational goal. Table 1 illustrates the University’s mission
statement, the organizational performance goal, and four stakeholder goals. The organizational
and stakeholder goals indicate an established time frame, a specific task that the university
administration needs to accomplish, and the degree to which the goal will be measured. By
completing each of these stakeholder goals, the university administration can track the progress
toward the organizational performance goal.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 23
Table 1. Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals

Organizational Mission
The mission of Health Sciences University is to produce, in a humanistic tradition, health care
professionals and biomedical knowledge that will enhance and extend the quality of life in our
communities.
Organizational Performance Goal
By 2025, Health Sciences University will hire or promote women leaders of color at the college
and university levels, increasing the percentage from 12% to 24% in order to better reflect the
students and communities they serve.
Administrators’ Goal Administrators’ Goal Administrators’ Goal Administrators’ Goal
By December 2017,
university
administrators will
complete a survey on
their perceptions of
the organization’s
leadership diversity
and recruitment and
retention efforts.
By March 2018, the
university
administrators will
establish hiring
policies that allow for
the expansion and
diversification of the
prospective candidate
pool.
By December 2018,
university
administrators will
formalize a mentoring
program for faculty
and staff to develop
professional
relationships with
colleagues.
By June 2020,
university
administrators will
develop a plan for
hiring and promoting
12 women of color
within the next 5 years.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 24
Stakeholder Group for the Study
Although all stakeholder groups must be involved to complete an analysis of the
organizational goal, for the intent and purpose of this study, the university administration will be
the stakeholder group of focus. The stakeholders’ goal, supported by the University President
and Board of Trustees, is that the employment and appointment of women leaders of color at the
university and college levels will increase from 12% to 24% in order to reflect the students and
communities that the organization serves. Across the country, minority women compose only
18% of college and university administration (Tran, 2014). In order to surpass that percentage at
Health Sciences University, the organization will need to double the current number of women
leaders of color in leadership positions.
The university administration will be tasked with the development and implementation of
a new recruitment plan, and the retention program will serve as the body accountable for
benchmarking and tracking progress toward the goal. Failure to complete this goal will result in
sustained lack of diversity among the higher levels of leadership within the organization, and the
inability of achieving the goals set forth by the University Provost in the strategic plan. By not
realizing this goal, the organization will continue to foster a culture that does not promote
diversity at all levels of administration or provide equitable opportunities for minority women
leaders. Because this is a new performance goal for the University and university administrators,
the current performance gap is 100%.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a gap analysis in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources necessary to reach the organizational performance goal
of increasing the percentage of appointed women leaders of color at the college and university
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 25
level by 100% at Health Sciences University. The analysis will begin by generating a list of
possible needs, and will then move to examining these systematically to focus on actual or
validated needs. While a complete gap analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for practical
purposes, the stakeholder to be focused on in this analysis is all Health Sciences University
faculty, staff, and administrators.
As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs necessary for Health
Sciences University to increase the percentage of women leaders of color from 12% to
24% at the college and university levels?
2. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to those
needs?
Conceptual and Methodological Approach
This study will use Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework, which is a process
of investigating organizational performance gaps and developing solutions to address and resolve
those gaps. Clark and Estes (2008) discussed that the framework involves three main
components, including the following: knowledge and skills, motivation toward achieving the
goal, and organizational barriers.
The gap analysis process consists of six phases as shown in Figure 1.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 26

Figure 1. Gap analysis process. Adapted from Clark and Estes (2008).
The Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework applies a number of various data
collection and analysis methods. Qualitative data collection may involve observations,
interviews, focus groups, surveys or questionnaires, or gathering secondary data. Quantitative
data collection may entail surveys. Lastly, mixed methods data collection is a combination of
both qualitative and quantitative methods. This study was a transformative sequential
explanatory mixed methods approach, and involved collecting quantitative survey and qualitative
interview data. Data analysis included thematic coding of qualitative interviews and
correlational statistics from the quantitative survey data.
Definitions
The terms listed below are operationally defined for the purpose of this study.
1. Diversity: The inclusion of different types of people, specifically demographic
characteristics, in a group (Smith, 2010).
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 27
2. Higher Education/Post-secondary Education: A type of education offered after high
school by colleges and universities (Hannum, Muhly, Shockley-Zalabak, & White, 2015;
Smith, 2010).
3. Higher Education Administration/University Administrators/Leadership: Individuals who
serve in a positional leadership role at a college or university (Hannum et al., 2015;
Smith, 2010).
4. Women of color/Minority Women/Underrepresented Minorities: Individuals who identify
as a member of the female sex and a member of one or more of the following racial
groups: Black or African American, Native American and Alaska Native, Asian
American, Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander (Smith, 2010; Tran, 2014).
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter One provides the reader with
foundational information regarding the problem of practice, including main concepts and
definitions of terms that will be used throughout the study. This chapter also introduces the
reader to the general topic, which is the disparity of minority women in positional leadership
roles at post-secondary institutions as well as the gaps and needs analyses and research questions
to be examined in the study. Chapter Two details the current literature and research that
surrounds the study. In Chapter Two, the researcher addresses topics such as the current
landscape of higher education, the glass ceiling, and recruitment, employment, and retention of
women of color. Chapter Three provides the reader with the assumed knowledge, motivation,
and organizational needs for the study, and an explanation of the study methodology, including
participant selection, data collection, and data analysis. The data and results are analyzed in
Chapter Four. Lastly, Chapter Five will be a discussion of findings, implications for future
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 28
practice and studies, limitations to the present study, and recommendations for implementation
of solutions for closing the performance gap using a synthesis of the data and literature.

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 29
Chapter Two: Review of Literature
The Absence of Women Leaders of Color in Post-Secondary Education
Women of color continue to play a vital role in the incredible growth various industries
witnessed throughout the past century. Despite great strides in progress toward a more
representative workforce, a significant disparity appears when progressing up the leadership
ladder. The White House Report (2009) and its supplemental report, Benchmarking Women’s
Leadership in the United States (Lennon, 2013), denoted less than 20% of women were
positional leaders across ten sectors. Researchers identified presumed factors related to the low
percentage of women organizational leaders, including their interest in investing and
accommodating their families or lifestyles as well as field of study (Hannum et al., 2015;
Lennon, 2013; Ortega-Liston & Rodriguez Soto, 2014). Although these factors may hold true
for some individuals, the literature illustrated that underlying causes for misrepresentation of
higher education leadership point to organizational issues such as the current landscape and
infrastructure (Hannum et al., 2015).
Factors Deterring the Diversification of Leadership in Higher Education
This chapter explores the literature surrounding the underlying causes of the
underrepresentation of minority women in post-secondary education. The chapter begins with an
overview of the current landscape in higher education, including topics such as the persisting
homogenous leadership, the underrepresented groups of colleges and universities across the
country, and the impact of workplace diversity in organizations. The chapter then delves into the
infrastructure not structured to support women leaders of color in higher education, especially
the struggles that underrepresented groups encounter while the glass ceiling continues to exist.
This section examines the difficulties women face when navigating promotion and tenure or the
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 30
limited leadership positions available. Furthermore, the literature offered several suggestions for
practices, policies, and programs that universities and colleges can implement to cast a wide net.
The chapter concludes with an overview of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
elements critical for university administration to address and find solutions for the problem of
practice.
Current Landscape of Higher Education
The backdrop of the field of post-secondary education does not currently represent the
composition of the country’s population. Lennon (2013) reported that higher education
witnessed a steady increase of minority women completing undergraduate and graduate degrees
yet a significant pay gap between women and men after earning a college degree still exists.
Although more women of color are participating in higher education, this is not reflective of
college faculty or administration (Hannum et al., 2015; Lennon, 2013). For example, there was a
mere 8.1% of minority women who held faculty positions (American Council on Education,
2012), 28.4% women trustees and 11.9% trustees of color (American Council on Education,
2012), and 17% women presidents of color (Lennon, 2013). Cook (2012) explained that on
average only 40% of women comprise Chief Academic Officer (CAO) positions, which has
emerged as the most expected pathway for over a third of university and college presidents.
Furthermore, there is a high likelihood that a sitting president can be appointed to fill an opening
at a different school (Cook, 2012). This may pose a recurring concern if the pool for presidential
candidates remains homogenous.
Homogenous leadership. If homogenous leadership persists and institutions continue to
exert sub-par efforts in enhancing diversity at all organizational levels, then higher education
may not reap the benefits that women leaders of color bring. One primary challenge to
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 31
diversifying leadership at colleges and universities is homosocial reproduction. Nkomo and Al
Ariss (2014) defined homosocial reproduction as filling vacant positions with persons who
resemble themselves; therefore, individuals in dominant groups have more abundant
opportunities for leadership roles. For example, Ehrenberg and Main (2008) discussed that
male-led Boards of Trustees normally replace board members by reaching out to those in their
professional networks. The first step in diversifying the homogenous leadership of higher
education is to break the pattern of homosocial reproduction.
Underrepresented groups in higher education. Per Benchmarking Women’s Leadership
in the United States (Lennon, 2013), many disparities still exist for women in academia. The
report indicated that across the colleges and universities in the country, there was an average of
24.53% women in positional leadership roles in academia. At four-year, doctorate conferring
institutions, women comprise approximately 29% of the tenure track faculty slots with only 3.7%
of those going to women of color (Lennon, 2013). Furthermore, the salary gap is still a stark
difference at close to 20% less when compared to their male counterparts. In regard to
presidential leadership, Cook (2012) referenced the seventh report on college presidents by the
American Council on Education (2012) to describe the typical demographic profile as a White
male in his 50s. The ACE report illustrates that although college enrollment has become more
diverse between 1986 and 2011, the ethnic and racial composition of college leaders increased
by only 5% (Cook, 2012). The low statistics for these underrepresented groups signify a long-
standing impediment post-secondary institution must continue to address.
In contrast to the unequal representation discussed above, Lennon (2013) and Cook
(2012) acknowledged gradual progress and noteworthy success for women academic leaders in a
certain area. Cook (2012) reported that out of the eight Ivy League institutions, five of them are
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 32
being led by women. Patton (2009) suggested that more women in higher education
administration expands the number of women role models across various fields; therefore,
having five female Ivy League presidents is an important victory. Hannum et al. (2015) stated,
“Understanding the pathways to and the pressures faced by senior-leaders contributes to
understanding what needs to be done to open doors and create support for these leaders.
Empirical evidence about women in higher education surfaces information that is both
challenging and helpful. Diversifying higher education leadership is critical and the
stalled pace suggests that more work is needed to understand and address the underlying
factors that are contributing to the slowed progress” (p. 67).
For institutions of higher education to eliminate the subtle gender bias that is embedded into
these organizations, they must identify better practices for enhancing workplace diversity.
Workplace diversity. A significant body of research surrounds the topic of workplace
diversity, highlighting both its advantages and disadvantages. Many researchers argued that
when it comes to diversity, there will always be positive and negative effects (Chatman & Flynn,
2001; Earley & Mosakowski, 2000; van Knippenberg et al., 2004). For example, a qualitative
field study conducted by Earley and Mosakowski (2000) demonstrated short-term and long-term
results of homogenous versus heterogeneous group performance. DiTomaso et al. (2007)
explained that heterogeneous groups are more likely to be adaptable, innovative, and have a wide
range of information sources, but experience difficulty in integrating and implementing ideas.
Earley and Mosakowski (2000) reported that although initially diverse groups may experience
communication barriers that hindered work performance, when they build a shared identity and
develop a common vision, they are more likely to formulate innovative solutions and surpass
performance expectations over time.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 33
Stevens et al. (2008) explained that when team members shift their focus from superficial
differences such as ethnicity, race, and gender, diversity has the potential to accelerate
organizational developments through creativity and innovation. Stevens et al. (2008) proposed
an all-inclusive multiculturalism approach to tapping into the benefits of diversity. The
researchers stated that this approach heightens employee engagement and communication,
causing individuals to feel more valued and comfortable recommending innovations. Applying
the Stevens et al. (2008) approach by increasing the percentage of minority women in post-
secondary education may produce a myriad of benefits to colleges and universities.
Consequently, Lennon (2013) discussed that “perspectives brought by diverse women
representing various socioeconomic, racial, and ethnic backgrounds encourages a breadth and
depth of ideas that cannot be found in a homogeneous pool” (p.12). Turner et al. (2013)
described diversity as one of the necessities for advancing in higher education. It is critical for
colleges and universities to evolve the current landscape of higher education by disrupting its
homogenous leadership and boosting workplace diversity.
Infrastructure Critical for Cultivating Diversity in Higher Education
A major underlying cause for the imbalance of growth opportunities for minority women
leaders is the weak infrastructure presently in place at institutions of higher education. Madsen
(2012) and Turner et al. (2013) discussed that all women in higher education eventually
encounter and find themselves navigating the challenge of the glass ceiling. In a synthesis of
research, Madsen (2012) identified additional concerns for women in higher education settings:
“…work–family responsibilities and struggles, family-friendly policies and other support
mechanisms, leadership identity, career choices and planning, career aspirations, mentoring
relationships and programs…” (p. 135). Stakeholders at colleges and universities must consider
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 34
allocating personnel and financial resources to address and strengthen matters regarding
infrastructure.
The glass ceiling. Jackson and O’Callaghan (2009) defined the glass ceiling as obstacles
that women and people of color must overcome to achieve advancement in their profession.
When it comes to leadership, Turner et al. (2013) explained that women are posed with the task
of circumnavigating the double standard that they need to develop male-associated leadership
proficiencies, yet not compromise their femininity. Because of this complex situation, the
researchers classified a set of competencies women can cultivate and corresponding strategies for
organizations to help foster these (Turner et al., 2013). Several of these competencies and
strategies overlap with those identified by other researchers (Ford, 2016; Hannum et al., 2013).
It is to be noted that developing these competencies alone will not alter the deeply-rooted
organizational barriers women face, but merely assist in making women more competitive
candidates for promotion, tenure, and appointment to leadership positions (Ford, 2016).
Data from the American Council of Education (2012) confirms that women outnumber
men in the completion of undergraduate and graduate degrees and in 2013, only 3.7% less
women CAOs obtained a PhD or EdD compared to their male counterparts (Johnson, 2016).
Although this is the case, leadership competencies and strategies need to be established for
acknowledgement of promotion and tenure at postsecondary institutes of higher education. The
proficiencies suggested by Turner et al. (2013) include the following: leadership,
communication, business knowledge and skill, knowledge of the industry, and balancing of life
responsibilities. Turner et al. (2013) further discussed strategies that would enable women to
position themselves as ideal candidates for leadership roles. The glass ceiling would not exist in
an ideal world, but through a combination of competency development and encouragement of
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 35
eliminating subtle gender bias at institutions, women leaders of color can be open to endless
opportunities for advancement.
Promotion and tenure. Promotion and tenure is a process that some faculty members
choose to navigate, though minority women face additional hurdles inhibiting their career
advancement. Wood, Hilton, and Nevarez (2015) studied the correlations between Caucasian
and faculty of color and four categories of service that are influencers in promotion and tenure.
The researchers concluded that faculty of color engaged more in liaison service than their
Caucasian counterparts, suggesting improvements to the weight of evaluation factors used to
determine promotion and tenure (Wood et al., 2015). Ortega-Liston and Rodriguez Soto (2014)
further supported this notion, stating that the “focus on service for minority women may create
obstacles in the process of navigating tenure and promotion process…” (p. 293). In addition to
the areas of service that are factored into the tenure and promotion decision, Ortega-Liston and
Rodriguez Soto (2014) identified poor student evaluations as another impediment for women
faculty of color navigating the tenure and promotion system. Through a review of literature, the
researchers suggested that low student evaluations may be a result of persisting stereotypes,
which make students question these faculty members’ instructional competencies, challenge their
authority in the classroom, and overlook their academic expertise. As promotion and tenure is a
long-standing established system in higher education, universities and colleges should consider
the various roadblocks that may prevent attainment of advance status for minority women.
Limiting leadership roles. People of color are significantly underrepresented in
academic leadership, but those who do occupy administrative leadership positions are expected
to address diversity issues as their job title or description dictates. Overall, the percentage of
ethnic minorities occupying academic leadership positions has increased between the years of
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 36
1993-2004 (Flowers & Moore, 2008). A high percentage of people of color hold leadership
positions in student affairs or the diversity office, which constitutes a noteworthy portion of their
appointments in senior-level leadership at four-year institutions (Gasman, Abiola & Travers,
2015). In a quantitative study that focused on the lack of ethnic and racial diversity in higher
education administration at Ivy League universities, Gasman et al. (2015) revealed that of the
14% of ethnic minorities who serve in academic leadership roles, 72.7% of African Americans,
7.6% of Hispanics, 4.5% of Asian Americans, and 1.5% of American Indians hold the Chief
Diversity Officer position at their institution. Moreover, women of color may be faced with
double duty as they identify with both underrepresented groups, yet they are not considered for
more leadership positions outside of departments such as student affairs or multicultural
relations.
Recruitment, Employment, and Retention. Key areas of focus for organizations trying
to diversify their workforce include efforts and practices aimed at recruitment, employment, and
retention. Higher education institutions can establish recruitment plans to address the problem of
practice and entice more women of color to consider positions at their university or college
(Carter-Sowell & Zimmerman, 2015). Furthermore, these organizations can institute hiring
policies intended to expand the pool of candidates for leadership positions (Cook, 2012; Grant,
2012). Finally, retention efforts in the form of professional development and mentoring
programs have been beneficial in career advancement for new professionals (Chang, Longman,
& Franco, 2014; Ford, 2016; Tran, 2014). By improving the infrastructure surrounding
recruitment, employment, and retention, higher education may experience positive changes to the
current composition of its leaders.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 37
Distinctive employee benefits. The field of post-secondary education can be appealing
for a multitude of reasons; for example, colleges and universities offer benefits specific to higher
education that can attract prospective employees. Research suggests that establishing
mechanisms and systems for employees to better balance work and life responsibilities as well as
more family-friendly policies would draw interest from all female faculty members (Madsen,
2012). In addition to policies and support systems, universities and colleges should work toward
eliminating racial or gender bias and foster a healthy, respectful, and positive organizational
climate (Jayakumar, Howard, Walter, & Han, 2016), which would be an inviting and inclusive
environment for prospective employees. Flowers & Moore (2008) explained that campus
climate and culture directly affect a university’s progress in enhancing faculty diversity.
Colleges and universities can make their organizations more competitive and appealing by
offering and presenting these benefits.
Competitive candidate pools. The hiring process at universities and colleges may be
challenging because hiring managers or committees are more inclined to select candidates with
years of experience and bypass individuals with potential or talent. Ford (2016) suggested that
universities train committed individuals to participate in hiring panels when selecting leaders at
the organization. If an external search firm is used in lieu of internal employees, university
administrators should ensure that the firm had previous experience and success in choosing
candidates who are women of color (Ford, 2016). Furthermore, Ford (2016) cited the 2004
Report of the University Committee on the Status of Women at Johns Hopkins, discussing that
university administrators encouraged the internal appointment of women who served in
department or division chair roles to executive leadership positions. The institutional leadership
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 38
is held accountable for refining hiring processes and policies resulting in the expansion of the
candidate pool for women leaders of color.
Professional development. A significant facet for career advancement in any industry,
field, or organization is professional development. Studies conducted at higher education
institutions across the country have reported that women of color expressed that little is done in
regards to retention of underrepresented minorities (Chang et al., 2014; Ford, 2016; Madsen,
2012; Tran, 2014; Turner et al., 2013). Both formal and informal mentoring relationships have
contributed to the professional growth of women faculty of color (Ford, 2016; Madsen, 2012;
Tran, 2014). When minority women engage and interact with role models, they are empowered
to advance up the career ladder into leadership roles at their organization (Hannum et al., 2015).
Furthermore, Tran (2014) found that women of color at predominantly White universities with
formal mentoring programs reported fostering collaborative relationships, camaraderie, and
leadership amongst colleagues. By introducing programs such as career ladders or formal
mentoring partnerships, colleges and universities may begin to naturally prepare minority women
for roles as future leaders of their organizations.
Summary of General Literature
The factors deterring colleges and universities from diversifying their leadership include
the present landscape of higher education such as homogenous leadership and homosocial
reproduction, and the current status and percentage of minority women leaders. Additionally,
women leaders of color are expected to personally navigate the infrastructure of higher education
institutions by shattering the glass ceiling, overcoming obstacles related to promotion and tenure,
and vie for the limited leadership roles that their organizations have to offer. Furthermore,
colleges and universities must take on more responsibility to cast a wider net when recruiting,
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 39
hiring, and promoting underrepresented minorities as well as offer unique employee benefits and
professional development. As the research illustrates, minority women have to overcome
significant obstacles to achieve college or university administrator status; but when the
percentage of women leaders of color increase, institutions will benefit from the diversity of
knowledge, merit, and viewpoints from these women (Smith, 2010).
Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Influences
Knowledge and Skills
University administrators are responsible for the oversight of their institution’s strategic
plan and leading the initiatives designed to carry out their organization’s vision and mission
statements. The strategic plan of Health Sciences University (HSU) identified “enhancing the
diversity of the faculty and student body such that it is reflective of, and responsive to, the
diversity of backgrounds and populations served, and increase access to health sciences
education in underserved and under-represented populations” as an objective to work toward
(“About Health Sciences University”, n.d.). University administrators must develop the
knowledge and skills essential to work toward achieving this institutional objective.
Clark and Estes (2008) explain that when performing a gap analysis, it is important to
identify issues related to the knowledge and skills used to achieve performance goals.
Furthermore, organizations should recognize that individuals may lack awareness of their
knowledge and skill deficiencies; therefore, assessment of their knowledge and skills is an
important component of the gap analysis process (Clark & Estes, 2008). This section of the
literature review concentrates on the knowledge-related influences that are necessary for the
university leaders at HSU to address, develop, and approve a faculty and staff recruitment and
retention plan by 2020. The literature illustrates the relationship between the knowledge and
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 40
skills affecting the HSU leadership’s ability to develop a recruitment and retention plan that will
promote diversity at the upper levels of administration at the university.
Knowledge influences. There are four types of knowledge dimensions: factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002). According to Krathwohl (2002),
factual knowledge is information students need to know to solve problems in a particular
discipline, conceptual knowledge is a deeper understanding of relationships between theories,
concepts, categories, and principles, procedural knowledge is the comprehension of how to
actually do something, and metacognition is an individual’s awareness of their own thinking.
University administrators need to address the conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive
knowledge dimensions related to recruitment and retention of women leaders of color at the
organization. Conceptual knowledge will help the university administrators understand the
interrelationships between barriers and benefits of diversity with strategies for recruitment and
retention of underrepresented minorities. The procedural knowledge is how the university
administrators will execute their tasks, and monitor the progress of the development of the
recruitment and retention plan. Finally, the reflection on their identities is the metacognitive
knowledge needed for the university administrators to realize any internal biases toward
achieving the goal.
Understand barriers and benefits of diversity. Prior to development and implementation
of a university-wide faculty and staff recruitment and retention plan, it is important for the
stakeholders to have a deep understanding of the barriers underrepresented minorities encounter,
and the benefits that diversity brings to an organization. The literature suggests that universities
and colleges across the country have faced challenges to minority recruitment and retention for a
number of reasons. Two widely-discussed challenges for recruitment and retention are the lack
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 41
of mentorship for these faculty and staff members (Gasman, Kim, & Nguyen, 2011; Chang, et
al., 2014; Zambrana et al., 2015), and established bias in the recruitment, promotion, and tenure
processes (Gasman et al., 2011; Zambrana et al., 2015).
Despite these challenges, the administrators working in higher education must also
possess a foundational conceptual understanding, skills, and knowledge of how to navigate these
barriers (Zambrana et al., 2015). Furthermore, it is essential for university administrators to also
comprehend the numerous advantages diversity can bring to an organization to make it more
innovative and effective in creating change. For example, Oldfield (2010) explained that racial,
ethnic, and gender diversity at institutions of academic medicine resulted in better quality
medical education and in turn, produced doctors better equipped to diagnose and treat a diverse
pool of patients. University administrators will be interviewed to assess their understanding of
the benefits of diversity and any formulation of better solutions to overcoming the
aforementioned barriers as well as effective strategies for recruitment and retention of
underrepresented minorities at the institution.
Monitoring progress of tasks and goals. In order for university administrators to
develop and implement a university-wide recruitment and retention plan for underrepresented
faculty and staff, they need to have the procedural knowledge for monitoring and measuring the
progress of their goals relevant to the plan. As Krathwohl (2002) discussed, procedural
knowledge is the knowledge of a specific skill set or techniques related to a certain subject.
Furthermore, Krathwohl (2002) explained that procedural knowledge is closely linked with
Bloom’s Taxonomy category, “Apply,” which involves “using procedures to perform exercises
or solve problems” (p. 229). With this particular knowledge influence, university administrators
will need the procedural knowledge for executing tasks, setting deadlines, developing policies
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 42
and procedures, as well as conducting benchmarking. For example, Gasman et al. (2011)
suggested that universities and colleges organize a peer comparison with similar organizations
involving recruitment and retention of people of color. It is important for the university
administrators to know the step-by-step procedures for tasks related to collecting and analyzing
data, organizing projects and deadlines, and tracking progress related to the overarching goal.
Reflection on identity awareness. As social cognitive theorists explained, learning occurs
when there is an interaction among an individual’s cognitions and the learning task (Rueda,
2011). University administrators can obtain metacognitive knowledge by practicing reflection,
becoming more aware of their individual identities. By enhancing their self-awareness, they may
recognize gaps in their behavior or preconceived biases toward particular ethnic, racial, or
gender groups or diversity initiatives in general (Dunn, Gerlach, & Hyle, 2014). University
administrators at HSU will use personal reflection to become more aware of their individual
identities and possible biases in order for them to better address organizational diversity goals.
By having an understanding of their identities, their biases may help bring to light any
underlying causes related to the organization’s recruitment, retention, and promotion practices
for minorities.
The literature suggests that reflection is a common practice in various professional
industries and is often used in the higher education environment (Dunn et al., 2014; Heewon et
al., 2014). Therefore, because the metacognitive practice of reflection taps into an individual’s
self-awareness, it is an essential knowledge component for university administrators to foster.
Dunn and colleagues (2014) stated, “self-awareness also means understanding how one’s
behaviors and traits may cause difficulty in the position” (p. 12). Through self-awareness, the
university administrators may realize how their individual and collective behaviors and traits
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 43
establishes the organizational culture resulting in the maintenance of a homogenous
organizational leadership. In order to assess the knowledge influence, the university
administrators will be interviewed after participating in reflection exercises about their self-
awareness and identities. Table 2 illustrates the Organizational Mission and Global Goal, as well
as the university administrators’ goal, and the three knowledge influences and assessments
associated with this stakeholder goal.
Table 2. Stakeholder Goal and Knowledge Influence, Type and Assessment for Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
The mission of Health Sciences University is to produce, in a humanistic tradition, healthcare
professionals and biomedical knowledge that will enhance and extend the quality of life in our
communities.
Organizational Global Goal
By 2025, Health Sciences University will appoint women leaders of color at the college and
university level, increasing the percentage from 12% to 24% in order to reflect the students
they serve.
Stakeholder Goal
By 2020, the university administration will approve the final faculty and staff recruitment and
retention plan developed by the university’s diversity committee.
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence Assessment
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 44
Administrators need
knowledge of the barriers to
and benefits of diversity at a
health professions school in
order to identify effective
strategies for recruitment and
retention of minority women
leaders.
Declarative
(conceptual)
Administrators will be asked to
explain through interviews how
the selected recruitment and
retention strategies address the
barriers and benefits of diversity.
Administrators need
knowledge of how to monitor
the progress of the
recruitment and retention
plan.
Procedural Administrators will be asked to
generate a plan of action in which
they will set deadlines and assign
tasks to be executed related to the
submission of a final draft of the
recruitment and retention plan.
Administrators need to
evaluate their awareness of
their identities and goals
related to diversifying the
leadership of the organization
in order to inform the
progress of the recruitment
and retention plan.
Metacognitive Administrators will be asked to
participate in a reflection exercise
in which they discuss how their
identities contribute to improving
the organization and develop the
recruitment and retention plan.

