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Digital literacy: teacher pedagogy and practices among upper elementary students with growing interest in social media

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Digital literacy: teacher pedagogy and practices among upper elementary students with growing interest in social media

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Digital Literacy: Teacher Pedagogy and Practices Among Upper Elementary Students
With Growing Interest in Social Media
By
Tamala T. Thompson

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

August 2022

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© Copyright by Tamala Tanesha Thompson
All Rights Reserved

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The Committee for Tamala Tanesha Thompson certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Briana Hinga
Jaqueline Williams
Ruth Chung, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022

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Abstract
This study aims to describe teacher capacity for digital literacy instruction based upon the
International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) standards. Using the ISTE standards
as a framework this descriptive study investigates teacher practices and pedagogy as it relates to
Digital Literacy Instruction (DLI) with social media engagement for upper elementary students.
The purpose of this study was to describe the teacher's understanding of their district’s social
media policy and feelings of support by leadership when using social media to engage students
during DLI. This study also explores teacher beliefs that may contribute to teacher work
motivation when using social media platforms as an instructional resource. The results of this
study yielded significant results in the area of social media use to engage students. Asian
Americans, males and teachers who reported teaching at a private or charter school were found
to use social media platforms more than other participants in the racial group, gender group and
school type group. Teachers with more years experience were found to have more district policy
awareness while teachers who spent more hours on social media and teachers who used social
media to network showed significant results in their use of the ISTE standards, district policy
awareness and use of social media as a resource in their instruction. Based upon this study the
implications for practice include, thorough professional development and training on district
responsible use policies, in depth exploration of the ISTE standards and greater collaboration
among public and private school institutions.

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Dedication
To my mother, Vanessa Adolph. The one who never lowered her expectations of me. The
one who has always believed, for me, the sky's the limit and that obstacles make the victory
sweeter.

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Acknowledgements
The doctoral process has taught me many things, but I was also pushed to prove I
possessed many characteristics passed on to me from the most meaningful women in my family.
From my grandmothers, mother, aunts, sisters and female cousins, I found out that I am resilient
because you have shown me resiliency. Hard work, dedication, discipline and being kind to
others while loving my authentic self, have all been things I have learned from each of you at
any given moment. Thank you for believing I am truly the person you often tell others about. To
my husband, Cedric, who has never once complained during this process. I came home one day
and simply said, “I was accepted to the USC doctoral program.” From that day on you have
made sacrifices for me to pursue this goal and I appreciate you.
To the friends I have made along the way on this journey, your encouragement, time,
expertise and shared experiences made the load lighter. Thank you, Lily Ross for all of the above
but most of all for at times, believing in me more than I may have believed in myself. You have
never lowered your expectations and have always known just what to say or just as important,
what not to say. I will be forever grateful for gaining you as a “person” in my life. Finally, to my
dissertation committee, Briana Hinga and Jaqueline Williams. Your time, expertise and feedback
have made me a better scholar. To Ruth Chung, thank you for never accepting any less than what
this world will require of me, and that is my absolute best. Your expectations and “gentle
nudges” have required me to challenge myself for the better. Thank you.

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Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Statement of the Problem ......................................................................................................... 3
Background of the Problem ..................................................................................................... 4
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................ 7
Theoretical Framework: Constructivist Theories of Learning ................................................ 7
Importance of the Study ......................................................................................................... 12
Definitions ............................................................................................................................. 13
Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................. 15
Social Media Influence and Benefits ..................................................................................... 15
Summary of Literature Review.............................................................................................. 30
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions ...................................................................... 31
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 33
Participants and Procedure .................................................................................................... 33
Instrument .............................................................................................................................. 34
Chapter Four: Results ................................................................................................................... 39
Preliminary Correlational Analysis ....................................................................................... 39
Analysis of Research Questions ............................................................................................ 40
Chapter Five: Discussion .............................................................................................................. 45

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Discussion of Main Findings ................................................................................................. 45
Implications for Practice ........................................................................................................ 51
Limitations of the Study ........................................................................................................ 53
Recommendations for Future Studies .................................................................................... 54
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 56
References ..................................................................................................................................... 58
Appendix A: Examining Teacher Practices for Digital Literacy .................................................. 67