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 45
Motivation
Clark and Estes (2008) discussed that motivation can result in noticeable benefits for
organizations. Rueda (2011) added that individuals develop their motivational beliefs through
social interaction with others in an organizational context. Motivation, as it relates to
performance, is explained using three facets. First, an individual either actively chooses or fails
to choose to pursue a specific goal. Next, an individual overcomes distractions preventing him
or her from achieving the goal through persistence. Finally, an individual must determine the
amount of mental effort to put forth in order to reach the goal. Clark and Estes (2008) explained
that with increased motivation, people choose to work differently, employ new solutions, or
recall past experience or knowledge, increasing their performance in order to achieve the goal.
Rueda (2011) notated that “motivational problems are not solved by solutions that are
designed to address knowledge gaps” (p. 48); therefore, different constructs and assessments
specific to motivational influences for the stakeholders have been identified. One of the factors
for increasing motivation that Clark and Estes (2008) listed was for organizations to recommend
and discuss the value of performance goals. The researchers further discussed the importance of
interest value as it relates to stakeholder performance goals. Another method for increasing
stakeholder motivation was by encouraging the stakeholders to establish goals (Rueda, 2011).
Two assumed motivation influences for the university administrators include the lack of interest
in the stakeholder goal and no established direction for the university administrators guiding
them to reach the stakeholder goal. In this section of the literature review, the motivational
constructs of interest and goals relevant to university administrators at Health Sciences
University will be examined in more detail.

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 46
Interest. One construct that influences motivation is interest. Schraw and Lehman
(2009) identified two types of interest: situation and personal. The researchers discussed that
situational interest is related to a learner’s context and environment, which can provoke an
individual’s attention to the subject matter (Schraw & Lehman, 2009). The second type of
interest is called personal interest. Personal interest may evolve from situation interest and is
significant in regards to motivation because it is sustainable and an investment (Schraw &
Lehman, 2009). There are numerous implementation strategies for developing and sustaining
interest in learners. In fact, participation in real-life problems is an effective strategy in
developing interest. When learners engage in problem solving, either individually or by
collaborating with others, their interest increases because the information they are processing is
becoming more challenging and interesting to them (Schraw & Lehman, 2009). Another
strategy is emphasizing significant information or goals relevant to the learning as a way to peak
interest in others. Researchers explained that underlining the reasons why the information or the
goals associated with learning are important can enhance the individual’s situational or personal
interest because it may become more valuable to him or her (Clark & Estes, 2008; Schraw &
Lehman, 2009).
University Administrators’ Interest. Diversity in the workplace has been widely
linked with improvements to efficiency, creativity, and innovation within the organization
(Wolfe & Dilworth, 2015). University administrators should enhance their vested interest in
breaking the homogenous culture of the leadership at the organization in order to foster an
organizational atmosphere that thrives on innovation and progress. As Schraw and Lehman
(2009) explained, situational interest may turn into personal interest. Therefore, university
administrators can elicit situational interest initially with personal interest sustaining their
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 47
engagement in a task. Moreover, research indicated that interest and motivation can be enhanced
by highlighting the importance of the task or goal (Clark & Estes, 2008; Schraw & Lehman,
2009). Wolfe and Dilworth (2015) emphasized that a reason to diversify university leadership
may be so that they can “change and transform institutions [to] more effectively enhance student
learning and development, generate knowledge, and serve the community...” (p. 5).
The university administrators may be more agreeable to the stakeholder goal and discover
a vested personal interest in the development of the recruitment and retention plan by stressing
the importance of improving the overall educational experience for the students. The university
administrators may be asked to participate in a survey in order to assess their interest in the
stakeholder goal. The survey would contain items pertaining to their perception of the
organizational culture. Items that gauge their personal interest in areas such as gender diversity,
racial and ethnic diversity, and the significance of addressing the problem of practice will also be
included in the survey.
Goals. The concept of goals is essential for understanding motivation. Rueda (2011)
offered a general definition of goals as “something that the person wants to achieve” (p. 41).
Anderman (2015) extended the construct of goals and discussed two categories: mastery and
performance. With mastery goals, learners essentially compete against themselves, track their
progress from previous times, and focus on self-improvement (Anderman, 2015). In contrast,
performance goals are those in which the learners look to others for competition and comparison.
Additionally, Anderman (2015) explained that the effectiveness of performance goals has been
scrutinized in the educational context but further studies need to be conducted. Rueda (2011)
expressed that goals give learners guidance and purpose. There are two approaches one can
utilize when applying goals to increasing motivation. First, Rueda (2011) stated that individuals
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 48
should be afforded various activities in which they can collaborate in groups to identify, develop,
and attain goals. Also, individuals may be discouraged from achieving certain goals if the path
appears to be ambiguous; therefore, Rueda (2011) suggested that goals are specific, concrete, and
aligned with other goals related to the task.
University Administrators’ Goals. The organization will need to strive to enhance the
motivation of HSU university administrators in order to develop and attain goals related to
diversifying the leadership at the institution. Gasman, Abiola, and Travers (2015) discussed goal
alignment as a detrimental factor in diversifying leadership at institutions of higher education.
They further stipulated that university mission statements and strategic plans related to diversity
should align with the leadership’s goals, yet demonstrated that this may not be the case as “U.S.
college and university presidents of color have remained relatively unchanged, with a rise from
8% in 1986 to 13% in 2011” (Gasman et al., 2015, p. 6). As a collective, the university
administration must set specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time (SMART) goals. As
described by Rueda (2011), the group must also align their goals with the other relevant goals,
such as the university’s mission statement and related strategic plan goals.
The alignment of the task goals, the stakeholder goal, and the university’s mission
statement and strategic plan goals can diminish vagueness, thus increasing motivation in
achieving these goals. The mastery goals identified by the university administrators should be
related to the development of the recruitment and retention plan, enabling them to track their
progress and demonstrate achievement of the identified goals along the way. The HSU
university administrators can assess this motivational influence by gathering documents in the
form of meeting agendas and minutes, drafts of the recruitment and retention plan as well as
reports illustrating the progress they are making toward achieving the overarching stakeholder
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 49
goal. As the group advances through their tasks, they should adjust their goals accordingly if
they become unclear and ensure that their goals are still calibrated with the other goals.
Table 3 illustrates the Organizational Mission and Global Goal, as well as the university
administrators’ goal, and the two motivational influences and assessments associated with this
stakeholder goal.
Table 3. Stakeholder Goal and Motivation Influence, Assumed Influence and Assessment for
Motivation Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
The mission of Health Sciences University is to produce, in a humanistic tradition, healthcare
professionals and biomedical knowledge that will enhance and extend the quality of life in our
communities.
Organizational Global Goal
By 2025, Health Sciences University will appoint women leaders of color at the college and
university level, increasing the percentage from 12% to 24% in order to reflect the students they
serve.
Stakeholder Goal
By 2020, the university administration will unanimously approve the final faculty and staff
recruitment and retention plan developed by the university’s diversity committee.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 50
Assumed Motivational Influence
Interest
Administrators need to activate their personal
and common interest in improving the diversity
of administrators at their institutions. They
need to connect their personal interest in this
problem of practice with their organization’s
purpose, mission, and vision.
Motivational Influence Assessment
Interest
Likert-scale survey (strongly agree to strongly
disagree): Administrators will be provided with
statements regarding the organizational culture,
climate, diversity, importance of the problem,
etc. to gauge their personal interest in the
problem of practice.
Goals
Collectively, administrators need to identify
and develop mastery goals that are specific,
measurable, attainable, relevant, and timely.
They need to consistently gauge and document
their progress toward the organizational global
goal.
Goals
Documents, such as strategic goal/plans,
meeting minutes, and reports, demonstrating
goal setting, progress, and achievement of
goals will be assessed and analyzed.

Organizational Influences
The third critical factor associated with performance gaps are organizational barriers
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Organizational barriers are typically described as the absence of tools,
equipment, or materials or policies, procedures, and protocol that are not clearly defined or
established. These problems hinder progress within an organization. Clark and Estes (2008)
further explained that an organization’s inability to properly provide or allocate resources or
create and maintain policies and procedures can potentially result in ineffectiveness.
Furthermore, Clark and Estes (2008) warned that due to the complex nature of organizations,
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 51
applying a solution to an organizational performance gap may cause a different problem in
another area of the system.
As a post-secondary educational institution, Health Sciences University (HSU), may
encounter organizational barriers different from K-12, governmental, private and public sector
organizations. This section will focus on organizational influences that are relevant to the
stakeholders’ goal of increasing the number of women leaders of color at the university.
Although there may be additional organizational barriers associated with diversifying the
university’s leadership, this study will focus specifically on the organizational culture of hiring,
promoting, and appointing minority women to administration as well as the current leadership’s
role and the lack of infrastructure towards these practices.
General theory. Identifying and closing performance gaps linked to organizational
barriers can contribute to the growth of an organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). Similarly,
organizational learning is an essential process if an institution or company wants to prosper
(Schwandt & Marquardt, 2000). For HSU to experience this growth, stakeholders should engage
in the seven steps Schwandt and Marquardt (2000) detailed in the Organizational Learning
Systems Model. The seven steps outlined in this process entail the following: (1) knowledge of
theory and research, (2) understanding the framework, (3) asking introspective questions, (4)
generating meaningful interpretations of the information gathered from the questions, (5) analyze
the new information by identifying strengths, (6) anticipate and address challenges, and (7)
develop a strategy for action. But before adopting this framework for organizational learning,
one must also obtain foundational knowledge about organizational culture.
Researchers defined culture within in an organization as those deeply engrained and
unconscious beliefs, assumptions, and values held by members of that organization (Clark &
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 52
Estes, 2008; Schein, 2010; Schneider, Brief, & Guzzo, 1996). In fact, Clark and Estes (2008)
argued that organizational culture is the most significant work process because it defines the
relationships and interactions necessary for members to accomplish work. To expand on the
concept of culture, Schein (2010) further categorizes culture into three levels. First, artifacts
include the visible infrastructure and behaviors of the organization. Schein (2010) places
organizational climate under this level. In accordance with Schein’s (2010) artifacts, Schneider
et al. (1996) described dimensions of organizational climate as seen manifestations of the
organization such as the nature of interpersonal relationships, hierarchy, work and focus on
support and rewards. The next level of culture involves the beliefs and values adopted by the
group, which may have been developed and shared by the group’s leader. The final level of
culture encompasses basic assumptions and beliefs. Schein (2010) explained that these
assumptions and beliefs are typically the most difficult to change; thus, it is pertinent to
understand this level of culture to recognize how these assumptions develop.
There is a significant amount of research surrounding organizational culture and change.
Schein (2010) explained that although leaders are not the sole communicators of culture in their
organizations, they engage in embedding mechanisms that result in culture formation. For
example, how leaders allocate resources as well as how they recruit, hire, promote, and terminate
employees are primary embedding mechanisms. Therefore, leaders can also initiate
organizational change through these mechanisms. For organizational change to be successful,
Clark and Estes (2008) discussed a few essential support factors. Organizations must clearly
communicate and measure their vision and goals, as well as align the infrastructure and
procedures with those goals. Furthermore, organizations must be transparent about the strategies
and evolution of the change, and provide the necessary support for knowledge and motivation.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 53
Clark and Estes (2008) also recommends that leadership heavily participates in the change
process. As the research demonstrated, organizations must be cognizant of, and open to, utilizing
an amalgam of concepts, frameworks, and strategies related to organizational barriers, learning,
and culture to elicit organizational change.
Stakeholder specific influences. The general theory that supports organizational change
offers an all-encompassing foundation for observing the stakeholder specific influences
associated with the unbalanced hiring and promoting practices for women of color in higher
education. This study will examine aspects of the university’s organizational culture, the role
that leadership plays, and the absence of policies for hiring, promoting, and appointing minority
women to positions in upper administration. By using the general theory to dissect these
stakeholder specific influences, one can better understand how to support the university
administration in achieving the institution’s performance goal.
The organizational culture at HSU. There are many factors that contribute to the
uniqueness of a university’s organizational culture. Kezar (2001) explained that institutions of
higher education are constantly experiencing competing values, and have complex belief systems
due to the various stakeholders involved. Therefore, these ideals and principles ultimately shape
the university’s culture. Kezar (2001) goes on to discuss how marginalized groups such as
women and ethnic minorities may have values differing from the university’s majority due to
their personal backgrounds. The homogenous leadership at HSU may have produced a culture in
which practices involving hiring, promoting, and appointing women leaders of color were not
highly prioritized. Although the university’s vision, mission, and strategic goals include
matriculating and graduating diverse groups of students, the university administration may not
regard diversity within the leadership equally important. Furthermore, stakeholders within
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 54
specific interest groups may encounter challenges to organizational change due to the differing
values (Kezar, 2001). These deeply engrained and underlying aspects of the culture at HSU have
the potential of hindering the stakeholders’ ability to attain the organizational goal.
Another barrier that may be impressed into a university’s culture, and can potentially
affect change, is a term that Morrison and Milliken (2000) coined “organizational silence”. This
concept is rooted in the idea that employees are hesitant to voice their opinions about
organizational problems and in turn, the management may have implicit assumptions that the
employees are opportunistic and self-serving. Interestingly, Morrison and Milliken (2000)
postulated that the demographic differences between management and employees may also
contribute to organizational silence due to the possibility of mistrust, suspicion, and contrasting
values. As Clark and Estes (2008) reiterated, culture is the unseen and shared values, goals,
emotions, and procedures held by an organization. Therefore, organizational silence is one facet
of the culture. The previously discussed competing values of various interest groups at HSU
may foster an organizational silence among employees at lower levels of the university. Because
the university administration has failed to establish practices to increase the number of minority
women in leadership, employees may feel apprehensive to voice their desires for enhancing
diversity at higher levels of the organization. Furthermore, management may view the
employees’ appeal for improved diversity as a threat or a strategic ploy to advance up the
organizational structure.
Role of HSU leadership. To identify and address performance gaps related to
organizational barriers, Kezar (2001) explained that leaders in higher education will need to
consider some key features that influence organizational change. In regards to leadership’s role
as an organizational barrier, Kezar (2001) acknowledged two features: multiple power and
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 55
authority structures, and organized anarchical decision making. Both aspects of higher education
describe the murkiness of which groups or individuals hold the power and authority to make
decisions impacting the university. For example, the Board of Trustees may yield power on
decisions that affect the university, but the President and members of administration also have
authority on certain decisions. Faculty members also have academic authority and power on
some decisions. The formation of committees and task force groups make decisions on the
organization’s policies and procedures. Because there are weak checks and balances in regards
to hiring, promoting, and appointing practices, university leaders may not have designated an
individual or group to take on this responsibility or initiate this change process. Furthermore, the
university surprisingly does not have a group committed to work surrounding diversity although
it is an explicit organizational goal.
University leaders may also be uncertain of their role in the decision-making process or
committee formation needed to lead efforts toward diversity within the administration. This may
be due to the development of subcultures within the organization that are based on rank and
status (Schein, 2010). For example, the college deans, a subculture based on rank and status,
may have shared assumptions that the university administration is responsible for the progress
toward the organizational goal of enhancing diversity in leadership. As Schneider et al. (1996)
stated, the nature of hierarchy is an organizational climate dimension, but poses questions
targeted toward visible functions of climate that affect culture. One of those questions probes
whether top management makes decisions without including employees who are affected or if
those affected by a potential decision participate in the process. Whether the decisions about
diversifying leadership are made at the top, or involves all affected at the college and university
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 56
levels, it appears that these processes are impediments that the stakeholders must overcome to
clearly define the leadership’s role in achieving the organizational goal.
Absence of policies for hiring, promoting, and appointing women leaders of color. A
major barrier impeding the stakeholder group from improving leadership diversity entails the
absence of well-defined policies for hiring and promotion. Clark and Estes (2008) explained that
“…when a policy is not supported by effective work processes or procedures, one of the possible
causes is a conflict between some aspect of organizational culture and our current performance
goals” (p. 114). In HSU’s case, the possible cause may be the dissonance between the priorities
of the leadership and the rest of the organization. A major challenge that the university faces is
aligning the organizational culture with the policies and procedures. If the organization fosters a
culture that is uninterested in diversifying the leadership, then it may be difficult for stakeholders
to develop and establish policies and procedures aimed at reaching that initiative. The university
needs to be diligent in tackling this organizational barrier as it may result in a shift in the culture.
Schein (2010) stated that the policies, procedures, and systems of an organization make
up its structure, and can reinforce what is important to the organization’s leaders. Leaders can
create or modify these secondary embedding mechanisms and in doing so, may change the
culture of the organization. Without policies, procedures, and systems for hiring, promoting, and
appointing women leaders of color, there is no structure in hiring and promotion processes and
there will continue to be an ambiguity surrounding these practices. By establishing policies,
developing procedures, and building systems for diversifying the organization’s leadership, HSU
can improve infrastructure as well as reduce unpredictability related to hiring and promotion.
Hopefully, addressing this organizational influence will result in the stakeholder group taking
another step closer to achieving their goal.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 57
Table 4 shows the Organizational Mission and Global Goal, as well as the university
administrators’ goal, the three organizational influences associated with this stakeholder goal,
and the methods these influences will be assessed in the study.
Table 4. Stakeholder Goal and Organizational Influence, Assumed Influences and Assessment
for Organizational Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
The mission of Health Sciences University is to produce, in a humanistic tradition, healthcare
professionals and biomedical knowledge that will enhance and extend the quality of life in our
communities.
Organizational Global Goal
By 2025, Health Sciences University will appoint women leaders of color at the college and
university level, increasing the percentage from 12% to 24% to reflect the students they serve.
Stakeholder Goal
By 2025, the university administration will approve the final faculty and staff recruitment and
retention plan developed by the university’s diversity committee.
Assumed Organizational Influences Organizational Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1: The organizational
culture does not embrace diversity nor does the
leadership show diversity is valued through its
actions.
Survey questions about whether the
organization’s leadership values diversity
and demonstrates that through their actions.

Cultural Model Influence 2: Administration at the
university and college levels are uncertain of
their roles in improving leadership diversity.
Survey questions about who or which units
are responsible for enhancing leadership
diversity as well as examples of what has
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 58
been done to date and by whom.
Cultural Setting Influence 1: There is a lack of
well-defined policies and supporting procedures
that surround hiring and promotion practices
related to women leaders of color.
Survey questions about current practices
related to hiring and promoting minority
women to leadership roles at the university.

Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
The assumed knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences that resulted in the
organizational performance gap of the insufficient number of women leaders of color will be
emphasized and mirrored against the research already conducted surrounding this topic.
Furthermore, the qualitative and quantitative data collected during this study will be used to
support the underlying causes of the performance gap. A more comprehensive understanding of
the data gathered as well as the findings from this research will lend itself to a deeper perspective
of the problem and possible recommendations for resolving it.
Conclusion
As the research illustrates, the percentage of women of color in leadership roles within
higher education has remained steady over the years (Cook, 2012; Tran, 2014; The White House
Project, 2009). Therefore, the present study will examine this problem of practice within the
context of Health Sciences University. Furthermore, the researcher will assess the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational barriers hindering university administrators from hiring,
promoting, and appointing minority women leaders at the organization. First, the researcher will
validate conceptual and metacognitive knowledge influences for understanding and recognizing
how one’s identity contributes to an organization as well as the procedural knowledge influences
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 59
for implementing recruitment and retention strategies. Next, the researcher will study motivation
influences related to interest, emotions, and goals for empowering women of color to apply for
leadership roles. Finally, the researcher will examine organizational influences such as
organizational culture, uncertainty of current leadership, and poor infrastructure and insufficient
resources. The validation process of the study will be detailed in the Methodology section of
next chapter.

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 60
Chapter Three: Methodology
Purpose of the Project
This study explored the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences and
solutions necessary for university administrators to increase the percentage of minority women in
leadership at post-secondary education institutions. The research is timely and relevant to the
field of higher education because colleges and universities across the country are posed with the
same problem of practice. Literature surrounding this topic consistently revealed similar trends
for universities to incorporate into their recruitment and retention practices. In order to connect
the literature to the present study, the researcher explored this topic by collecting survey and
interview data from university leaders at a health professions education institution.
Research Questions
The two research questions examined in this study were: (1) What are the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational needs necessary for the organization to increase the percentage of
women leaders of color from 12% to 24% by 2025? and (2) What are the recommended
knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to those needs?
Research Design
The research approach for this study was a transformative explanatory sequential mixed
methods design. According to Creswell (2014), this research design is a two-phase method using
a social justice theory to guide the research and aid a specific minority group. In the first phase,
the researcher collects and analyzes quantitative data. The data informs the researcher with
results for follow up in the second phase of the research design. The results are translated into
qualitative questions, and the data gathered is then analyzed. The purpose of this approach is for
the qualitative data to explain in more detail the quantitative results. The transformative
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 61
explanatory sequential mixed methods design is an appropriate approach due to the nature of the
study and organization, as well as the study’s target population.
The social justice theory that is framing this study is critical theory in which
“perspectives are concerned with empowering human beings to transcend the constraints placed
on them by race, class, and gender” (Creswell, 2014). During the first phase of this study, the
researcher collected and analyzed quantitative data using a survey instrument. The results
informed the questions that the researcher utilized during the qualitative phase of the design.
The qualitative data provided the researcher with more in-depth explanations of the results from
the initial quantitative phase. The transformative explanatory sequential mixed methods design
was selected because the research suggests that homogenous leadership needs to actively appoint
women of color in post-secondary education administration, and minority women leaders also
need to empower the members of their group. Therefore, the results and findings from this study
contributed to the literature because it will reveal university administrators’ perceptions of the
absence of women leaders of color in higher education, but also the detailed insight from
minority women within university administration.
Conceptual Framework
Maxwell (2013) explained that the conceptual framework is either a visual or written
illustration of aspects related to a research study, including relationships among concepts,
theories, assumptions, and factors. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) expanded this definition,
discussing that it “generate[s] the ‘problem’ of the study, specific research questions, data
collection and analysis techniques, and how you will interpret your findings” (p. 85). The
purpose of the conceptual framework is to structure the study using a drawing from the literature
and being guided by the researcher’s disciplinary orientation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 62
The influences pictured in the figure below were previously presented independently of
each other, though it should be noted that they are not standalone elements. Rather, the
stakeholders’ knowledge and motivation interact with each other within the context of the
organization. For the stakeholders to move through the process of addressing and developing
solutions for the problem of practice, they must be cognizant of the organizational context in
which they work. Figure 2 illustrates the interaction between the knowledge and motivation
factors contained in the organizational setting. Provided below is a detailed narrative describing
the abovementioned interaction and its role in supporting the stakeholders’ achievement of their
goal.
The conceptual framework begins with the organization’s problem of practice, which is
an overarching and far-reaching issue that is observable amongst universities nationwide. There
is a significant underrepresentation of minority women in the higher ranks of university
leadership (Tran, 2014; The White House Project, 2009). This problem of practice has lent itself
to two research questions: (1) What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs
necessary for the organization to increase the percentage of women leaders of color from 12% to
24% by 2025? and (2) What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational
solutions to those needs? These research questions can be answered by addressing the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors displayed in the figure.
The conceptual framework can be metaphorically compared to mixing materials using a
funnel resulting in the creation of an end product. For example, the stakeholders’ knowledge and
motivation are combined and funneled through the organization, ideally resulting in the
achievement of the stakeholders’ goal. Furthermore, as illustrated by the graphic, the
stakeholders, or university administrators, enter the organization with their individual
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 63
knowledge, skills, and motivation related to the problem of practice. These knowledge and
motivation elements are blended, formed, and shared within the confines of the organization.
The output of this process is the stakeholders’ end goal.
The organizational influences must align with the University’s vision, mission statement,
and organizational goal for the knowledge and motivation factors to advance through the funnel.
The organizational culture, leadership, and policies are essentially the mechanism for coalescing
the knowledge and motivation influences, resulting in the realization of the stakeholder’s goal.
University administrators will need declarative knowledge of barriers and benefits to diversity,
procedural knowledge of monitoring their progress, and metacognition to bring about identity
awareness. Additionally, the university administrators will need to stimulate their personal
interest and identify goals. They must comprehend and integrate the organizational factors to
obtain and foster the knowledge, skills, and motivation. Integrating the knowledge and
motivation influences through the organizational context will result in the achievement of the
stakeholder goal, which is the development and implementation of a recruitment and retention
plan for increasing the percentage of women leaders of color at the organization.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 64