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List of Tables
Table 1: Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Product Correlations for Measured
Variables 39
Table 2: Summary of One-Way ANOVAS Comparisons for Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and School
Type With the Use of Social Media Platforms for DLI 40
Table 3: Means and Standard Deviation for Use of Social Media Platforms for DLI by
Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and School Type 41
Table 4: Summary of Simple Regressions for the Use of ISTE Standards, Use of Social Media,
and District Policy Awareness With Using Social Media to Network 43
Table 5: Summary of Simple Regression for District Policy Awareness and Years
of Experience 43
Table 6: Summary of Simple Regression for Feelings of Support and Negative Feelings 43
Table 7: Summary of Multiple Regression With Hours Spent and Networking as a Predictor of
Overall Motivation 44

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List of Figures

Figure 1: Constructivist Theories of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky 11

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Chapter One: Overview of the Study
It would not be an overstatement to say that social media is an important part of teen life.
Teens are using a cell phone, personal computer or tablet to peruse social media, visit YouTube,
post on social media or read comments more than they engage in conversations with family or
doing homework (Common Sense Media, 2018). Over the last 20 years the number of minors
found to have a social media account has more than tripled. In a recent survey it was recorded
that 90% of teens ages 13-17 have used social media. Seventy-five percent report having at least
one active profile, and 51% report visiting a social media site at least daily. Two thirds of teens
have their own mobile devices with internet capabilities and on average, teens are online almost
nine hours a day, not including time for homework (Lenhart, 2015). These numbers have tripled
since 2015 and continue to skyrocket. Furthermore, early adolescents reported how they use
social media, it was found that 73.4% said they check their social media pages “all the time” or
“often,” and 71.7% reported they read postings on social media “all the time” or “often” (Len-
Ríos et al., 2016). Although the legal age for a social media account such as Instagram is age 13,
savvy pre-adolescents can easily bypass age requirements by simply having an email and
indicating they are 13 years or older.
The availability and popularity of technology among youth is evident in everyday
conversation and interaction with text messaging, smartphones, and social media sites creating
new ways for youth to communicate and interact with each other. Although less is known about
technology use among younger children, limited evidence indicates that younger children’s
access to and interaction with technology is on the rise (Common Sense Media 2013; Holloway
et al., 2013). For example, the number of children under the age of 9 accessing the internet has
increased considerably (Holloway et al., 2013) and the number of children accessing mobile

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devices has also increased with over 70% of children aged 8 and under using these devices for
media activities (Common Sense Media, 2013). In an annual report published by Ofcom, UK's
communications regulator they found that despite the fact most social networks do not allow
children under 13 to register, their poll of over 2,000 respondents revealed that 18 percent of
eight to 11-year-olds had a profile of their own (D. Young, 2014). What may be more alarming is
that less than one third of these parents report being aware of the legal age to have a social media
profile.
Social media is desirable to pre-teens for a number of reasons, but the primary attraction
is to interact with others, be in the know of the latest news or trends and finally, to simply do
what their friends are doing (DePaolis & Williford, 2018). This growing interest in digital
platforms has parents and educators equally concerned. The era of participation in digital
environments comes with a set of risks, leaving most parents and educators with no other option
but to refuse the access to openly communicate using on-line platforms. Parents and teachers at
all levels have concerns about sexual predators, cyberbullying and social media being a mere
distraction from at home and in school priorities (Sampasa-Kanyinga & Hamilton, 2015), but
what happens when children are engaging with social media no matter the level of permission or
possible risks. Not everyone will practice healthy on-line behaviors but Ben Smith and Jared
Mader, suggest teaching and modeling good digital citizenship for children is a start that can
bend the curve to many unhealthy social platform behaviors (Smith & Mader, 2016).
As parents and educators make a shift into the use of digital tools and a shift in teaching
using innovative strategies the foundation for this shift is set on the often ignored skill of digital
citizenship. Smith and Mader (2016) discuss the digital citizen goals where students recognize
the rights, responsibilities, and opportunities of living, learning, and working in an