Figure 2. Conceptual Framework for Enhancing Diversity in Higher Education Administration
through KMO Influences.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 65
Unit of Analysis
The unit of analysis is a small, private health professions education university located in
Southern California. There are nine graduate colleges under the university with approximately
2,000 students. Because a major aspect of the university’s mission and vision is for its students
to work in medically underserved regions, the student population is diverse although the
university leadership is not. Much of the literature that surrounds the topic of minority women in
higher education places emphasis on public undergraduate institutions, but there is little to no
research that focuses on colleges and universities that comprise of strictly professional programs.
Health professions education schools like the unit of analysis differ from undergraduate
universities in that much of the leadership hold doctorate degrees in their own healthcare field,
which can limit the pool of candidates for these administrative positions. Conducting research
on the organization of interest can produce results both specific to similar institutions or
applicable to others. Furthermore, the University appointed a new president with plans to
introduce significant organizational change. In addition to this change in leadership, the current
political climate may alter institutional dynamics that can either propel or impede the
university’s progress toward the organizational goal. Therefore, because these factors will
impact the institution during the change process, this study will be valuable in investigating the
root causes preventing women of color from leadership roles and suggesting solutions to this
problem of practice.
Participating Stakeholders
Health Sciences University (HSU) consists of 1,100 full-time employees. Employees
include administrators, faculty members, and staff members. The stakeholder population that
this study will be focusing on encompasses university administrators at HSU. For the purpose of
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 66
this study, the stakeholder group will also include the University’s Board of Trustees, although
they are not employees at the organization, because they are involved in the University’s
strategic planning decisions and other decisions related to recruitment, employment, and
retention practices. There are 114 total administrators currently employed within the University.
Of the 114 total university administrators, 92 of them serve within one of the nine colleges.
Lastly, there are 13 appointed trustees, one of which includes the University President.
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Position title. To categorize the organization’s employees that will be considered for the
sample population, the researcher identified those individuals who have specific position titles.
Stakeholders who were considered had one of the following words in their titles: President,
Provost, Trustee, Dean, or Director. The reasoning behind classifying stakeholders with the
abovementioned titles is because these are the individuals who are responsible for the operations
of the organization. Furthermore, these stakeholders participate in significant organizational
processes such as the development of policies, procedures, and strategic plans as well as the
hiring, appointment, and promotion of employees at all levels of the organization.
Length of tenure in current position. An important criterion for sampling
consideration is the stakeholder’s familiarity with the organization, its culture, and climate.
Because it is difficult to determine individual awareness of these organizational aspects, the
researcher considered stakeholders who have served in their position for a minimum of 18
months. Although many university administrators may have been employed at the University for
longer than this time frame, 18 months is an adequate amount of time to understand the
intricacies of their leadership role because it consists of at least three academic semesters.
Furthermore, stakeholders who were not with the University longer than 18 months may not
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 67
have finished a full cycle or academic year to have a foundational understanding of the
organization.
Not serving as a clinical administrator. Because the University is grounded in health
professions education, there are several administrators who manage the daily operations of the
University’s clinics, both on- and off-site. These individuals have roles that are either directly
related to public health or patient care services. Furthermore, these stakeholders do not have
significant impact on the curriculum or the students. Therefore, to ensure that the focus remains
specific to higher education, clinical administrators were excluded from the sample population.
Survey Sampling Recruitment Strategy and Rationale
For this study, the researcher engaged in a purposeful sampling strategy to survey
stakeholders at the organization. According to Maxwell (2013), purposeful sampling entails
selecting persons, settings, or cases that will assist the researcher in answering his or her research
questions and achieving the goals of the study. Purposeful sampling is a common strategy used
in qualitative data collection (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) indicated, qualitative researchers typically pre-identify and establish criterion that
will guide them in selecting their sample population. In this study, the identified and established
criterion include the following: (a) Position title including President, Provost, Trustee, Dean, or
Director; (b) Number of years in current position; and (c) Not serving as a clinical administrator.
There are no demographic criterion that will exclude participants from the sample population.
After eliminating stakeholders in the target population that do not meet the purposeful
sampling criteria, the researcher contacted 92 participants. This is an appropriate, purposeful
sample population because it encompasses all the stakeholders who are currently serving in a
position of leadership role at either the university or college level, has over a year and a half of
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 68
knowledge and awareness of the University and their role as an administrator, and has job
responsibilities specific to higher education. The composition of the sample population is
hierarchal based on the individual’s position in the organizational structure. Although there is a
hierarchal structure, the researcher circulated the survey instrument to all 92 individuals at the
same time. The survey was disseminated via e-mail to the participants for the first time at the
beginning of the data collection process. After two weeks, the researcher sent a survey reminder
to the sample population to increase the response rate. The researcher monitored the survey
completion progress through the online survey software.
Interview Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Survey completion. Study participants who were selected for the qualitative data
collection phase completed the survey instrument disseminated during the quantitative data
collection phase. By finishing the survey, this means that these participants have also met the
identified survey sampling criteria: (1) position title, (2) length of tenure in current position, and
(3) not serving as a clinical administrator. This criterion is important due to the nature of the
explanatory sequential mixed methods design of the study. Qualitative data results were used to
explain the quantitative results; therefore, university administrators who previously completed
the survey instrument expanded on the information that was derived from the quantitative data
analysis.
Woman of color. While the quantitative survey sample population included university
administrators of any gender, race, or ethnic group, the interview sample population pinpointed
women leaders of color. At the organization, there are 15 minority women administrators who
were contacted to participate in the qualitative data collection phase of this study. Because the
research questions and the organizational goal are specifically about women leaders of color, the
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 69
qualitative data collection can draw on emergent themes discussed by this group. Identifying
women of color as a criterion for interview sampling offered the researcher an opportunity to
explore the lived experiences of this group in relation to the quantitative results. Women leaders
of color bring their unique perspective and opinions about the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational barriers and solutions in achieving the organizational goal.
Organizational ranking. The final criterion for the interview sample is an individual’s
rank in the organization. Ten women leaders of color were contacted to participate in the
interviews; the researcher sent out invitations beginning with the highest-ranking minority
woman of the university administrators. Furthermore, the researcher ensured that participants
from all colleges were contacted to participate in the interviews, when applicable. Although the
researcher recognizes that minority women administrators may not be serving at every college in
the university. The rationale behind identifying organizational ranking as a criterion is in direct
relation to decision-making power. Individuals higher up in the organization may have more
insight into the problem of practice and may also have more influence over the practices and
policies to initiate organizational change.
Interview Sampling Recruitment Strategy and Rationale
For the qualitative data collection phase of this study, the researcher conducted
purposeful sampling when selecting the participants for the interviews. Maxwell (2013)
explained that purposeful sampling involves being selective in choosing people for the
interviews who can contribute to answering the study’s research questions. Unlike the
quantitative data collection phase, gathering qualitative data from the interviews entailed
excluding participants from the sample population due to demographic criterion. The pre-
selected criteria for interview participants include (a) individuals who have completed the survey
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 70
in the first phase of the study, (b) university administrators who identify as women of color, and
(c) women leaders of color toward the top of the organizational structure will be contacted first.
The researcher contacted ten minority women administrators to participate in the interviews.
Due to participant availability and timing constraints of the study, the researcher only achieved a
50% response rate. Conducting interviews with at least five women leaders of color at the
organization is an appropriate number in relation to the conceptual framework and research
questions because this number represents a little less than half of the sample population.
Furthermore, this number represents approximately half of number of individuals that are
required to increase the percentage of women leaders of color to 24% at the organization.
Because the interview sample population is a subset of the survey sample population, the
researcher began recruiting participants when the survey is disseminated to the 92 university
administrators. The researcher needed to recruit for the interviews during the quantitative data
collection phase because one of the criterion for the interview sample is that the participant
completes the survey instrument. Once the six participants were identified and agreed to
participate in the interviews, the researcher finished the quantitative data collection and analysis
phase. After the quantitative results informed the qualitative interview questions, the researcher
contacted the interview participants to schedule the interviews.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
The research methodology that was selected for this study is transformative explanatory
sequential mixed methods design. This research design consisted of two phases of data
collection and analysis, beginning with quantitative methods and qualitative methods following
up. This study has elements of transformative mixed methods because the development of the
research questions as well as the survey and interview questions were guided by the critical
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 71
theory. Collection of quantitative survey data from university administrators will provide results
on their general perceptions toward the knowledge, motivation, and organizational barriers, and
solutions related to recruiting, hiring, and retaining women leaders of color. The results from the
surveys then informed the construction of questions for conducting qualitative interviews with a
smaller subset of the university administrators, those who identify as women of color. After
analyzing the qualitative data, the researcher used the results to explain the quantitative results.
The transformative explanatory sequential mixed methods design is the most appropriate
research approach for this study because through the critical theory lens, the quantitative results
will illustrate the university administrators’ general perceptions toward the underlying causes of
the problem of practice. The qualitative results produced a deeper and comprehensive
explanation of the reasons and solutions to address these causes. There were ten variables
related to knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements as well as the underlying causes
highlighted in the general literature. The following four variables will address the first research
question: Effects of diversity, Goal alignment, Organizational culture, and Role of leadership.
The following six variables will focus on the second research question: Personal interest, Goal
setting, Practices, Decision making, Policies, and Programs. These variables were aligned with
the two research questions as well as the survey and interview questions when the questionnaire
and protocol were developed. Table 5 illustrates the alignment of the research questions with the
variables and the associated survey and interview questions.
Table 5. Research Question Alignment Matrix
Research Questions Variables Interview Questions Survey Questions
What are the
knowledge,
Effects of
Diversity
[I-10] Knowledge
(Declarative): Can you
Employees of different
backgrounds interact
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 72
motivation, and
organizational needs
necessary for Health
Sciences University
to increase the
percentage of women
leaders of color from
12-24% at the
college and
university levels?
describe any positive or
negative effects of
diversity that you have
experienced within the
organization?
well in my
organization.
I believe that
multicultural teams
produce positive
outcomes.
I believe that a diverse
workforce positively
impacts my
organization’s
performance.
Goal Alignment [I-4] Motivation (Goal
Alignment): How does
your personal philosophy
on workplace diversity
align with the University’s
mission, vision, or goals?
I believe my personal
philosophy on
workplace diversity
aligns with the
University’s mission,
vision, and strategic
plan goals.
Organizational
Culture
[I-3] Organization
(Organizational culture):
What is your perception of
the organizational culture’s
impact on the University’s
Employees of different
backgrounds are
encouraged to apply for
leadership positions.
Employees of different
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 73
progress toward
diversifying the executive
levels of leadership?
backgrounds are valued
equally by my
organization.
There is a career
development path for
all employees at my
organization.
My organization has
done a good job at
providing training
programs that promote
multicultural
understanding.
Role of
Leadership
[I-2] Organization
(Leadership): Describe
your views on the
leadership’s role toward
diversifying the university
administration.
The leadership at my
organization
encourages diversity.
The leadership at my
organization shows that
diversity is important
through its actions.
What are the
recommended
Personal Interest [I-1] Motivation (Interest):
Describe your personal
I have a vested interest
in diversifying my
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 74
knowledge,
motivation, and
organizational
solutions to those
needs?
interest in diversifying the
university administration.
organization’s
workforce.
I have a vested interest
in seeing the leadership
at my organization
become more diverse.
Goal Setting [I-9] Motivation (Goals):
Describe 1-2 goals toward
recruitment and retention
of women leaders of color
at the organization.
The organization has
established goals for
increasing the number
of women in leadership
roles.
The organization has
established goals for
increasing the number
of people of color in
leadership roles.
Practices [1-6] Knowledge
(Declarative): What types
of recruitment practices
related to diversity do you
employ when hiring
employees in your
department/college?
The organization has
practices in place to
recruit a gender-diverse
workforce.
The organization has
practices in place to
recruit a racially and
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 75
ethnically diverse
workforce.
Of the items listed
below, which do you
believe is most
important for women of
color interested in
pursuing positional
leadership roles in
higher education?
Decision Making [I-5] Knowledge
(Metacognitive): How has
your gender, racial, and/or
ethnic identity influenced
your participation in
recruitment or employment
decisions?
My experiences since
working at my
organization have led
me to become more
understanding of
gender, racial, and/or
ethnic differences.
My gender, racial,
and/or ethnic identity
has influenced my
participation in
recruitment or
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 76
employment decisions.
Policies [I-7] Organization
(Policies): What policies
are currently in place that
promote workplace
diversity?
The organization has
policies in place to
retain racially and
ethnically diverse
employees.
The organization has
policies in place to a
retain gender-diverse
workforce.
Programs [I-8] Organization
(Programs): What retention
programs are currently in
place that promote
workplace diversity?
The organization has
programs in place to
retain racially and
ethnically diverse
employees.
The organization has
programs in place to a
retain gender-diverse
workforce.

Surveys
Survey instruments were developed using the Qualtrics software and disseminated via e-
mail to the study participants. The survey instrument contained 29 items. The participants
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 77
indicated their level of agreement or disagreement on 22 statements using a four-point Likert
scale. These items are connected to the knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements of
the conceptual framework and addressed in the research questions. Additionally, the participants
answered three multiple choice questions. These items were specific to the second research
question, in order for the researcher to gauge the participant response toward solutions suggested
from previous literature. The first 25 items on the questionnaire were aligned with the ten
variables being measured. Table 5 illustrates the alignment of the survey items with the
variables and the research questions. The number in front of each survey item indicates the order
that item can be found on the survey. The final five items on the questionnaire are intended to
gather demographic data for the purposes of determining any correlations during the analysis of
data. The survey instrument can be found in Appendix A.
The survey instrument along with the informed consent statement were distributed at the
beginning of the two-phase data collection period. After two weeks, the researcher sent out a
reminder e-mail to all participants to complete the questionnaire to increase the response rate.
The questionnaire did not include any identifying questions nor were the participants asked to
submit their names or e-mail addresses when completing the survey. This ensured anonymity of
the research participants. The researcher followed all USC research policies and protocol by
protecting the data collected during this phase of the study by saving the information on a
password-protected laptop locked in the researcher’s office.
When conducting a transformative sequential explanatory mixed methods research
design, the premise of the design is that the quantitative data collection comes first and is
followed up by the qualitative data collection (Creswell, 2014). Therefore, by gathering the
survey data during the first phase of the collection process, the researcher was then able to
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 78
analyze the data to inform the development of the qualitative interview questions. This is an
appropriate approach for this study because the quantitative sample population is large as it
includes 92 participants. Furthermore, the survey instrument was designed to gather general
information on the sample population’s opinions toward knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors to increasing the percentage of minority women leaders. Finally, the items
on the survey instrument are broad and thus are more appropriate for the larger sample size,
whereas the interview questions were more specific, directed and based on the quantitative
results for the smaller sample size. A summary of the quantitative data collection phase is
included in Figure 3.
Interviews
The researcher conducted one time, one-hour interviews with five participants. The
participants were women leaders of color who completed the survey that was disseminated
during the first phase of the data collection. The researcher utilized a mixed informal and formal
interview style through a semi-structured interview protocol with open-ended questions.
Furthermore, the researcher inquired if the participants can be interviewed in their offices. This
was done to maximize the researcher’s time with them because they tend to have hectic
schedules, and so that they are in a comfortable and familiar setting during the interview. The
researcher selected this interview approach so that the interview runs and flows smoothly but
was flexible enough to alter the order of questions depending on the participants’ answers.
Furthermore, the open-ended questions enabled the researcher to gather substantial information
related to her research questions and variables.
The researcher identified one interview question that connects to each of the 10 variables
that were derived from the conceptual framework and the review of literature. Table 5 depicts
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 79
the alignment of the interview questions with the variables and the research questions. Because
the study’s research design is a transformative explanatory sequential mixed methods design, the
interview questions were initially devised to correspond to one or more of the survey items but
were adapted after the quantitative data analysis. The types of questions that were asked during
the interviews helped the researcher gauge attitudes and perceptions toward recruiting,
employing, and retaining women leaders of color in post-secondary education. The study’s
interview protocol can be found in Appendix B.
The qualitative data collection phase took place over a period of two weeks. The
researcher first pilot tested the interview guide with a few colleagues to ensure that the order of
the questions flows. After the pilot test, the procedures that were used to gather data entailed
contacting the participants via e-mail, scheduling the interviews, obtaining informed consent,
conducting the interviews, writing post-interview reflection notes, and thanking the interviewees
for participating. The researcher notified the participants that the interview is being recorded for
transcription purposes. Furthermore, per the USC research policies, she informed the
interviewees that the recording will remain confidential and will be saved on a password
protected laptop during the transcription process. An overview of the qualitative data collection
phase of the research approach is provided in Figure 3.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 80
Figure 3. Transformative explanatory sequential mixed methods research design for the present
study.
Data Analysis
There were 92 university administrators selected to participate in the quantitative phase
of the study. Of the 92 administrators, 34 administrators were on leave for the duration of the
data collection. Of the remaining 58 administrators who were surveyed, 31 returned the survey,
for a response rate of 53.44%. The researcher utilized the statistical analysis software built into
Qualtrics to conduct an analysis of the quantitative data collected from the 31 participants during
the dissemination of the survey. Figure 3 illustrates the data collection and analysis process for
the present study.
The statistical analysis software in Qualtrics generated reports that included frequency
tables and visual representations of the quantitative data, which informed the adaptation and
development of the interview questions for the qualitative portion of the study. The statistical
analysis software produced a table of descriptive statistics that included means and standard
deviation. Furthermore, the software generated correlational statistics using pivot tables between
the means of the survey items and the demographic data, specifically women of color and
Caucasian men. These correlations were selected to compare the perspectives from the two
groups of administrators in regard to organizational diversity in leadership at the University.
Quan Data
Collection
• Procedures
• University
administrators
• N=31
• Administer 29
question KMO
Barriers/Solution
s to Leadership
Diversity Survey
• Products
• Database with
survey data
Quan Data
Analysis
• Procedures
• Qualtrics
Reporting
system
• Descriptivel
statistics
• Correlational
analysis
• Products
• Table of
descriptive
statistics
• Table of
correlations
Qual Data
Collection
• Procedures
• University
administrators who
are women of color
• N=5
• Semi-structured,
open-ended
interviews
• Conduct KMO
Barriers/Solutions to
Leadership Diversity
guided by Critical
Theory
• Products
• Transcribed
interviews for
analysis
Qual Data
Analysis
• Procedures
• NVivo software
• Import
transcripts
• Thematic
analysis
• Products
• Emergent themes
Interpretation
• How qual explains
QUAN
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 81
The quantitative data lent itself to the adaptation and addition of interview questions that
were used for the qualitative phase of the study. The researcher wanted to probe further during
the interviews and discuss topics such as professional development and organizational goals.
This is because the quantitative data analysis produced results that were further explained by
interviewing university administrators.
The researcher selected 10 women leaders of color to participate in the qualitative phase
of data collection. Of the 10 administrators, five agreed to participate in the interviews for a
response rate of 50%. The researcher recorded the interviews with permission of the
participants, and the recordings were transcribed using Rev, an online audio transcription
service. The transcriptions were uploaded to MAXQDA, which is an analytic tool used for
quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods research. The software identified emergent themes
from the phrases and words within the transcripts. Thematic coding of the qualitative data
helped the researcher in identifying trends and examining relationships of ideas presented in the
interviews. The data analysis for both the qualitative and quantitative phases are summarized in
Figure 3.
The qualitative data analysis process entailed several steps. First, the MAXQDA
software linked direct quotes from all of the imported interview transcripts to each other. The
researcher reviewed the quotes that were connected to one another, and thus developed apriori
codes related to the research questions and themes that emerged from the interviews. Within the
analytic tool, a codebook was developed, and the codes were color-coded based on apriori or
emergent theme. The researcher examined how the apriori codes, which are elements of the
conceptual framework, interact with one another. Additionally, the researcher wrote analytic
memos that discussed and synthesized quantitative results and qualitative codes from the surveys
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 82
and the interviews. The researcher used emergent themes derived from both the quantitative and
qualitative data collection phases that appeared most frequently to answer the study’s research
questions. Additionally, the researcher used literature to explain and support the study’s
findings.
Validity and Reliability
According to Sullivan (2011), reliability is a measure of whether a survey instrument
yields the same results under the same context and with the same subjects. In addition, validity
is defined as the measurement accuracy of a survey instrument (Sullivan, 2011). The researcher
measured the survey instrument for validity and reliability. During the analyses of the
quantitative and qualitative data, the researcher verified the reliability, or the consistency of the
study’s instruments. Prior to disseminating and administering the survey to all college and
university leaders, the researcher piloted the survey instrument with a small group of
administrators. Cronbach’s alpha demonstrated whether test items measuring a variable
produces the same results, this is termed internal consistency reliability (Sullivan, 2011).
Furthermore, the researcher determined validity by gathering evidence to support the survey
instrument. By gathering data from the university administrators who are the stakeholders
familiar with the variables, the researcher maintained the construct validity, which measures
what it is intended to measure. Finally, the researcher disseminated the same survey instrument
to all participants, followed a semi-structured interview protocol, and transcribed the interviews
from a recording device to guarantee consistency across the data collection phases.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
To ensure credibility and trustworthiness of the study, the researcher utilized
methodology triangulation and member checking. According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016),
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 83
triangulation is using multiple approaches to support a researcher’s hypothesis. The data
collected is credible if both sets of data are complementary. The researcher used triangulation by
conducting qualitative interviews and administering a quantitative survey instrument to collect
data that may yield results to answer the research questions. Table 5 portrays the alignment of
the research questions, variables, survey items, and interview questions. This alignment ensured
that the survey and interview data that is gathered has face validity. During the qualitative data
collection phase, the researcher used member checking, which is a technique to verify that the
data collected is accurate (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) The researcher provided the interview
participants with the summaries so that they can affirm their statements (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Lastly, purposive sampling was used to select the interview participants; therefore, the
study has transferability and findings can be generalized to the specific context and the
characteristics of the sample participants. Triangulation, member checking, and purposive
sampling were used to establish credibility and trustworthiness in this study.
Ethics
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) explained that when conducting research, one must be
cognizant of his or her own morals and ethics while adhering to the guidelines outlined by
organizational Institutional Review Boards (IRB). Ethical problems may arise during data
collection or findings discussion for qualitative research studies (Glesne, 2011; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Ethical dilemmas covered by IRB approval and obtaining informed consent
include privacy, the protection of subjects from any harm caused by the study, and deception
(Glesne, 2011; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Furthermore, Glesne (2011) discussed the complexity
of using the Internet to gather and store data as the use of technology poses additional threats to
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 84
confidentiality. It is the researcher’s responsibility to ensure that she observes procedures as
they relate to safeguarding the study participants’ rights and well-being.
The researcher underwent IRB training through the University of Southern California
(USC). Information sheets detailing the purpose and data collection methods of this study were
submitted to the USC and Health Sciences University (HSU) IRBs. The participants were
informed that their involvement in the study through completing the survey instrument is
completely voluntary and they were not coerced into participating. Prior to beginning the
survey, the participants signed an informed consent form, acknowledging the terms of the study
such as voluntary participation, confidentiality, and the right to withdraw at any time. The study
participants were also notified that all data collected from these surveys will remain confidential,
not include any identifiers, and will be contained on the researcher’s password-protected laptop
in her office. Additionally, the participants were told that they may remove themselves at any
moment during the study without penalty should they feel the need to do so. Lastly, the
researcher did not provide any form of incentives to the participants so that it does not appear as
she is coercing them into participating in the study. Although no incentive or monetary
compensation will be provided, the researcher stated that by participating in this research study,
the participants are contributing to the knowledge and research encompassing the topic of
women and people of color in leadership roles in higher education.
Limitations and Delimitations
The purpose of the research is to study the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
elements influencing university administrators from increasing the percentage of women leaders
of color at the institution. Due to the purpose of the study and research design, the researcher
anticipated limitations, or restrictions that are out of the researcher’s control, from both the
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 85
quantitative and qualitative data collection. Limitations that arose from data collection included
time constraints, scheduling conflicts for the interviews, low response rates, unanswered
questions, dishonest or inaccurate answers, or providing answers that present a favorable
portrayal of one self because they do not want to be seen in a negative manner (Weiss, 1994).
These limitations during the data collection phases posed several problems during the data
analysis. There were also delimitations, or decisions made by and under the control of the
researcher, that affected the analysis of data.
The first delimitation is the selected problem of practice. The researcher chose to
conduct the study to explore the underlying causes of low percentages of minority women
leaders in post-secondary education. The researcher hopes that the study results in findings and
solutions for the site of analysis and that can be applied to other similar universities and colleges.
Additional delimitations of the study included the site of analysis, the critical theory that frames
the study, sample population of the survey participants, the demographic criterion identified for
the selection of the interview participants, and the use of Likert-scale questions in the survey.
The researcher selected the current organization as the site of analysis due to convenience and
proximity of the participants as well as to study a graduate health professions educations
university. The critical theory was chosen as a framework to guide the study because its premise
is for individuals to surpass the limitations placed on them because of their gender, race, or
ethnicity (Creswell, 2014). The university administrators, who comprise the survey sample
population, were selected because they are the primary stakeholder group that can affect change
toward the organizational goal. The demographic criterion of the interview participants was
identified because the researcher wanted to understand the perspectives and opinions related to
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 86
women leaders of color. Finally, the researcher decided to develop Likert-scale survey questions
to quantify the participants’ attitudes and opinions toward the variables measured.

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 87
Chapter Four: Results and Findings
This chapter presents the quantitative and qualitative results to address the following
research questions:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs necessary for
Health Sciences University to increase the percentage of women leaders of color
from 12% to 24% at the college and university levels?
2. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions
to those needs?
Results
The purpose of this study is to explore the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences that inhibit women of color from advancing to leadership roles at the college and
university level at Health Sciences University. Previous research (Turner et al., 2013) indicated
that women and people of color are unable to move up the career ladder in institutions of higher
education due to factors such as the “good ol’ boys club” and the glass ceiling. Furthermore,
similar to the current landscape of higher education administration across the United States, HSU
has a small percentage of minority women occupying administrative positions. Because of this
significant and inequitable statistic, a gap analysis conducted by the researcher examined the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational effects using a transformative explanatory sequential
mixed methods research approach.
The research design selected for this study afforded the researcher the opportunity to
collect both quantitative survey data from university and college administrators as well as
qualitative interview data from minority women administrators. The survey data was collected
first, analyzed, and used to inform the interview questions for the second phase of the research
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 88
design. The qualitative data collected from the interviews were then used to explore and
understand the quantitative results. The outcomes from both phases of the transformative
explanatory sequential mixed methods data collection resulted in emergent themes as well as
descriptive statistics for variables surrounding knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences.
Participating Stakeholders
The survey sampling criteria for the quantitative survey participants included position
title, length of tenure, and individuals not serving in a clinical administrative capacity. The
rationale behind these criteria was that administrators typically hold the title of President,
Provost, Dean, or Director; therefore, they make up the population of the study. The length of
tenure indicates the amount of time an individual has been employed at the University, only
those who have worked at HSU for over 18 months were selected to participate because they are
more likely familiar with the organizational culture, policies, and procedures than those newer
administrators. Finally, clinical administrators were excluded from the sample population
because they tend to clinical affairs, which is a separate sub-unit of the University that primarily
manages patient care, and oftentimes does not coincide with academic or curricular decisions.
At the time of dissemination of the quantitative survey instrument, HSU employed 92
administrators. When the survey was distributed via e-mail to the administrator listserv, 34
individuals had their out of office messages turned on. Therefore, the survey was disseminated
to 58 HSU administrators. Thirty-one administrators completed the survey for a response rate of
53.44%. The survey participants included 15 people who were employed with the University for
over ten years, 12 men, and 15 Caucasian administrators. The demographic breakdown of the
survey participants is displayed in Table 6.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 89
Table 6. Demographics of Survey Participants
Variable Number %
Gender
Female
Male

19
12

61.29%
38.71%
Race
Asian American/Pacific Islander
Black or African American
Caucasian or White
Hispanic or Latino
Native American or American Indian
Other
Two or More Races

3
5
15
5
0
1
2

9.68%
16.13%
48.39%
16.13%
0.00%
3.23%
6.45%
Number of Years at Organization
10+ Years
6-10 Years
3-5 Years
1-2 Years

15
7
7
2

48.39%
22.58%
22.58%
6.45%

The interview sampling criterion involved administrators who completed the quantitative
survey, women of color, and organizational ranking. The rationale behind the criterion was to
interview administrators who indicated interest in participating in the study because they
completed the survey. Additionally, women leaders of color were interviewed to gather data and
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 90
further expand on the questions asked through the survey, as well as provide more elaborate
explanations on the results analyzed during the quantitative data collection phase. Lastly,
organizational ranking was a selection criterion due to the woman administrator’s positionality
within the organization to make major decisions for her college or department.
During the second data collection phase, 10 female minority administrators completed the
survey and indicated interest in participating in the interviews. The interviews were scheduled
during a two-week time period when the University was on summer break to minimize
scheduling conflicts. Due to this scheduling, four of the administrators were out of the office;
therefore, five women leaders of color participated in the qualitative interviews. The interview
participants included Associate Deans, Assistant Deans, and Directors. Additionally, the
participants identified as one or more of the following underrepresented racial minorities:
African American, Asian, Hispanic, and biracial. The demographic breakdown for the interview
participants is illustrated in Table 7.
Table 7. Demographics of Interview Participants
Variable Number %
Organizational Rank
Associate Dean
Assistant Dean
Director

1
2
2

20.00%
40.00%
40.00%
Race
Asian American/Pacific Islander
Black or African American
Hispanic or Latino

2
1
1

40.00%
20.00%
20.00%
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 91
Native American or American Indian
Two or More Races
0
1
0.00%
20.00%

Knowledge Results
The quantitative survey that was disseminated to the university administrators contained
eight items that measured knowledge elements relevant to the research questions. The eight
items specifically targeted declarative knowledge and metacognition. Furthermore, the variables
that were measured using these items included the following: effects of diversity, practices, and
decision making. Using a Likert scale, the researchers asked the participants to select their level
of agreement or disagreement based on each item. The results from the survey items aimed to
measure knowledge influences are presented in Table 8.
Table 8. Survey Items on Knowledge Influences
Item Response Number %
Multicultural teams
produce positive
outcomes.
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response

1
0
16
14
0
3.23%
0.00%
51.61%
45.16%
0.00%

A diverse workforce
positively impacts
organizational
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
1
0
13
3.23%
0.00%
41.94%
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 92
performance. Strongly Agree
No Response

17
0
54.84%
0.00%

Employees of
different backgrounds
interact well within
my organization.

Since working at my
organization, my
experiences have led
me to become more
understanding of
gender, racial, and/or
ethnic differences.

Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response

Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response
1
0
17
13
0

1
3
15
11
1
3.23%
0.00%
54.84%
41.94%
0.00%

3.23%
9.68%
48.39%
35.48%
3.23%

The organization has
practices in place to
recruit a gender-
diverse workforce.
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response

0
14
15
2
0
0.00%
45.16%
48.39%
6.45%
0.00%

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 93
The organization has
practices in place to
recruit a racially-
diverse workforce.

My gender, racial,
and/or ethnic identity
has influenced my
participation in
recruitment or
employment
decisions.

Are any of the
following programs or
practices currently
offered at your
organization? (Select
all that apply)
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response

Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response

Career Ladder
Formal Mentoring
Program
Leadership
Development
Program
Employee Resource
Groups
Childcare Benefits
0
13
16
2
0

3
12
12
3
1

9
7

10

11

2
0.00%
41.94%
51.61%
6.45%
0.00%

9.68%
38.71%
38.71%
9.68%
3.23%

21.45%
16.67%

23.81%

26.19%

4.76%
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 94
Eldercare Benefits 3 7.14%

Effects of diversity. The results indicate that in alignment with previous research, the
participants agreed that multiculturalism and diversity contribute positively to an organization.
Zambrana et al. (2015) explained the importance of higher education administrators being
cognizant of navigating barriers to diversity and understanding the effects diversity has on the
environment and culture at a university. The results from the quantitative survey directly related
to the variable measuring effects of diversity indicate that university administrators recognize the
importance of a diverse workforce and multicultural teams. Furthermore, the university
administrators’ knowledge that diversity can positively influence an organization and the
ultimate goals of an organization is in line with Oldfield (2010) who described how academic
medical institutions positively benefited from diverse faculty and staff.
Knowledge of university practices. Factual knowledge is a type of declarative
knowledge in which learners know specific information that can aid them in solving problems
(Krathwohl, 2002). For HSU administrators, they need factual knowledge relevant to university
practices in order to advise and direct subordinates to appropriate resources. The researcher
measured this variable to understand the baseline knowledge that the participants have in regards
to types of practices the university participates in and programs it offers. The survey results
indicate that the group of administrators who responded had split awareness and were uncertain
of whether their organization promotes and supports a gender and ethnically diverse through
established practices and programs. Furthermore, low percentages of the participants indicated
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 95
that they believed there were available and offered programs established at the university to
enhance workplace diversity.
Metacognition and decision making. Rueda (2011) discussed that metacognitive
knowledge improves learning through practicing reflection and self-awareness. Furthermore,
Dunn, Gerlach and Hyle (2014) explained that tapping into one’s self-awareness of their gender,
ethnic, and racial identities enables them to understand how their identities influence decision
making. While a high percentage (83.87%) of leaders at HSU indicated that they have become
more understanding of differences in diversity since they were employed at the institution, the
group was equally divided when indicating whether their self-awareness of their personal
identities affected their decision making in recruitment and employment decisions.
Motivation Results
University administrators responded to five quantitative survey items that measured
motivation influences. Additionally, the variables that were measured using these items included
goal alignment, personal interest, and goal setting. Similar to the items measuring knowledge
influences, participants responded to the Likert scale items based on their level of agreement or
disagreement toward the statement. Clark and Estes (2008) emphasize the significance of
motivation in increasing organizational performance, especially relevant to the three motivation
influences measured in the quantitative phase of data collection. Presented in Table 9 are the
results from the survey items that measured motivation influences.

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 96
Table 9. Survey Items on Motivation Influences
Item Response Number %
The organization has
established goals for
increasing the number
of women in
leadership roles.

Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response
1
21
7
1
1
3.23%
67.74%
22.58%
3.23%
3.23%
The organization has
established goals for
increasing the number
of people of color in
leadership roles.
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response
1
19
8
2
1
3.23%
61.29%
25.81%
6.45%
3.23%

My personal
philosophy on
workplace diversity
aligns with my
organization's
mission, vision, and
strategic plan goals.

Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response

1
4
19
7
0

3.23%
12.90%
61.29%
22.58%
0.00%
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 97
I have a vested
interest in diversifying
my organization's
workforce.
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response
0
0
16
15
0
0.00%
0.00%
51.61%
48.39%
0.00%

I have a vested
interest in seeing the
leadership at my
organization become
more diverse.

Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response

0
0
17
13
1

0.00%
0.00%
54.84%
41.94%
3.23%

Personal interest. The results presented in Table 9 illustrate that the participants
expressed a vested interest in personally diversifying their organization as well as witnessing a
shift in the leadership to become more diverse. Interest is a construct directly related to
motivation; moreover, individuals or groups become more engaged in learning because the
information or concepts are intriguing and challenging to them (Schraw & Lehman, 2009).
Organizational diversity has been a longstanding topic of interest across several fields and
disciplines, which has also been linked to increasing workplace efficiency and innovation (Wolfe
& Dilworth, 2015). Schraw and Lehman (2009) explained that individuals may have either
personal or situation interest in a particular area. The responses to both survey items linked to
interest exhibits that the university leaders at HSU hold organizational leadership diversity to a
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 98
high regard, and therefore are motivated to participate in improving the current status quo with
recruitment and employment decisions at the top levels of leadership.
Goal setting. A high percentage of university administrators responded that they
disagreed that the University set strategic goals to increase the number of women and ethnic
minorities in leadership roles. This response is in directly contrast with the organization’s
published strategic plan that outlines plans to enhance diversity at all levels of employment at the
University (“About Health Sciences University,” n.d.). Rueda (2011) explained that goals must
be specific, concrete, and aligned with other goals. The respondents expressed disagreement
with the survey items questioning whether HSU has goals to increase the number of women and
people of color in leadership roles. As Gasman et al. (2015) demonstrated, the percentage of
leaders of color in higher education has essentially remained the same over the years, which may
have experts conclude that goals toward organizational diversity in higher education have been
vague. This ambiguity pertaining to organizational leadership diversity is evident in the
responses from HSU leadership as well.
Goal alignment. The survey results presented in Table 9 demonstrates support for goal
alignment in that a significant percent of university leaders agreed that their personal goals
aligned with those of the university. Gasman et al. (2015) discussed that enriching the diversity
at top levels of institutions of higher education begins with leadership and their alignment of
goals with the university’s mission, vision, and strategic plans. Rueda (2011) supported this
notion, highlighting the need for groups to align their goals with other relevant organizational or
stakeholder performance goals. Furthermore, these statistics can serve as a starting point to
motivate leadership to make quantifiable progress toward improving workplace diversity at the
organization.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 99
Organizational Results
The researcher incorporated 10 survey items into the quantitative phase of data collection
that explored organizational influences on women leaders of color in higher education
administration. The variables that were measured include organizational culture, the role of
leadership, policies, and programs. For the 10 survey items, participants used a Likert scale to
indicate level of agreement. According to Clark and Estes (2008), organizational barriers can be
defined as tools, programs, procedures, protocol, or policies that are not clearly established to
guide the organization and its members. Therefore, the researcher utilized the 10 survey items to
further investigate the absence of these influences that may potentially hinder women of color
from moving into leadership roles at the institution.
Table 10. Survey Items on Organizational Influences
Item Response Number %
My organization
provides training
programs that
promote multicultural
understanding.

Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response
0
22
8
1
0
0.00%
70.97%
25.81%
3.23%
0.00%
Employees of
different backgrounds
are valued equally by
my organization.
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response
1
0
18
12
0
3.23%
0.00%
58.06%
37.50%
0.00%
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 100

There is a career
development path for
all employees
(faculty, staff, etc.) at
my organization.

Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response

0
12
13
6
0

0.00%
38.71%
41.94%
19.35%
0.00%
Employees of
different backgrounds
are encouraged to
apply for leadership
positions.
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response
0
4
16
10
1
0.00%
12.90%
51.61%
32.26%
3.23%

The organization has
policies in place to
retain racially and
ethnically diverse
employees.

Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response

0
16
12
3
0

0.00%
51.61%
38.71%
9.68%
0.00%

The organization has
policies in place to
retain a gender-
diverse workforce.

Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree

0
14
14
3

0.00%
45.16%
45.16%
9.68%
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 101
No Response

0

0.00%
The organization has
programs in place to
retain racially and
ethnic employees.

Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response

0
16
12
2
1
0.00%
51.61%
38.71%
6.45%
3.23%
The organization has
programs in place to
retain a gender-
diverse workforce.

Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response

0
16
14
1
0
0.00%
51.61%
45.16%
3.23%
0.00%
The leadership at my
organization
encourages diversity.
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
No Response

0
2
24
5
0
0.00%
6.45%
77.42%
16.13%
0.00%
The leadership at my
organization shows
that diversity is
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
0
4
20
0.00%
12.90%
64.52%
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 102
important through its
actions.
Strongly Agree
No Response
7
0
22.58%
0.00%

Organizational culture. Schein (2010) described organizational culture using three
levels: (a) artifacts, (b) beliefs and values, and (c) basic assumptions and beliefs. The
quantitative results presented in Table 10 reflect that HSU culture, relevant to beliefs, values, and
basic assumptions, accepts and encourages diversity within college and university
administration. Although this is not consistent with the artifacts or visible infrastructure of the
organization (Schein, 2010) as respondents overwhelmingly disagreed that the University offers
diversity training. This may be due to the competing values and belief systems of the various
stakeholders as well as the leadership’s priorities as employees are concerned (Kezar, 2001).
Schein (2010) discussed that artifacts may be the easiest facet of organizational culture to
change. In regards to the survey results, the establishment of a diversity training program to
promote multicultural understanding would be an achievable goal compared to changing the
shared beliefs and values of the collective group. It is important to note that previous research
has identified a limitation with survey dissemination for survey items related to diversity and
organizational culture. Morrison and Milliken (2000) explained the concept of “organizational
silence” as the unwillingness of employees of color to disclose their feelings toward
organizational problems related to diversity.
Role of leadership. Schein (2010) explained that oftentimes leaders develop subcultures
within an organization that are founded on status and rank. Because the leadership at HSU is
comprised of various levels within the organizational structure, including university
administrators, deans, and directors, the organization may have multiple subcultures. The results
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 103
from the survey items connected to the role of leadership illustrate that University leadership
encourages and promotes diversity through its actions. Though it is important to note that the
participants who completed the survey were in fact university administrators. Nevertheless, it is
noteworthy to recognize that the leaders themselves are implying that their actions are in
alignment with their desire to enhance diversity at the higher levels of the organization.
Policies. Policies and procedures are the guidelines of an organization and aid in
reinforcing what is important to its leadership (Schein, 2010). The results showed that university
administrators appeared uncertain whether the organization has established policies for retention
of underrepresented minorities. Without a clearly defined structure for retention of women of
color, the organization is in danger of maintaining the status quo, and may be unable to realize its
goal of increasing the percentage of minority women leaders. This notion is supported by Clark
and Estes (2008) who concluded that conflict between organization culture and an organization’s
performance goals may arise due to the absence of policies supported by work procedures.
Programs. It is necessary for organizations to have systems, or programs, in place to
highlight areas that matter to its leadership (Schein, 2010). Additionally, these mechanisms can
be created and changed, which may in turn alter the organizational culture. According to the
survey results, the university administrators who participated had no clear sense of the programs
currently available for recruitment of minorities. These results are consistent with those from the
survey items connected with policies. In order for the University to achieve the organizational
goal to increase the percentage of women leaders of color, it will need to consider the creation
and development of policies and programs designed to address retention efforts.