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interconnected digital world, and they act and model in ways that are safe, legal, and ethical.
According to the International Standards for Technology Education, there are four ways students
can practice and show evidence of positive digital citizenship. Students can manage and protect
their digital identity, staying aware of their reputation and its permanence. Next students can also
exercise their rights and skills to maintain digital privacy and security. Students can act
responsibly by being safe, legal and ethical when using on-line platforms and to communicate
and finally demonstrate a level of respect and obligations for sharing property (ISTE, 2020).
Statement of the Problem
Students in the grade school psychosocial developmental stage are becoming more
committed to social media. There is a high level of student interest in social media and the digital
world, however there may be minimal instruction surrounding digital citizenship. While research
suggests there are ways to incorporate social media and digital citizenship into daily lessons,
teachers may not use this avenue as an instructional practice due to a lack in social media
contextual knowledge or a lack in work motivation to use social media (Baek & Sung, 2020).
Through quantitative research this study aims to investigate what methodologies are used by
educators.
The digital world is imperfect but student engagement surrounding these social media
outlets are high, yet research explains teachers disengage from or prohibit social media practices
in the classroom. Teacher direct instruction of digital literacy may include student independent
practice, however this practice is out of the context of social media where many inappropriate
behaviors occur. By taking a hands off approach to social media engagement educators may be
rejecting accountability for potential problems inside and outside of educational settings. In
addition, teacher training does not support the growing need for social media engagement to

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foster positive student collaboration and branding. Students are left to make decisions about on-
line behaviors after little to no formal instruction, leaving them vulnerable to unfair
consequences. These behaviors with consequences begin at the start of middle school, therefore
educational stakeholders must consider digital citizenship instruction with social media
integration as early as elementary school. This practice will create a culture of prevention not an
unstable system of intervention as students progress through middle school years. The intended
goal of this descriptive study is to investigate teacher practices in place for digital literacy, if and
how teachers use social media and based on the growing need of digital literacy what can be
done to support educators with pedagogical knowledge for successful digital citizenship.
Background of the Problem
In 2004 when Facebook launched it was an innovative time with the start of an exciting
way to meet, stay in touch and find friends. It also served as a place to express thoughts and take
a look into the lives of others with no serious consequences, or so people thought. As Facebook
became more popular and other social networks became available some measures of security
became increasingly important. Facebook and those alike claim to maintain security features
such as login alerts, two factor authentication and security features in account user settings (Zhou
et al., 2020). This is in addition to setting legal age requirements, the results, no matter the
security features remain the same, children under the age of 13 still manage to start an account.
Some of those users with parents who either help start the page or allow the page. Even when
parents and children are not knowledgeable regarding the possible risks and consequences,
teachers have found themselves faced with the task of nurturing positive healthy digital citizens.
As the world of education continues to evolve, so does access to on-line platforms. As school
districts recognize the need for teachers to be technologically literate, they are also challenged

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with proper ways to educate and train teachers on the best ways to remain safe and ethical.
Teachers often participate in professional developments and training that do not adequately
prepare them for successful ways to integrate digital literacy into their curriculum (Visser et al.,
2014). Because teachers do not feel efficacious in their ability to engage students properly, they
often leave modeling digital behaviors to parents or students are forced to self-guide themselves
through access and appropriate behaviors.
When parents nor educators are diligently assuring the instruction of appropriate on-line
behaviors, children still engage in their interest. For pre-teens, this interest includes social media
at a time when communicating with peers and peer interactions are prevalent in their social lives.
Unfortunately, these peers may be modeling the wrong behaviors. Research says that children
who begin to have inappropriate on-line behavior learn those behaviors from friends and are
being allowed to explore their interest with permission to have a lot of screen time in comparison
to those whose screen time is limited (Fardouly et al., 2018). These inappropriate behaviors often
begin when children begin in middle school. Many pre-teens get their first cell phone with
unlimited data, hince the liberty to independently explore social media pages, follow other users
around the world and communicate with just about anyone. Once pre-teens have gained
experience with social networking sites it is a large assumption that they are engaging in age
appropriate, ethical and safe behaviors (Ferrara et al., 2018).
This is far from the truth. While most teens are using social networking sites to talk and
interact with friends, many teens and pre-teens have been found to commit some form of
cyberbullying and begin to develop unhealthy mental habits, such as identity comparison and
aggression (Sampasa-Kanyinga & Hamilton, 2015). The consequences for this inappropriate
behavior are way too high for students who have not been provided the foundation for fit