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 104
Findings
After the quantitative phase was completed, the researcher adjusted her interview
questions to further explain responses from those administrators who participated in the
quantitative survey. Through the qualitative data collection phase, the researcher had the
opportunity to interview a subset of university administrators who identified as women of color.
The interview participants provided their insight on the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that impacted women like themselves from advancing at the university.
The collective qualitative data gathered during this phase resulted in emergent themes connected
to the study’s research questions.
Participating Stakeholders
The researcher used purposeful sampling to select the participants for the qualitative
phase of the study. The participants included stakeholders who were present minority women
administrators at the organization. Although 10 women of color completed the survey and
expressed interest in participating in the interviews, only five were available to schedule an
interview. Of these five participants, two women identified as Asian American, one indicated
she was African American, and one woman noted she was Hispanic or Latina. The
organizational ranks for the participants included the following titles Associate Dean, Assistant
Dean, and Director. Moreover, one female administrator worked at the university level, whereas
the remaining women worked at the college level. All women indicated they had worked at
HSU for longer than 18 months.
Emergent Themes
When conducting the analysis of the qualitative data, the researcher found that the
interviews with women leaders of color at HSU resulted in two main emergent themes, each with
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 105
three sub-themes. The first theme involved the influence of university administration on
diversity at the institution. Under this main theme, the women leaders also discussed how
leaders are comfortable maintaining the status quo, a transition of power that HSU was
experiencing at the time of the interviews, and the differences in leadership between the college
deans and university-level administrators, such as the President and Provosts. The second theme
that emerged from the interviews was related to the absence of clearly defined organizational
goals in relation toward diversity. The sub-themes that fell under this theme included the lack of
initiatives specific to enhancing workplace diversity, insufficient diversity training programs for
employees, and the need and desire for the establishment of formal mentoring programs for
faculty and staff members.
Influence of leadership on diversity. Schein (2010) described leaders as key
communicators of their organization’s culture. Furthermore, stakeholders within an organization
may determine which factors are significant to leaders through observation of their actions,
behaviors, priorities, and causes they commit to. Therefore, administrators who deem diversity
as a core value, both personally and for the university, may communicate its importance by
dedicating their efforts toward diversity initiatives. A common thread that was discussed among
the interview participants involved the role that HSU administrators play in enhancing workplace
diversity.
During the time of data collection, the University was undergoing a major organizational
change, which was mentioned throughout the interviews by several women administrators. The
University retained its founding president for over 30 years, and recently appointed a new leader
to take his place. This transition in leadership weighed heavily for the interview participants as
they consistently considered the leadership’s impact on diversity. Furthermore, three specific
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 106
sub-categories developed under this theme. This theme and its sub-themes are directly
connected to the first research question posed by the researcher: What are the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational needs necessary for Health Sciences University to increase the
percentage of women leaders of color from 12% to 24% at the college and university levels?
The leadership in any organization has the political power to influence the organization’s
present and future. The sub-themes that emerged illustrated that the outgoing university
administration continued to maintain the status quo by exhibiting interests and values drastically
different from the new administrators’ and college deans’. An obstacle that Kezar (2001)
identified is the homogeneity within universities potentially impacts decisions that trickle down
the organization to faculty, staff, and students. One of the interview participants captured this
homogeneity stating, “I think ultimately, though, when you look into the power structure, you
know, who actually holds the reigns, the diversity is not as varied as it could be”. Furthermore, a
college administrator expressed that university leaders were out of touch with those at the lower
levels of the organization. When asked to describe her views on the leadership’s role toward
diversifying the university administration, she said, “I'm not all that familiar with the executive
level of the university. I don't really interact with them all that much. Um, I think the very
highest level is not all that diverse.” The participants’ comments surrounding the homogenous
nature of the university administration are linked back to Kezar (2001) and the influence
leadership has on organizational decisions, including those related to diversity.
Maintain status quo. Stevens et al. (2008) explained that organizations may suffer from
complacency, and not reap the benefits of change initiatives if they disregard the impact of
diversity. For example, when asked how one’s perception of the organizational culture impacts
the University’s progress toward diversifying the executive levels of leadership, many
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 107
participants indicated that advances toward diversity were “happening, but not as quickly as
[they] would like”. Additionally, another administrator explained that “she felt like things
weren't moving because people liked it the way it was.” These comments affirm that as Stevens
et al. (2008) suggested, stagnation has resulted in the perception that the university
administrators do not hold workplace diversity with high regard and are comfortable maintaining
the current status of the organization.
Researchers explained one concept related to institutional complacency, homosocial
reproduction, which is the practice of leaders to appoint colleagues who have similar physical
characteristics, and are possibly like-minded (Nkomo & Al Ariss, 2014). Furthermore, this
homogeneity may result in the University’s unwillingness to make progress with diversity,
preventing it from achieving organizational goals, such as “supporting the recruitment of diverse
faculty and staff (“About Health Sciences University,” n.d.). The interview participants
attempted to process and explain the leadership’s role in improving workplace diversity.
Of her colleagues, one participant stated, “I don't know if the resistance by
administration, um, is based on ... I don't understand what it's based on… Is it just based on a
lack of knowledge of how it's done everywhere else? Or is it based on a fear of change?”
Similarly, another participant explained that “something in administration is deficient”. She
further described it as the administration’s inability to deliver a message or detailed and practical
vision in regards to diversity. HSU promotes diversity within their student body; but as
discussed by the participants, this core value is not reflected in its employees, especially at the
highest levels of leadership. The inconsistency between placing diversity as a high priority for
an institution’s students yet not for its workforce is in alignment with the literature. Colleges and
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 108
universities that advertise their commitment to diversity yet fail to employ individuals from
minority groups therefore appearing disingenuous in their commitments (Smith, 2010).
Past and present leadership. Another sub-theme that was interwoven throughout the
conversations with the interview participants surrounded the idea of the differences between the
past and present leadership. Due to the recent transition of power from a university President
who was in position for over 35 years to a new leader, the interviewees expressed hope that the
new president will have fresh perspective and values that are sincerely aligned with promoting
organizational diversity. For example, one of the participants said, “my hope is that as time
progresses we have a new President in place that will see an expansion over the President's
cabinet which he's committed to creating…the things he's doing is indicative of a person who's
committed to diversity.” Another participant expressed her confidence in the university’s future
and said, “I'm happy to see that the new President is observing, questioning if that position is
needed and things like that…it makes me hopeful, but I think what used to happen in the past, it
seemed like it's, like, good old boy clubs, you know?” The conversations with the interviewees
provided insight into the new President’s actions related to forming his cabinet, and hiring and
promoting individuals best suited for their roles. The participants discussed that the new
President portrays himself as one who is committed to diversity, and has an understanding of its
importance in advancing higher education, which is in alignment with research conducted in this
arena (Lennon, 2013; Turner et al., 2013).
According to more than half of the interview participants, they believe that this new era
of leadership promises to usher in a process for administrative hiring and appointments that is in
stark contrast to the previous President’s time in office. Regarding the promotion of leaders
during the previous presidency, one college administrator commented that university
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 109
administrators were “connected personally with the President, for example, there were directors
of some positions that hardly came in to the office setting, but because they had that personal
relationship with the President there was no ramifications.” This method of recruitment and
retention does a disservice to those employees who work diligently to move up the ranks on their
own abilities. Furthermore, the favors bestowed upon undeserving individuals due to their
personal connection with the former President resulted in a period of stagnation at HSU. As
Turner et al. (2013) indicated, the variety of experiences, ideas, and perspectives of leaders from
minority groups is rich compared to those leaders from a homogenous group. Lastly, the
stability of the previous university administration has hindered the University in making true
progress with achieving its strategic plan goals linked to organizational diversity.
College deans versus university leadership. Although HSU retained the same President
since its founding in the late 1970s until 2016, the University cycled through several college
deans who lead the various health professions education programs through times of positive
change, as well as difficult periods of obstacles. From their experience at various levels of the
University, the interviewees blatantly said diversity is lacking at the top levels, but more
apparent at the college level. One college administrator, who only occasionally interacts with the
university administration, made an observation and commented, “I don't see as much diversity
from my viewpoint…I don't see as much diversity up there.” This absence of diversity is not
new to higher education as research conducted by Gasman et al. (2015) supported the
insignificant progress institutions of higher education have made in diversifying their executive
levels of leadership. Furthermore, Wolfe and Dilworth (2015) described the disparity between
the administrators of color and their Caucasian colleagues as an institutional norm in post-
secondary education.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 110
The interviewees agreed that ultimately the organization should do what is in the best
interest of its students, but they do not believe this is the university administration’s prerogative.
For example, one participant described the differences between the university and college leaders
as a fork in the road. She explained the metaphor by stating that the university administration
goes to the right, and everyone else goes to the left. She further described,
The culture for those who go to the left is really based on, like, good principles…They
want to create the best curriculum for our students. Our students are key… And then you
have administration who aren't transparent…And sometimes you wonder if the decisions
they make are really based on, like, the best interest of the student or the best interest of
the university.
The absence of diversity as well as the lack of transparency from the university administration
may be a valid concern from the interview participants. Within organizations, hidden agendas
may formulate when individuals of similar characteristics and backgrounds work together to
establish organizational practices and policies, ultimately influencing organizational culture
(Kezar, 2001). Furthermore, the lack of transparency with HSU stakeholders such as college
administrators, faculty, and staff, may result in a decision-making process that excludes valuable
and diverse input. Morrison and Milliken (2000) suggested that in order for organizations to
thrive, incorporating feedback from all stakeholders can aid in re-focusing the priorities of the
organization. Therefore, the HSU President and university administration should not only
practice transparency, but also integrate ideas and opinions from the college deans and their
administrators.
Undefined organizational goals toward diversity. Over the past few years, the HSU
President and college deans communicated an incongruent vision to the campus community.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 111
Interview participants indicated that the college leadership promoted targeted goals and
outcomes toward enhancing diversity, specifically for their student bodies, yet the university
administration did not prioritize the same goals. In regards to ensuring that the leadership reflect
the demographics of the student body, one administrator remarked that the University should be
“making sure that we're bringing in students…to dare them to imagine themselves in these
roles”. Furthermore, one interviewee explained that the college administration has a “process
that ensures that we have faculty and leaders who look like the students who we want to recruit”.
The collective statements made by the participants were best summarized by one leader in
particular who said, “…I get the impression that diversity means a lot to all of the deans and
they're committed to having diversity, but they all have their own individual definition of what
diversity is.” This inconsistency in vision was highlighted by an administrator, “I don't see
[HSU] blatantly wearing or advertising the fact that they're interested in diversity, um, or helping
diverse cultures…or announced [HSU’s] overarching goals or reported progress on workplace
diversity”. Messaging a shared vision about workplace diversity is essential in order to facilitate
a change directed toward increasing the number of women leaders of color at the university
(Wolfe & Dilworth, 2015). In order to devise a shared message and establish goals for
recruitment and retention of underrepresented minorities at the university administration level,
Wolfe and Dilworth (2015) suggested the inclusion of minority experiences to inform all
stakeholders, both internally and externally.
Diversity initiatives. An emergent theme that surfaced was that the University does not
currently have concrete initiatives in place aimed at increasing the number of minority women in
leadership roles. This outcome is consistent with research conducted by Gasman et al. (2015)
who discussed that although universities across the country state they have goals designed to
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 112
diversify leadership in their workplaces, the current landscape of higher education administration
illustrates this is not the case. Furthermore, the diversity of university presidents has only
increased a mere five percent between the years 1986 and 2011 (Gasman et al., 2015).
Interviews with participants supported this finding. In alignment with the results from the
qualitative survey, the interview participants indicated that they were unaware of any efforts or
initiatives devised by the University for the purpose of improving diversity at the executive
levels of leadership. For example, one participant explained that “we can do a better job at
casting a wide net when it comes to recruiting women of color, but when it’s not an expectation
of the University, people aren’t motivated to”. Another participant indicated that the
organization may benefit immensely from developing goals with measures for this objective and
that she would “like seeing more diversity among her colleagues”. Goals dedicated to
organizational diversity must be explicitly communicated to all stakeholders involved, especially
those with hiring power. As Rueda (2011) suggested, individuals can collaborate in groups by
completing tasks that allow them to achieve the identified goals. Thus, consistent with Gasman
et al. (2015), the University needs to establish goals to combat the present homogenous
leadership in higher education. As the participants suggested, University-imposed initiatives
toward workplace diversity, such as affinity groups, infrastructures, and transparent roles and
responsibilities for each college’s inclusion officer, will motivate its leaders to cast a wider net
when recruiting and hiring for positions at the organization.
Diversity training. Leaders at both the college and university levels had common
perceptions of the organization’s offerings of professional development training related to
diversity. All of the interview participants disagreed that the University offered the appropriate
training to enhance employees’ knowledge of diversity and multicultural understanding. This
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 113
theme supports research by Zambrana et al. (2015) who indicated that it is necessary for
administrators in higher education to possess foundational knowledge of barriers and benefits to
workplace diversity in order to navigate any issues that may arise among employees. When
asked whether the University provided professional development related to diversity, all
participants said that they were not aware of any University-wide training that existed, but rather
colleges and departments may offer a session on this topic once in a while. One participant
added that her college attempted to offer a faculty and staff development session that focused on
diversity, yet the speaker was “shockingly offensive” and that it appeared that he was not vetted.
Another participant from the same college commented on the two-hour diversity training session,
describing it as “grossly inadequate in enhancing [their] knowledge of multiculturalism in the
workplace”. In order to enrich one’s understanding of diversity and its affects at an organization,
the University should offer consistent and robust training to all of its employees. As Zambrana
et al. (2015) emphasized, developing a conceptual knowledge of barriers and benefits of
diversity may result in increased innovation and effectiveness. The participants consistently
implied that the University lacked proper professional development for diversity; therefore, an
effort needs to be made to ensure all employees are offered the equal opportunity to build and
foster their knowledge in this subject matter.
Formal mentoring programs. One thread that resonated with all of the interview
participants was the absence of a formal mentoring program and the desire and interest in
inaugurating one. Professional development and the establishment of professional connections at
one’s workplace is a hot topic for organizations; although, institutions of higher education
struggle to create a truly robust formal mentorship program for faculty and staff despite
recognizing the importance of this need (Gasman et al., 2011; Heewon et al., 2014; Zambrana et
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 114
al., 2015). The women administrators who were interviewed expressed that they have pursued
informal mentorships at the University. For many of the participants, the mentor relationships
happened organically. One of the interview participants coined her mentors by the term “allies”,
describing the relationships as ones that have “allowed [her] to one, gain the cultural wisdom of
the institution and how things kind of run and... Who the players are.” Another interviewee
reflected that “one of the most challenging things about being in this role is that there's not a road
map for me. I have to find someone and attach myself to someone who can mentor me…on how
academic leadership is structured and how it works.” These sentiments are in line with the
research conducted by Chang et al. (2014), Ford (2016), Madsen (2012), Tran (2014), and
Turner et al. (2013) who reported that very few institutional efforts have been made to retain
women leaders of color at universities and colleges across the United States. Furthermore,
researchers suggested that when pre-dominantly White institutions establish formal mentoring
programs, minority women are more inclined to foster professional relationships among their
colleagues (Tran, 2014) and are empowered to climb the career ladder at their institution.
Synthesis
The transformative explanatory sequential mixed methods research design resulted in
fruitful findings from the quantitative and qualitative data. The quantitative survey, which was
disseminated to the larger population of university and college administrators, produced a
53.44% response rate. The results indicated that although the participants believed that
workplace diversity is valuable to an organization, the University itself had barriers preventing
the stakeholders from achieving their goal of increasing the percentage of women leaders of
color. The data illustrated that HSU did not communicate any overarching goals or progress
supporting the enhancement of workplace diversity, there was ambiguity if policies and practices
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 115
were in place to recruit and retain a gender and ethnically diverse workforce, finally, there was
uncertainty surrounding HSU offering any established programs for retention, such as formal
mentoring.
With these results, the researcher devised interview questions to probe further into these
barriers to diversity. Furthermore, per the research methodology, the researcher utilized the
quantitative data results to develop questions that would provide further explanation as to the
potential reasoning behind the absence of these goals, programs, policies, and procedures. The
themes that emerged from the interviews included the desire for the university administrators to
maintain the status quo, the differences between college and university-level leaders, and the
hope for change with the transition to a new university president. Furthermore, the interviews
revealed that although the organization has been clear about their goals in diversifying the
student body, it has been ambiguous regarding their goals in ensuring that the leadership reflects
the demographics of their students. Additionally, the participants conversed about the potential
diversity initiatives that can support this goal. For example, the participants discussed affinity
groups, policies and procedures to cast a wider net in recruitment efforts, offering diversity
training for employees, and establishing formal mentoring programs.
The data that was gathered and analyzed during this study can contribute to the growing
body of literature that has been produced surrounding this topic. Researchers such as Tran
(2014), Ford (2016), and Hannum et al. (2015) have discussed the benefits of professional
development for women of color within settings of higher education. The results that emerged
from the quantitative data collection phase indicated that the chief barrier involved the absence
of practices and programs that can be established by the University. Furthermore, the
recommendations made by the interview participants during the qualitative phase of data
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 116
collection implied a desire for the development of practices and programs to support women of
color through the recruitment process and retain them during their time at the University.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 117
Chapter Five: Recommendations
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. The knowledge influences outlined in Table 11 are the validated
knowledge influences for this study, upon completion of the data collection and analysis. This
validation is based on which knowledge barriers were identified in the quantitative data analysis
and which are most frequently discussed during the qualitative interviews, as well as is supported
by the literature. When performing a gap analysis, Clark and Estes (2008) stated that knowledge
and skills are pertinent for stakeholders to achieve their performance goals. For this reason, the
knowledge influences in Table 11 should be prioritized high for the organization in order for the
university administrators to achieve their stakeholder goal. Table 11 also lists the context-
specific recommendations for solutions to closing the gap on these knowledge barriers, which are
based on theory and principles derived from the literature.
Table 11. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
University
administrators do not
know the process of
recruiting employees of
V Y Organization of
knowledge is
influential in how
learners retain and
Provide training in
which
administrators
observe the
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 118
diverse backgrounds
(P).
apply information
(McCrudden, Schraw
& Hartley, 2010).

In order to master a
skill, learners must
obtain the knowledge
to execute the steps of a
skill, practice the steps
and know how to apply
the knowledge
obtained. (McCrudden,
Schraw & Hartley,
2010).

Working memory is
enhanced when
auditory and visual
information is
combined (Mayer,
2011).
sequential steps for
posting jobs to
career boards that
recruit diverse
populations, and
include a visual
job aid that lists
websites that aim
at recruiting
diverse employees
in higher
education.
University
administrators do not
N N Not a priority.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 119
know the standardized
university recruitment
and employment
practices related to
diversity (D).
University
administrators do not
have an understanding
of the barriers to
diversity (D).
N N Not a priority.
University
administrators are not
aware of the way their
identities influence
their hiring decisions.
(M)
N N Not a priority.

Procedural knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. University
administrators do not know the process of recruiting employees of diverse backgrounds.
McCrudden, Schraw & Hartley (2010) discussed that information should be organized in order
for learners to retain and apply obtained knowledge. Providing individuals with a step-by-step
guide organized visually while they observe each step being performed supports learning a new
process. The recommendation for university administrators is to deliver training to them on
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 120
posting jobs to career boards for diversity employment opportunities in higher education with a
supplemental job aid of the steps in chronological order.
Groff (2006) studied 35 participants in an all-female non-profit organization on the effect
of a diversity training that was provided to them. He found that the diversity training was
beneficial and that the job aids, which were displayed as posters that detailed concepts discussed
in the training, supplemented the participants’ learning. Groff (2006) referenced Silberman
(1998), emphasizing that the job aids serve as a reminder for participants so that they can apply
what they learned in the training. Therefore, the recommendation for training university
administrators on the process related to posting job opportunities to diversity career websites and
the provision of a job aid can enhance learning by helping them recall forgotten steps.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. Table 12 lists all of the validated motivation needs from this study. The
validation of these influences related to the stakeholders attaining the organizational goal is
based on completed survey data, informal interviews with university administrators, and research
on motivation. Clark and Estes (2008) discussed that individuals with increased motivation
select to approach work differently and use novel methods to enhance their job or task
performance, allowing them to achieve their goal. There are two constructs related to motivation
that are significant for university administrators to realize the goal of increasing the percentage
of women leaders of color at their organization. Interest and goal orientation are pertinent for
university administrators because both of these motivational influences can guide them to
achieve the organizational goal. The data revealed that the university administrators have a
vested interest in increasing the percentage of women leaders of color at their organization. As
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 121
such, Table 12 outlines the motivational needs that have a high priority for the stakeholders, as
well as the recommendations for setting goals.
Table 12. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
University
administrators do not
have specifically
defined goals toward
enhancing workplace
diversity.
V HP Learners can obtain a
better sense of direction
from setting goals
(Pintrich, 2003).

Individuals should set
SMART (specific,
measurable, attainable,
realistic, and timely)
goals
in order to avoid
ambiguous direction
(Rueda, 2011).
Develop a task
force or committee
devoted to
collaborating on
creating,
standardizing, and
measuring goals
toward improving
workplace
diversity at the
organization.
University
administrators need
N N Not a priority.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 122
situational interest in
improving workplace
diversity.
University
administrators need
personal interest in
increasing the
percentage of women
leaders of color in the
organization.
N N Not a priority.

Goals. University administrators do not have goals guiding them to enhance workplace
diversity. Rueda (2011) stated that setting SMART goals (specific, measurable, attainable,
realistic, and timely) will prevent unclear expectations for individuals. This would suggest that
offering the university administrators with a space to collaborate on goal setting would enhance
motivation toward improving organizational diversity. The recommendation is for the university
to develop a task force or committee charged with creating, standardizing, and measuring goals
toward improving workplace diversity, and ensuring that these goals are aligned with the
University’s mission, vision, and strategic plan.
Rueda (2011) explained that goals give individuals direction and purpose. Gasman et al.
(2015) emphasized that setting goals and goal alignment are pertinent to enhancing diversity in
higher education administration. Furthermore, the researchers challenge colleges and
universities to align their diversity goals with the organizational strategic plan. Since a majority
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 123
of institutions of higher education report workplace diversity initiatives, the statistics related to
women leaders of color in colleges and universities across the country have remained unchanged.
Additionally, Gasman et al. (2015) indicated that universities and colleges focus efforts on
diversifying the student body, yet their faculty, staff, and administration are not similar to their
students in terms of ethnic and gender composition. Therefore, from a theoretical perspective, it
is essential that the University establish goals in line with the organization’s mission, vision, and
strategic plans so that the leadership more closely reflects the student population that it currently
serves.
Organizational Recommendations
Introduction. Table 13 presented lists all of the validated organizational factors related
to the data collection for this study. This table is based on survey data gathered during the
quantitative phase of data collection, the emergent themes that surfaced during the qualitative
data collection phase, as well as supported by the research on organizational culture and setting.
Clark and Estes (2008) discussed that progress within an organization may be hindered due to
ambiguity or absence of organizational influences such as equipment, policies, and procedures.
Furthermore, in order for an organization to increase effectiveness, it needs to appropriately offer
and divide resources, establish and adhere to policies, and create and refine procedures. Schein
(2010) explained that various components, including beliefs, assumptions, artifacts, values, and
relationships, comprise an organization’s culture. While these components can be deeply
ingrained, stakeholders can facilitate organizational change to better align the cultural models
and settings with the organization’s mission, vision, and strategic goals. As such, as indicated in
Table 13, three organizational influences were validated, and are high priority for the
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 124
stakeholders. Table 13 also includes recommendations based on theoretical organizational
change principles.
Table 13. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Organization
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
University
administrators need to
communicate that
diversity is valued
through their actions.
V Y Leaders communicate
organizational priorities
through their messages,
actions, and values
(Schein, 2010).
Invest time, effort,
and funding on the
development of
diversity trainings
and retention
programs for
under-represented
minorities at the
university in order
to demonstrate that
the organizational
culture values and
fosters workplace
diversity.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 125
University
administrators need to
establish and utilize
policies, procedures,
practices, and programs
to recruit and retain
women of color.
V Y Organizations ensure
that messages, rewards,
policies, and
procedures are aligned
with the vision,
mission, goals and
values of the
organization (Clark &
Estes, 2008).

When organizational
change occurs, leaders
are consistent with the
frequency of messages
to the stakeholders
affected by the change
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
Develop, review,
revise, and
establish
organizational
policies and
procedures aimed
at increasing
diversity in
leadership at the
organization.

Ensure that the
policies and
practices have
been approved by
all stakeholders.
Communicate the
new policies and
practices to faculty
and staff, perhaps
during a campus-
wide forum.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 126
University
administrators need to
define their roles in
improving
organizational
leadership diversity.
V Y Stakeholders provide
constant input during
the decision-making
process throughout
organizational change
(Clark & Estes, 2008).

Organizations take into
account and implement
feedback provided
during any change
effort (Clark & Estes,
2008).
Request feedback
from university
administrators
when formalizing
policies,
procedures, and
practices related to
recruitment,
hiring, and
retention efforts
aimed at
increasing
workplace
diversity. Gather
feedback from
individuals in each
of the colleges and
at the university
level prior to
establishing
policies and
messaging the
policies out to the
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 127
rest of the campus
community.

Organizational culture. University administrators need to shift the organizational
culture to prioritize leadership diversity by defining their roles in enhancing this diversity. Kezar
(2001) explained that by incorporating the opinions of individuals from minority groups, such as
women and underrepresented minorities, helps shape the organizational culture. Therefore,
university administrators should request all stakeholders’ feedback and perspectives to formalize
recruitment and retention efforts for underrepresented minority employees.
Clark and Estes (2008) defined organizational culture as the visible and invisible shared
values, customs, objectives, and practices embedded within an organization. In higher
education, organizational culture can impact students. This notion aligns with Kezar (2001) who
stated that a homogenous university administration with like values or hidden agendas may
affect decisions related to students and curriculum, preventing an institution from innovating and
progressing. Furthermore, Morrison and Milliken (2000) suggested that prioritizing workplace
diversity can help combat challenges that are currently stunting organizations from growing. As
such, the research supports an organizational shift, which includes incorporating feedback and
opinions from all stakeholders regarding employment and retention practices, that places
workplace diversity as a priority on the agenda of university administrators.
Policies and procedures. Presently, the University does not have established policies,
procedures, and practices related to increasing the percentage of women leaders of color at the
organization; therefore, administrators need to develop and communicate these to employees
with hiring power. Clark and Estes (2008) discussed that in order to avoid dissonance between
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 128
the organizational culture and the organizational goals, policies must be supported by procedures
and practices. This idea suggests that university administrators need to develop, review, and
revise policies and processes for hiring and promotion of minority women leaders.
An organization’s stakeholders can more efficiently achieve organizational goals when
leadership clearly defines and communicates its policies and procedures (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Universities and colleges rely on administrators to create and enforce policies and procedures
that govern day-to-day functions as well as long-term operations. Schein (2010) emphasized that
organizational leaders highlight which policies and procedures are important to them through
their actions. As such, university administrators must create and adhere to practices related to
hiring, promoting, and appointing women leaders of color to the university in order to
communicate the importance of workplace diversity and engrain this mechanism into the
organizational culture.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), which is based on
the original Kirkpatrick Four Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006) was
the model used to develop the implementation and evaluation plan for this study. This model
takes a three-phased approach: (1) Planning, (2) Execution, and (3) Demonstration of value. The
first phase reverses the four levels, beginning with Level 4 Results, then Level 3 Behaviors,
Level 2 Learning, and finally, Level 1 Reaction. Developing the implementation and evaluation
plan consisted of determining post-implementation support, monitoring and accountability,
outcomes for implemented solutions, critical behaviors and required drivers, and solutions and
tools for evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 129
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
Health Sciences University’s purpose is to enhance and extend the quality of life of those
in its communities by producing healthcare professionals who are competent, caring, and
compassionate. The students graduating from HSU are a direct product of the University’s
faculty, staff, and administration; therefore, it is in the organization’s best interest to ensure that
it upholds its commitment to diversity by increasing the percentage of minority women in
leadership roles. As an organizational goal, improving workplace diversity at the university can
potentially result in innovative progress, diversity of thought, and better consensus building on
decisions affecting the school and its students. This study explored the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences that hinder university administrators from hiring and promoting
women leaders of color at the organization. The proposed solution, which includes a training
program, job aids, and a task force dedicated to developing and establishing employment policies
and retention programs, should result in an increase in the percentage of women administrators
of color.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 14 shows the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators listed as the
outcomes, metrics, and methods for both HSU’s external and internal outcomes. If the internal
outcomes are met as a result of the training and implementation of university policies and
procedures related to employment and retention, then the external outcomes will also be
achieved.

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 130
Table 14. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Increase the
number of
women
administrators
in higher
education
1a. The percentage of women who
were recruited, applied, interviewed
and hired for leadership roles at the
University within each fiscal year.
1b. The percentage of women who
are employed in administrative roles
at higher education institutions across
the country.
Solicit yearly data on women
administrators in higher education
from the U.S. Department of
Education.
2. Increase the
number of
ethnic
administrators
in higher
education
2a. The percentage of ethnic
minorities who were recruited,
applied, interviewed and hired for
leadership roles at the University
within each fiscal year.
2b.The percentage of ethnic
minorities who are employed in
administrative roles at higher
education institutions across the
country.
Solicit yearly data on ethnic
administrators in higher education
from the U.S. Department of
Education.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 131
Internal Outcomes
3. Improved
policies and
procedures
related to
workplace
diversity
3a. The number of policies and
procedures related to workplace
diversity communicated to
employees.
3b. The number of instances the
established policies and procedures
were adhered to as reported to
Human Resources by departmental
hiring managers.
The policies and procedures
reviewed, established, and
approved by the university
administration and posted by
Human Resources.
Aggregate data (Level 3.1) from
department hiring managers of
each college (collected via
survey, upon completion of new
hire process)
4. Improved
recruitment
practices for
prospective
employees
4a. The number of practices
established by university
administrators to cast a wide net
when recruiting URMs.
4b. The number of instances the
established recruitment practices
were used by hiring managers as
reported to Human Resources.
The recruitment practices
reviewed, established, and
approved by the university
administration and posted by
Human Resources.
Aggregate data (Level 3.1) from
department hiring managers of
each college (collected via
survey)
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 132
5. Improved
retention
programs for
current
employees
The number of retention programs
created or enhanced to encourage
employee retention.
The retention programs reviewed,
established, and approved by the
university administration and
posted by Human Resources.
6. Lower
employee
turnover
The percentage of university
administrators who are women of
color who leave the organization
within a fiscal year.
Compare annual survey results.
7. Increased
employee
satisfaction
Positive/negative feedback from
supervisors
Compare annual survey results.

Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are the university administrators who
have hiring power at HSU. The first critical behavior is the university administrators correctly
post jobs to career boards for recruitment of underrepresented minorities to open positions at the
University. The second critical behavior is that they maintain policies and procedures for
recruitment and employment of underrepresented minority administrators. The last critical
behavior is that they appropriately refer employees to university-established retention programs.
The corresponding metrics, methods, and timeframe for each of these outcome behaviors is listed
in Table 15.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 133
Table 15. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for University Administrators
Critical
Behavior
Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Correctly
post jobs to
career
boards for
recruitment
of URM
candidates.
The number of jobs
posted to URM-specific
career boards.
1a. The hiring manager shall track
the career boards that the job has
been posted to and provide a
report to the human resources
department.

1b. The human resources
department shall maintain a list of
all job postings and which career
boards they have been submitted
to.
1a. By the
end of the
second week
that the job
has been
posted to the
University’s
careers page.

1b. Monthly
human
resources
report.
2. Maintain
policies and
procedures
for
recruitment
The number of policies
adhered to and
procedures performed
by the department or
college hiring manager
2a. The hiring manager shall
indicate on a report which
policies and procedures were
followed when reviewing a
candidate for interview selection.
2a. One week
following
each
candidate
interview.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 134
and
employment
of URM
administrato
rs.
when reviewing a
candidate for
employment
consideration.

2b. The hiring manager shall
indicate on a report which
policies and procedures were
followed when reviewing a
candidate for a job offer.

2b.
Immediately
after each job
offer.
3.
Appropriatel
y refer
employees
to
university-
established
retention
programs.
The number of
employees requesting
information regarding
retention programs.
3a. Each supervisor will track the
number of subordinates he/she
referred to a retention program.
The supervisor will then provide a
report to the human resources
department.

3b. Each supervisor will track
which retention program(s)
his/her subordinates are interested
in. The supervisor will then
provide a report to the human
resources department.

3a. During a
new hire’s
orientation or
during a
current
employee’s
annual
performance
evaluation.

3b. During a
new hire’s
orientation or
during a
current
employee’s
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 135

3c. If an employee so wishes,
he/she can request to be paired
with a formal mentor. Then, each
supervisor will indicate their
employee’s interest using a
mentor request form to be
submitted to the human resources
department.
annual
performance
evaluation.

3c. Ongoing

Required drivers. University administrators require the support of the Human
Resources department and the organization to reinforce what they learn in the training and
encourage them to apply their knowledge and skills to increase the number of underrepresented
minorities being interviewed and considered for leadership roles at HSU. When university
administrators achieve a performance goal, they will be rewarded. Table 16 shows the
recommended drivers to support the university administrators’ critical behaviors.

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 136
Table 16. Required Drivers to Support University Administrators’ Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing Critical
Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Job Aid that outlines sequential steps for publishing
a job posting on a career page for URM
administrators.
Ongoing 1, 2
Job Aid that lists websites of career pages aimed at
URM administrators.
Ongoing 1, 2
E-mail newsletters with scholarly articles and
evidenced-based research on impacts of workplace
diversity at universities and colleges.
Monthly 2, 3
Administrators will be required to meet with Human
Resources, if additional training is necessary.
As needed 1, 2, 3
Encouraging
Peer modeling during professional
development/training sessions.
Quarterly 1, 2, 3
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 137
Collaboration during task force/committee meetings. Monthly 1, 2, 3
Feedback and coaching from Human Resources. As needed 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
Performance incentive when a university
administrator refers five employees to one or more
retention programs.
Quarterly 3
Public acknowledgement, such as a mention at
Deans Council or Faculty Senate, when the
percentage of interviewed URM job candidates is
high.
Quarterly 1, 2
Monitoring
Human Resources can ask university administrators
to report adherence to policies and procedures
during job candidate reviews.
Quarterly 1, 2
Human Resources can ask university administrators
to report adherence to policies and procedures
during annual performance evaluations.
Annually 3
Organizational support. HSU prides itself on its commitment to diversity; though the
student body is fairly diverse, the University employees a faculty, staff, and administration that is
not. Data analysis from this study indicated that university administrators do value diversity and
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 138
exhibit this commitment through their actions toward diversifying its students, yet there is
ambiguity when inquired about workplace diversity policies and practices. Therefore, the
organization can best support the stakeholders’ critical behaviors in two major capacities.
First, the university administrators need to clarify their role in achieving the
organizational goal of increasing the percentage of minority women administrators. The
organization can help the university administrators in doing so by delivering diversity training,
and appointing representatives from each college and administrative department to task force
committees dedicated to establishing and maintaining policies, procedures, and programs related
to recruitment and retention. The delivery of diversity training and establishing of a task force
will further support the critical behaviors of the university administrators who are responsible for
recruiting underrepresented minorities for leadership roles, enforcing policies and procedures
within their colleges or departments, and offering suggestions for university established retention
programs.
The second means of support the University can provide to administrators is ensuring that
there are checks and balances related to the required drivers to enforce the critical behaviors.
Some examples include appointing a chairperson to the diversity taskforce committee to further
progress on the development of policies and creation of retention programs, scheduling diversity
training sessions throughout the year, or publishing an annual report with aggregate data from
Human Resources on URM candidates. By establishing checks and balances through the
provision of reports and appointment of responsible parties and committees charged with a
specific task, the organization can track and monitor its progress toward guaranteeing it reaches
its goal.

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 139
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Following completion of the recommended solutions the stakeholders
will be able to:
1. Recognize the barriers to diversity when given a scenario, (Declarative)
2. Self-assess their responses to scenarios related to workplace diversity,
(Metacognition)
3. Apply the sequential steps for posting jobs to career boards, (Procedural)
4. Plan and track their URM job postings, (Procedural, Metacognition)
5. Reflect on their identities and become aware of biases when recruiting employees,
(Metacognition)
6. Indicate interest in the stakeholder goal by articulating what they learned from the
evidenced-based articles on workplace diversity, (Interest)
7. Discussing strategies and techniques for improving retention efforts of URM
employees, (Interest)
8. Apply approaches to policy creation and program implementation for recruitment
and retention of URM employees, (Interest)
9. Set and monitor SMART goals for policy creation, (Goals)
10. Set and monitor SMART goals for program implementation, (Goals)

Program. The learning goals outlined in the previous section will be realized through a
training program that prepares university administrators to respond to diversity obstacles in the
workplace, teaches them the procedures required for recruiting prospective URM employees
using job boards, and equips them with the tools necessary for establishing university policies
and retention programs. The learners will study a variety of topics including topics pertaining to
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 140
diversity as it relates to them as supervisors and leaders within their organization. Furthermore,
the program involves two face-to-face workshops hosted by presenters from the University’s
CAPE (Center for Academic and Professional Development). Completion of the training
program will hopefully result in the creation of a diversity task force committee focused on
establishing and implementing the policies and procedures for URM recruitment and retention.
The total time for completion is 180 minutes (3 hours).
Prior to the first workshop, learners will be provided with job aids of pertinent evidence-
based articles on topics of workplace diversity in higher education. The learners will be required
to read and be prepared to discuss the articles during the workshop. The workshop will begin
with a brief presentation on the workplace diversity initiative that the organization is working on
as indicated by the University’s strategic plan. This presentation will be given by one of the
university administrators overseeing the implementation of the strategic plan in order to ensure
credibility and trustworthiness with the learners.
During the workshop, a handout that consists of scenarios related to diversity in the
workplace will be provided to the learners. Individually, they will be prompted to pull strategies
from the articles they read, respond to the scenario, and self-assess their responses. They will
then be divided into small groups to discuss an assigned scenario and their personal responses.
Each small group will role play the scenario and a response. After each group finishes, the large
group will debrief and provide feedback on the situation in order to reinforce the learning. At the
end of the workshop, the learners will be provided with a final handout that contains reflection
questions to facilitate their awareness of their personal identities and any biases that may have
become apparent during the workshop activities. The purpose of the first workshop is to tap into
the learners’ situational and personal interest as it relates to diversity as well as prompt
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 141
metacognitive practice for thinking about how their identities manifest in their recruitment
decisions.
During the second workshop, the training will comprise of learners gaining the
knowledge and skills on systems and procedures related to URM recruitment. The learners will
be provided with a job aid that contains a list of websites with job boards directed at higher
education as well as a pocket guide outlining the steps to successfully create a job posting. The
workshop will take place in a computer lab on campus, and the presenter will be a staff member
from the Department of Human Resources. The presenter will provide the learners with the job
aids beforehand and walk them through the job posting procedures on the main screen of the lab
while they follow along on their individual computers. In order to provide additional support,
two staff members will be present in the audience to assist learners should they need help during
the training. The demonstration will supplement the job aids provided and reinforce their
learning as they move through the process as a group during the workshop.
Components of learning. Table 17 outlines the evaluation methods and timing for the
learning components. In order for the learners to apply their skills and knowledge, they must be
able to demonstrate declarative knowledge so that that information may translate into problem
solving on the job. Furthermore, the learners must exhibit that they value the training they
receive, and that they have a vested interest in applying their knowledge and skills while on the
job. Finally, they must be committed and display confidence in being able to replicate the
responses and strategies applied in the first workshop as well as the steps and processes practiced
in the second workshop.