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behaviors. Students have had technology confiscated, they have been suspended and or recieved
detention for on-line infractions when the assumption is that technology in the hands of pre-teens
and teens comes with digital literacy and digital citizenship.
Although the International Standards for Technology Education (ISTE) for teachers have
been adopted by states all over the U.S. the specific problem with the standards is that these
standards do not include practices that include social media. Teachers who are committed to
teaching digital literacy use a number of digital literacy curriculums, but rarely do those curricula
call for students to engage in social media (Gleason & Von Gillern, 2018). This is a problem
because many inappropriate behaviors happen on social networking sites, yet the resources used
to teach digital literacy do not include practical platforms used by students. If the expectation is
for students to practice digital citizenship on-line then students should be practicing using those
same on-line platforms in familiar digital environments. Popular on-line platforms are blocked
by district firewalls yet students decide to use their own devices or visit these sites.
Unfortunately, this action contradicts student engagement through interest and support. When
teachers are battling for student attention, one idea might be to figure out how to have fewer
battles. Incorporating social media into instruction might be a way. Banning the use of social
media in the classroom is not protecting them today so much as handicapping them tomorrow
(Hagler, 2013).
The ISTE (2020) standards are composed of three areas that include standards for
students, teachers, and educational leaders. The ISTE standards claim to be a framework for
innovation in education. These standards are meant to help educators prepare learners to thrive in
work and life. With rapid movement in the tech industry, it is important for educators to embrace
a strong learning culture through technology and provide instruction that supports rapid change

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and innovation. It is this type of forward thinking that makes up the fourteen essential conditions
of the ISTE standards. These conditions are used to leverage technology for learning. In addition
to being a curriculum framework and student centered, the conditions include a shared vision,
technical support, equitable access and ongoing professional learning to name a few. By keeping
these conditions a part of the foundations, ISTE claims that along with their standards, students
will be ready to compete in a digital world.
Purpose of the Study
This study aims to describe teacher capacity for digital literacy instruction based upon the
ISTE standards. Using the ISTE standards as a framework this descriptive study investigates
teacher practices and pedagogy as it relates to digital literacy instruction (DLI) with social media
engagement for upper elementary students. The purpose of this study is to describe the teacher's
understanding of their district’s social media policy and feelings of support by leadership when
using social media to engage students during DLI. This study will also explore teacher beliefs
that may contribute to teacher work motivation when using social media platforms as an
instructional resource. One goal is to generate implications that inform school districts' plans for
training and professional developments in support of teachers’ DLI . In addition, this study will
provide implications for curriculum experts whose practice and research informs the authorship
of resources meant to include pedagogy for student engagement.
Theoretical Framework: Constructivist Theories of Learning
Perhaps one of the best aspects of social media is the power it has to bring people
together socially. Constructivists agree that social media helps researchers examine and then
explain some of the social complexities in education (Poore, 2016). At the premise of
constructivist theories students create their own learning through experience. According to

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theorists Dewey (1897, 1938), Piaget (1973), and Vygotsky (1978), the greatest way to
accomplish learning is within a social context through an active and constructive process. The
following constructivist theories of learning are phenomenological theories that aid in the
exploration of DLI and the use of social media.
John Dewey and David Kolb on Experiential Learning Theory
Simply put, experiential learning is categorized as learning by doing. In his theory of
learning John Dewey (1897) proclaimed that “Education must be conceived as a continuing
reconstruction of experience… the process and goal of education are one and the same thing”
(p. 79) John Dewey laid most of the groundwork and believed in a strong tie of importance
between learning and experience, however it was not until 1975 that David Kolb became creator
of Experimental theory. According to Kolb (1984) this process of learning is a cycle that
includes concrete experiences, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active
experimentation (Kolb et al., 1999).
Using this theory to support teacher training in the use of social media during DLI, first
learners have concrete experiences (CEs) by either doing or having had concrete experiences.
During professional developments, stakeholders should ensure teachers are exposed to social
media platforms to gain these concrete experiences. This will allow teachers to begin learning by
first becoming a practitioner. The next step in the Experiential Learning Cycle is reflective
observation (RO). Here teachers as learners are given the opportunity to review or think about
their experience(s), and engage in abstract conceptualization (AC), where they formulate ideas
related to the experience (Bohon et al., 2017). Finally, in active experimentation (AE) teachers
as learners get the opportunity to plan and practice what they have learned. This cycle happens
amongst other peers in training and ultimately in a classroom setting with students.

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Jean Piaget and Cognitive Constructivism
Piaget's main focus of constructivism investigates how an individual constructs
knowledge. Piaget’s work on cognitive constructivism came directly from his theory of cognitive
development. This theory states that humans cannot be given information, and be expected to
understand it immediately, on the contrary learners must construct their own new learning
(Kalina & Powell, 2009). The cognitive constructivist theory of Jean Piaget is grounded in the
concept of creating social, interactive microworlds or communities. As educators help create
these microworlds or communities they also create a space that helps students build on existing
schemas (Bada & Olusegun, 2015).
Students enter the classroom with knowledge that social media exists, however they may
not be aware of the benefits and consequences. Students also enter the classroom with
knowledge of general citizenship and digital resources. Using social media in the classroom
while teaching digital literacy will allow students to build on current schemas that currently exist
for appropriate and inappropriate behavior. As students begin to categorize new information in to
current schemas, they also experience assimilation as a building block for how they organize
new learning. This pedagogy is recognized by teachers as activating prior knowledge. Educators
build on prior knowledge by asking questions, taking inventory or by giving pre-assessments.
Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism
Through constructivism learning happens in the mind but not without collaboration.
Collaboration allows learners to interlink prior knowledge, experience and critical thinking to
add to a current schema. Constructivist approaches to teaching and learning is the learning active
participation in the building of his or her own knowledge (Poore, 2016). Lev Vygotsky contends
that learning happens through problem solving and that learners arrive at solutions through social

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construction creating the basis of the learning process. Vygotsky described the learning process
as the establishment of a zone of proximal development in which the teacher, the learner, and a
problem to be solved exist (Bada & Olusegun, 2015). The teacher provides a social environment
in which the learner can assemble or construct with others the knowledge necessary to solve the
problem. Teachers can use social constructivism practices by engaging students in active
learning, discovery learning and peer learning.
Active Learning. Active learning as first defined by Bonwell and Eison (1991) in their
work “Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom” students are required to actively
participate in learning activities with their teacher during in person instructional time. Active
learning should not be confused with busy work, such as worksheets that do not enhance
intellectual thinking (Poore, 2016). By using social media in the classroom during DLI students
are immersed in learning environments that favor creativity and expression. Students are
involved in learning by doing for example, in podcasts where students have to interact but also
plan a show or in WhatsApp where learners exchange images, videos, and audio or written
messages (Dahdal, 2020.)
Discovery Learning. Discovery learning is a method that stimulates students to engage
in a process of learning based upon their own problem solving and observations (Hendri et al.,
2019). Discovery learning also allows the learning to present subject matter after he or she has
gained knowledge through investigation. Constructivists can engage in discovery learning in the
use of social media. Social media enables problem solving, learner centered activities that
encourage new knowledge and yet build on the old (Poore, 2016).
Peer Learning. In peer learning students work together to share and produce. Peer
learning from a constructivist approach to education places students at the core of joint activities