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 142
Table 17. Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks through small group
discussions.
During the first workshop and documented via
observation notes.
Knowledge checks through role play activity. During the first workshop and documented via
observation notes.
Quality of the feedback from peers during
large group debrief.
During the first workshop and documented via
observation notes.
Retrospective survey items asking the learners
to self-assess their understanding of workplace
diversity.
At the end of the workshop.
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Demonstration individually of using the job
aids to successfully perform the skills.
During the second workshop.
Quality of the feedback from HR staff
members during systems training
During the second workshop.
Individual application of the skills through role
play (Workshop #1) or demonstration using the
system (Workshop #2), observed by the trainer
conducting the session.
During the workshops.
Retrospective survey items asking learners
about their level of competence applying their
At the end of the workshop.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 143
skills after the training.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Facilitator’s observation of learners’ statements
and actions demonstrating increased interested
in and value of what they are being asked to do
on the job.
During the workshops.
Discussions of the value of and interest in what
they are being asked to do on the job.
During the workshop.
Retrospective survey items asking learners to
rate the level of value or interest in the
activities and tasks.
At the end of the workshops.
Online discussion forum prompting learners to
self-reflect on value of training.
Two weeks after the first workshop.
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Poll learners using cloud-based polling system. Following each activity during the workshop.
Discussions following role play activity and
demonstration.
During the workshops.
Retrospective survey items asking learners to
rate their confidence in performing the tasks
asked of them.
At the end of the workshop.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussions following role play activity and
demonstration.
During the workshops.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 144
Signed agreement to follow University
protocol and procedures related to tasks
learned during the workshop.
During the second workshop.
Retrospective survey items asking learners to
rate indicate their commitment to performing
the tasks asked of them.
At the end of the workshop.
Participation in university’s diversity task force
committee.
After the workshops.
Level 1: Reaction
Table 18 shows the proposed Components to Measure Reactions to the Program listed as
the methods, tools, and timing for program engagement, relevance, and customer service. These
methods and tools will be used throughout and after the workshops to gauge the participant
reactions to each of the learning activities.
Table 18. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Completion of workshops After the workshops
Observation by presenter During the workshops
Observation by HR staff members During the workshops
Attendance During the workshops
Workshop evaluation Two weeks after the course
Relevance
Brief pulse-check with learners via small group After each activity.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 145
discussions during first workshop.
Brief pulse-check with learners via large group
discussion during second workshop.
After each demonstration.
Workshop evaluation Two weeks after the course
Customer Satisfaction
Brief, informal pulse-check with learners via
small group discussions during first workshop.
After each activity.

Brief pulse-check with learners via large group
discussion during second workshop.
After each demonstration.
Workshop evaluation Two weeks after the course.

Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. During, prior to the start, and at
the completion of both workshops, the presenter will collect the roster of attendee names, which
should indicate the employees who completed the workshops from start to finish. Furthermore, a
HR staff member will be present for observation and to collect data after each activity and
demonstration in which the presenter will conduct brief, informal pulse-checks with the
employees to determine the relevance of the research articles, activities, demonstrations, and job
aids to their roles in the organization. These data will demonstrate the level of engagement,
relevance, and customer satisfaction with the content and delivery of the workshops. Level 2
will include knowledge checks as well as attitude and confidence in learning the content and
applying the skills. The knowledge checks will be executed through a series of role playing
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 146
scenarios, group discussion, individual reflection, polling, and hands-on demonstration of the
material.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Approximately two weeks
after the implementation of each workshop, CAPE and the Department of Human Resources will
administer a survey comprising of Likert-scaled items and open-ended questions for participants
to rate their level of satisfaction and relevance of the workshops (Level 1), confidence, interest,
and value toward applying the knowledge and skills gained during the workshops (Level 2), on-
the-job application of the training when recruiting, hiring, and retaining women leaders of color
as well as the support they receive from leadership and Human Resources (Level 3), and the
demonstrated outcomes that have resulted from their performance as it relates to promoting and
enhancing workplace diversity (Level 4). The survey that will be disseminated after the
workshop activities can be found in Appendix G. The survey that will be sent to participants
after a delayed amount of time following the program implementation can be found in Appendix
H.
Data Analysis and Reporting
The university administrator’s Level 4 goal is measured by the number of job postings,
URM candidates recruited, interviewed, offered jobs, and newly hired as well as the URM
employees referred to a retention program and requesting a mentor. Each time a university
administrator completes the position hiring process, he or she will track the measures related to
career boards the job was posted to, URM candidates who applied, URM candidates who were
interviewed, URM candidates who were offered the position, and URM candidates who accepted
the position. Furthermore, the university administrators will track the data during annual
performance reviews that indicate when an employee is referred to an employee retention
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 147
program or requests a mentor. The university administrator will then send the data to the
department of human resources. A human resources staff member will collate the data and
generate reports on the measures. The dashboard below, which will be used by Human
Resources, illustrates a report of the data provided by the university administrators. The
dashboard also includes a table that monitors Levels 1, 2, and 3. An image depicting the
dashboard is in Figure 4.

Figure 4. HSU Administrator Recruitment and Retention Program Evaluation Dashboard
Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), was used as a
framework to develop, integrate, and evaluate the knowledge and skills, motivation, and
organizational recommendations that drive the stakeholders to achieve the organizational goal.
Moving from Level 4 Results, Level 3 Behaviors, Level 2 Learning, and Level 1 Reaction, the
program developed and recommended by the researcher meet expectations for all four levels.
For Levels 1 and 2, the organization expects the participants in the program to engage in both
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 148
workshops, indicate that the workshops are relevant to their job duties, and are satisfied with the
program as well as obtain knowledge, skills, attitude, and confidence to commit and apply what
they learned. These expectations would be measured during the program as the presenters probe
the participant group, and after the program when data is collected on the number of individuals
who went through the program applying their knowledge and skills on the job. For Level 3, the
organization expects the university administrators to perform the following critical behaviors: (1)
post jobs to URM career boards, (2) adhere to established hiring policies, and (3) refer
subordinates to retention programs developed by the University. In order to determine that the
program met expectations for this level, a survey will be disseminated requesting program
participants to indicate which behaviors are occurring on the job. Finally, the expectations of
Level 4 Results include improved policies and procedures, established retention programs, lower
employee turnover, and increased employee workplace satisfaction. Program participants will be
invited to a focus group in which they are asked questions regarding the organization’s
movement to the desired results. If successful, the training program will produce university
administrators who are committed to overcoming barriers to diversity at the organization and are
knowledgeable and equipped with the skills to recruit and retain women leaders of color.
Furthermore, execution of the training program can result in a high return on investment if all
expectations from Level 1 through Level 4 are met.
Recommendations for Future Research
The present study contributed to the growing body of literature on workplace diversity in
higher education by investigating the underlying factors affecting minority women from
advancing at a graduate, health professions education university. The findings were in line with
studies previously conducted at varying types of higher education institutions. Therefore, future
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 149
research surrounding leadership diversity in post-secondary education can involve collecting data
from multiple colleges and universities. Additionally, rather than a focus on medical education,
researchers can gather data from undergraduate and other professional schools such as law,
business, or education. Conducting a similar study at multiple institutions across the country can
generate more comprehensive and robust findings that can be applicable to a larger number and
different types of institutions.
Conclusions
It is evident from previous studies (Flowers & Moore, 2008; Nkomo & Al Ariss, 2014;
Oldfield, 2010; Tran, 2014; Wolfe & Dilworth, 2015), national reports (The White House Project
Report, 2009) and findings from the present study, that much work still needs to be done to
disrupt the homogenous landscape of higher education. Enhancing leadership diversity within
organizations can produce positive outcomes such as variety in ideas, culture of innovation, and
improved efficiencies (Chatman, & Flynn, 2001; Earley & Mosakowski, 2000; Stevens, Plaut, &
Sanchez-Burks, 2008). Through the data collection for this study, the researcher discovered that
while the majority of university administrators believed in improving workplace diversity,
organizational barriers prevented them from achieving this objective. In line with findings from
previous studies, minority women articulated that the university would benefit from established
policies and programs to attract and sustain underrepresented minorities.
In order for colleges and universities to better reflect the demographics of the students
they serve, leaders must take a proactive approach to recruitment and retention of faculty and
staff. Although hiring committees must select candidates who possess the best professional
experience, educational background, and are an ideal cultural fit for the organization, they must
also be cognizant of casting a wider net with recruitment efforts as well as offering competitive
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 150
retention packages that support all employees. By cultivating diverse organizations, universities
and colleges can encourage environments in which all employees work collaboratively to
overcome barriers to diversity, contribute to a myriad of ideas that directly affect their work and
colleagues, and finally, support a student-centric mission and vision.

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 151
APPENDIX A
Survey Items
Likert Scale
Strongly Disagree – Somewhat Disagree – Somewhat Agree – Strongly Agree
1. I believe that multicultural teams produce positive outcomes.
2. I believe that a diverse workforce positively impacts organizational performance.
3. Employees of different backgrounds interact well in my organization.
4. My experiences since working at my organization have led me to become more
understanding of gender, racial, and/or ethnic differences.
5. My organization has done a good job at providing training programs that promote
multicultural understanding.
6. Employees of different backgrounds are valued equally by my organization.
7. There is a career development path for all employees at my organization.
8. Employees of different backgrounds are encouraged to apply for leadership positions.
9. The organization has established goals for increasing the number of women in leadership
roles.
10. The organization has established goals for increasing the number of people of color in
leadership roles.
11. The organization has practices in place to recruit a gender-diverse workforce.
12. The organization has practices in place to recruit a racially and ethnically diverse
workforce.
13. The organization has policies in place to retain racially and ethnically diverse employees.
14. The organization has policies in place to a retain gender-diverse workforce.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 152
15. The organization has programs in place to retain racially and ethnically diverse
employees.
16. The organization has programs in place to a retain gender-diverse workforce.
17. The leadership at my organization encourages diversity.
18. The leadership at my organization shows that diversity is important through its actions.
19. I believe my personal philosophy on workplace diversity aligns with the University’s
mission, vision, and strategic plan goals.
20. I have a vested interest in diversifying my organization’s workforce.
21. I have a vested interest in seeing the leadership at my organization become more diverse.
22. My gender, racial, and/or ethnic identity has influenced my participation in recruitment or
employment decisions.
Multiple Choice Questions
23. Are any of the following programs or practices currently offered at your organization?
(Select all that apply)
i. Career ladder
ii. Formal mentoring program
iii. Leadership development program
iv. Employee resource groups
v. Childcare benefits (child care facilities, subsidized child care and/or
consultation)
vi. Eldercare benefits (time off and/or consultation)
24. Would you be interested in seeing any of the following programs or practices either
established or enhanced at your organization? (Select all that apply)
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 153
i. Career ladder
ii. Formal mentoring program
iii. Leadership development program
iv. Employee resource groups
v. Childcare benefits (child care facilities, subsidized child care and/or
consultation)
vi. Eldercare benefits (time off and/or consultation)
25. Of the items listed below, which do you believe is most important for women of color
interested in pursuing positional leadership roles in higher education?
i. Mentoring relationships (i.e. formal or informal, internal or external)
ii. Advocate(s) in higher ranking positions at the organization
iii. Direct supervisor relationship
iv. Leadership development (i.e. programs or classes related to leadership
skills and competencies)
v. Professional development (i.e. programs or classes related to one’s
specific degree or job position)
vi. Other women of color in higher ranking positions at the organization
Demographic Questions
26. How long have you worked for the organization?
i. Less than one year
ii. One year to less than two years
iii. Two years to less than five years
iv. Five years to less than ten years
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 154
v. Ten years or more
27. Gender
i. Female
ii. Male
28. Race
i. White
ii. Hispanic or Latino
iii. Black or African American
iv. Native American or American Indian
v. Asian American/Pacific Islander
vi. Other
29. Education
i. Some high school, or less
ii. High school graduate, diploma or the equivalent (for example: GED)
iii. Some college credit, no degree
iv. Trade/technical/vocational training
v. Associate degree
vi. Bachelor’s degree
vii. Master’s degree
viii. Professional degree
ix. Doctorate degree
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 155
APPENDIX B
Interview Protocol
Interview Questions
1. Knowledge (Declarative): What types of recruitment strategies do you employ when
hiring employees in your department/college?
2. Knowledge (Declarative): Can you describe any pros and cons to diversity that you have
experienced within the organization?
3. Knowledge (Metacognitive): How has your gender, racial, and/or ethnic identity
influenced your participation in recruitment or employment decisions?
4. Knowledge (Metacognitive): How do you hope your personal interest or philosophy of
workplace diversity aligns with the University’s mission, vision, or goals?
5. Motivation (Interest): Describe your personal interest in diversifying the organization.
6. Motivation (Goals): Describe 1-2 goals toward recruitment and retention of women of
color at the organization.
7. Organization (Organizational culture): How has your perception of the organizational
culture impacted the University’s progress toward diversifying the executive levels of
leadership?
8. Organization (Leadership): Describe your views on the leadership’s role toward
diversifying the university administration.
9. Organization (Policies): What recruitment and/or employment policies are currently in
place that promote workplace diversity?
10. Organization (Programs): What retention programs are currently in place that promote
workplace diversity?
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 156
APPENDIX C
Informed Consent for Survey
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

DISRUPTING THE HOMOGENOUS LEADERSHIP IN HIGHER EDUCATION BY
ADDRESSING THE LACK OF WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN POST-SECONDARY
EDUCATION: AN INNOVATION STUDY
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Jayzona Alberto, MS and
Lawrence Picus, PhD at the University of Southern California, because you are a university
administrator at Western University of Health Sciences. Your participation is voluntary. You
should read the information below, and ask questions about anything you do not understand,
before deciding whether to participate. Please take as much time as you need to read the consent
form. You may also decide to discuss participation with your family or friends. If you decide to
participate, you will be asked to sign this form. You will be given a copy of this form.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This research study aims to understand your perceptions and attitudes toward diversity in
leadership roles at post-secondary institutions of higher education. Findings from this study will
contribute to the growing body of literature on hiring, recruitment, and retention practices in
higher education administration.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 157
STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will be asked to complete an online survey
which is anticipated to take about 15 minutes. You do not have to answer any questions you
don’t want to, click “next” or “N/A” in the survey to move to the next question.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks associated with this research study.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
This study is being conducted to enrich the knowledge base surrounding the misrepresentation of
women leaders of color in universities and colleges across the United States. Furthermore,
findings from this study can be used to improve organizational practices focused on enhancing
the applicant pool for university administrators.
CONFIDENTIALITY
We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law. However, if we
are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about you. The members
of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection
Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential.
Your responses will be coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. The
data will be stored on the researcher’s password-protected laptop and will be kept indefinitely.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 158
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss of
benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time and
discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or
remedies because of your participation in this research study.
INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Principal
Investigator: Jayzona Alberto via email at jalberto@usc.edu or phone at (714) 726-6933 or
Dissertation Chair Dr. Lawrence Picus at lpicus@rossier.usc.edu or (213) 740-2175.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu
SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT

I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions. My
questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have
been given a copy of this form.

Name of Participant
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 159

Signature of Participant Date

SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR

I have explained the research to the participant and answered all of his/her questions. I believe
that he/she understands the information described in this document and freely consents to
participate.

Name of Person Obtaining Consent

Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 160
APPENDIX D
Information Sheet for Survey
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

DISRUPTING THE HOMOGENOUS LEADERSHIP IN HIGHER EDUCATION BY
ADDRESSING THE LACK OF WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN POST-SECONDARY
EDUCATION: AN INNOVATION STUDY
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This research study aims to understand your perceptions and attitudes toward diversity in
leadership roles at post-secondary institutions of higher education. Findings from this study will
contribute to the growing body of literature on hiring, recruitment, and retention practices in
higher education administration. This study is being conducted to enrich the knowledge base
surrounding the misrepresentation of women leaders of color in universities and colleges across
the United States. Furthermore, findings from this study can be used to improve organizational
practices focused on enhancing the applicant pool for university administrators.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 161
If you agree to participate in this study, you will be asked to complete an online survey which is
anticipated to take about 15 minutes. You do not have to answer any questions you don’t want
to, click “next” or “N/A” in the survey to move to the next question.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential.
Your responses will be coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. The
data will be kept on the researcher’s password-protected laptop and will be kept indefinitely.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator: Jayzona Alberto via email at jalberto@usc.edu or phone at (714) 726-
6933 or Dissertation Chair Dr. Lawrence Picus at lpicus@rossier.usc.edu or (213) 740-2175.
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 162
APPENDIX E
Recruitment E-mail for Survey
Good morning/afternoon,
My name is Jayzona Alberto and I’m a doctoral student at the University of Southern California.
I am conducting a research study about women leaders of color in higher education
administration at Western University of Health Sciences. I am emailing to ask if you would like
to participate in my research study by completing a survey. The survey should take no more than
15 minutes to complete. Participation is completely voluntary and your answers will remain
confidential and anonymous. If you are interested, please click on the link for the survey and
additional information: www.qualtrics.com/westernu. Please contact me if you have any
questions.
Thank you for your time,
Jayzona Alberto

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 163
APPENDIX F
Recruitment E-mail for Interviews
Good morning/afternoon,
My name is Jayzona Alberto and I’m a doctoral student at the University of Southern California.
I am conducting a research study about women leaders of color in higher education
administration at Western University of Health Sciences. I am emailing to ask if you would like
to participate in a one hour interview for my research study. The interview is a follow-up to a
survey that was disseminated x weeks ago. Participation is completely voluntary and your
answers will remain confidential. If you are interested or have any questions, please contact me.
Thank you for your time,
Jayzona Alberto

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 164
Appendix G
Workshop Evaluation Survey
Immediately after the workshop
Scale 1-5 (Strongly disagree to strongly agree)
1. I can identify barriers to diversity (L2: Declarative)
2. I can list the sequential steps for posting jobs to career boards (L2: Procedural)
3. I believe improving workplace diversity is valuable to my job (L2: Attitude)
4. I feel confident about applying what I learned today in my everyday work at the
organization (L2: Confident)
5. Today’s workshop was engaging (L1: Engagement)
6. I would recommend this workshop to my colleagues (L1: Customer Satisfaction)
Open -ended questions
7. Please describe your personal plan to recruit and retain minority women within your
department (L2: Commitment)
8. Please explain how this workshop is applicable to your role in the University (L1:
Relevance)

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 165
Appendix H
Program Evaluation Survey
Delayed 14 days after the workshop
Scale 1-5 (Strongly disagree to strongly agree)
1. What I learned in the workshop is important to my job as a university administrator (L1)
2. I am able to navigate workplace diversity situations better now than prior to the workshop
(L2)
3. My colleagues and I are able to use the training and job aid to maintain University policies
and procedures related to URM recruitment and retention (L3)
4. My college or department has implemented improved recruitment and retention practices
(L4)

WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION 166
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Abstract (if available)

Abstract The executive levels of leadership at colleges and universities have remained stagnant over the last decade despite the everchanging gender and racial demographics in higher education (Lennon, 2013

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Asset Metadata

Creator Alberto, Jayzona Ann Labado (author)

Core Title Disrupting the homogenous leadership in post-secondary education by addressing the lack of women leaders of color: an innovation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 08/06/2018

Defense Date 04/17/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Higher education,leadership,minority women,OAI-PMH Harvest,organizational change,post-secondary education,women of color,workplace diversity

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Picus, Lawrence (committee chair), Datta, Monique (committee member), Robles, Darlene (committee member)

Creator Email jalberto@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-57167

Unique identifier UC11671941

Identifier etd-AlbertoJay-6668.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-57167 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-AlbertoJay-6668.pdf

Dmrecord 57167

Document Type Dissertation

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Rights Alberto, Jayzona Ann Labado

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Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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