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in collaborative environments. In that environment students build on their own knowledge and
contribute to the learning of their peers through discussion and sharing (Poore, 2016). As
teachers implement DLI, integrating social media can enhance positive collaboration and
cooperation. Students can photoshare, create hashtags for themes, or participate in peer
educational gaming (Margerison, 2013).
According to constructivist theories students create their own learning through
experience. According to theorists Dewey (1897, 1938), Piaget (1973), and Vygotsky (1978),
learning occurs within a social context and an active constructive process. These theories are at
work when teachers and students confidently take advantage of opportunities to implement social
media in digital literacy. These theories also help support the idea of collaboration. This study
attempts to describe how a teacher’s practice, collaboration and independent exploration can
ultimately contribute to increased learning in the area of digital literacy for students.
Figure 1
Constructivist Theories of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky

Note. Reprinted from “Constructivism: A Paradigm for Teaching and Learning,” by J. Golder,
2018, International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews, p. 680. Copyright 2018 by the
author. Reprinted with permission

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Importance of the Study
As educators one should always be looking for ways to engage students in learning,
however educators who aim to teach digital literacy without engaging social media are doing a
disservice to students by limiting creativity, collaboration, problem solving and critical thinking.
In addition, any teacher who uses technology with students should be incorporating elements of
digital citizenship. Digital citizenship should be taught consistently at school and at home. At
school, students should be taught how to become digitally literate, maintain privacy and security,
safeguard personal information, and discuss cyberbullying. Digital citizenship skills are essential
to ensure students’ safety and protection. While kids today may have no problem navigating the
web, they are less likely to know how to vet sources, understand the sensitivity of the
information they're sharing and take in the gravity of conversations they're having online. It's up
to teachers to reinforce these concepts.
Teaching students to become digital citizens requires a variety of strategies and skills,
such as critical thinking, questioning information, communication and collaboration with others
in a digital space. Students who are digitally literate are also better suited to use digital tools to
create and share information. If teachers are not constantly reinforcing the importance of digital
literacy through instruction the probability of inappropriate student behaviors will continue from
middle school, to high school and even into higher education. Misuse of digital platforms may
lead to long term consequences.
School districts must consider teacher training that encourages DLI that better prepares
students to globally collaborate and brand themselves in the field of on-line practices with
unwavering risks. This study is important because it will describe teacher practices with the
intention to inform stakeholders about the training needs of educators. In an effort to make

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teachers feel confident in their ability to teach digital citizenship while using social media this
study aims to describe barriers that might prohibit the use of social media and decrease DLI
efforts. In addition, this study is important because it is imperative for school districts to consider
a teacher’s personal experience and his or her individual teacher level to scaffold professional
developments. This study is important to educational practice because DLI and the use of student
engagement serves as a successful pedagogical practice, yet digital divides exist between those
who participate in technology training and those who do not. As the use of digital platforms
continues to grow it is imperative that teachers are knowledgeable and feel supported in their
efforts to grow with the field of social media. Leaders need to understand their support matters
when teachers attempt to engage in unprecedented instruction. Finally, this study will add to
research intended to educate on the benefits of digital literacy but more importantly the
consequences derived from a lack of DLI.
Definitions
• Acceptable Use Policy (AUP) is a document stipulating constraints and practices that
a user must agree to for access to a corporate network or the Internet.
• Digital Citizenship is the quality of habits, actions, and consumption patterns that
impact the ecology of digital content and communities (Heick, 2018).
• DLI refers to Digital Literacy Instruction.
• Digital Literacy means having the skills one needs to live, learn, and work in a
society where communication and access to information is increasingly through
digital technologies like internet platforms, social media, and mobile devices.

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• Peer victimization refers to repeated exposure to aggressive acts over time that is
intended to cause physical harm, psychological distress, or humiliation (Olweus,
1995).

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Chapter Two: Literature Review
With a growing number of students who engage in social media prior to middle school,
students in elementary school may be at risk of learning inappropriate on-line behaviors from
peers or independently. It is important that educators consider the impact of DLI in an effort to
decrease ill suited behaviors among elementary peers across the globe. The purpose of this
descriptive study is to describe possible barriers for instruction in digital literacy using social
media as an integral part of the digital literacy curriculum. This descriptive quantitative study
describes teacher knowledge and practices in an elementary school setting under the ISTE
standards for teachers. Through quantitative methods this study will also attempt to explain how
personal experiences with social media, and district support may assist in the increase or
decrease of teacher work motivation to consider using social media during DLI.
The following literature review investigates the benefits and consequences of social
media influence, district systems in place for technology integration, district policy and approved
platforms, common practices used by teachers when teaching digital literacy skills and teacher
personal experience with social media. The leading research in the aforementioned areas are
presented in this chapter to understand literature that contributes to the purpose of this study and
make associations to the need for digital literacy. In the conclusion of this chapter, research
questions are presented along with hypotheses where appropriate. This chapter attempts to
provide a review of literature to help decipher the need for specific additional research.
Social Media Influence and Benefits
A plethora of research exists regarding the influence of social media. Some research
suggests social media platforms are at the forefront of major ways to communicate, create a
space for group collaboration and encourage creativity (Hagler, 2013). Greenhow and Lewin

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(2015) agree, stating that social media helps to enable users to create and participate in various
communities through functions such as sharing, publishing, managing, and interacting. On the
other end of the spectrum much of the research suggests that time spent on social media can
majorly influence one's perception of their body image, has increased an individual's chances of
being at risk for cyberbullying or victimization, and are more likely to experience depression and
aggression. In an effort to increase the benefits of social media yet decrease the negative impacts
of social media the call for DLI in schools is apparent (Gleason & Von Gillern, 2018)
Benefits of Social Media
In a study conducted by Qayyum et al. (2016), it was found that students who use social
media to complete classwork and homework had improved grades when compared to non-users.
Social media also enhanced memorization of information for a longer period of time in
comparison to non-users. Although on-line platforms are used to gain information with a chance
of exposure to fake news, students are found to want to participate in, rather than simply
consume media. Social media has been noted to contribute to positive learning communities that
encourage critical thinking and spark creativity. In a study executed by Greenhow et al. (2015),
in the U.S., co-construction of knowledge was encouraged through publication of articles, which
sparked constructive debate about socio-scientific issues and subsequent community interaction.
In addition, virtual communities offer spaces that encourage a sense of belonging, craft identity
and response to stimuli (Margerison, 2013).
Despite common beliefs, the benefits of social media don’t just lie within academic
constraints. Research also supports positive social emotional development. Both Kosic (2018)
and Rajamohan et al. (2019) argue that prolonged exposure to social media may have a positive
impact on adolescent cognitive and affective empathy. The use of social media increases

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empathy over time and adolescents’ use of social media increases their aptitude to appreciate
feelings of others. Social-emotional literacy, can promote understanding of self-feelings and
those of others who influence the relationship, and the ability of learners to live in peace with
other members of the society through self-regulation and peaceful conflict resolution (Kosic,
2018). Although the negative effects of social media tend to get more attention, it is important to
consider the positive effects and uses to encourage a healthy relationship between adolescents
and social media (Rajamohan et al., 2019).
Branding Through Social Media
Children and preteens are being born into a digital environment. This environment is
often an extension of themselves, using technology to express themselves and showcase
themselves. Children get in touch with brands when they want to get involved and contribute and
YouTube is a prime space to do so. Videos are often product reviews, challenges or how to
videos and require low editing skills. Although children with a YouTube channel tend to listen to
the opinion of their followers, this partnership model increases followers and oftentimes results
in free items from the channel creator (Tur-Viñes et al., 2018).
Social media presents a ready platform to showcase talent and build brands of value.
According to a recent study by Deloitte India, called “Unraveling the Indian Consumer,” 28% of
millennials purchase products due to social media recommendations and 63% of them stay
updated on brands through platforms such as Instagram and Facebook. This gives social media
influencers a chance to monetize the craft (Poore, 2016). Making money and receiving free items
also gives children and teens a boost of confidence and increases financial responsibility.
Whether the benefit is monetary, collaborating, exercising critical thinking or simply making
more friends, full participation in society demands proficiency in digital media. The ability to

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produce, collaborate, share, and critique using current emerging technology and on-line
platforms is becoming increasingly popular among pre-teens and teens (Gleason & Von Gillern,
2018).
Risk and Consequences of Social Media Engagement
While the advantages of social media engagement may include critical skills in a digital
world, the risk and consequences of inappropriate behaviors or practices could result in a number
of mental health issues. Numerous studies support claims that engaging in social media can
increase the likelihood of negative self-perception, aggression, anxiety, and depression (Woods
& Scott, 2016). Peer relationships become more prominent during preadolescence and social
media provides a place to interact with peers. Those at the preadolescent stage often look to
peers to determine what is normal or desirable (Fardouly et al., 2018).
In articles written by Fardouly et al. (2018) and de Vries et al. (2018) both contend
adolescents personalize what they see on social media accounts and compare themselves to these
ideas. Both agree that social media users, when browsing may look at the number of followers or
attention others are getting and deem those peers better or more popular. This could lead to
negative body image and mood (de Vries et al., 2018; Fardouly et al., 2018). In a longitudinal
study performed by de Vries et al., the more adolescents used social networking sites the more
they were dissatisfied with their body image.
In another study of six focus groups by Burnette et al. (2017), pre-teens girls displayed
high media literacy but also reported high parental influence and a supportive school
environment. Reporting that these support systems allowed for appreciation of differences,
confidence, and coping skill that could help mitigate potential thoughts of negative body image.
McClean et al. (2019) agree in the article, “How Do ‘Selfies’ Impact Adolescents’ Well-Being

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and Body Confidence? A Narrative Review,” stating that selfie posting activates internalized
behaviors that place standards on appearance, leading to self-comparison.
Cyberbullying and Social Victimization
As mentioned previously, adolescents is a stage when the opinion of peers becomes more
prominent. Although most peer-to-peer interaction may not be harmful, all people no matter the
age, are subject to cyberbullying. Tokunaga who is the owner of a website dedicated to
combating bullying defined the phenomenon as “any behavior performed through electronic or
digital media by individuals or groups that repeatedly communicates hostile or aggressive
messages intended to inflict harm or discomfort on others” (Ferrara et al., 2018, p. 2 ).
Digital features that make on-line communication so desirable for children and
adolescents may also set the stage for these platforms to be a source of great pain and distress
Underwood and Ehrenreich (2017) found that cyber victimization was associated with several
risk factors, including traditional victimization, traditional bullying, age, frequency of Internet
use, and risky online behavior. In line with their findings Sampasa-Kanyinga and Hamilton
(2015) found that there is a mediating role of cyberbullying victimization on the link between the
use of social networking and the risk of psychological distress, suicidal ideation and suicide
attempts. However, the extent to which cyberbullying victimization serves as a mediator varies
for different mental health problems.
Emerging Mental Health Concerns at the Hands of Social Media
Social media helps early adolescents perpetuate social relationships but frequent social
media usage potentially puts students at risk for online aggression and mental depression. A
young person who is victimized online may develop poor self-esteem and depressive symptoms.
These mental health risks can disrupt success in school and normal family life (R. Young et al.,

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2017). According to an article titled “Pathways from Cyberbullying Victimization to Negative
Health Outcomes among Elementary School Students: A Longitudinal Investigation” by
DePaolis and Williford (2019), longitudinal research involving younger children is needed to
identify pathways from cyberbullying victimization to negative developmental outcomes to
understand the longer term impact of this victimization and inform the development of targeted
prevention and intervention strategies.
This Longitudinal Investigation was performed to examine the change in cyberbullying
victimization over time and how this change may contribute to later social, emotional, and
academic outcomes among a sample of elementary school children. First, the results from this
investigation revealed that cyberbullying victimization reported by participants were
significantly different from zero (DePaolis & Williford, 2018). The results also suggested that a
considerable number of participants who reported some victimization, were consistent, indicating
that elementary school-aged students are exposed to cyberbullying victimization.
Social Media and Demographic Findings
With the increasing diversity in the U.S. population, along with the decline in the gaps
regarding technology and internet among white and ethnic minority adolescents, another
important direction in this research is to investigate ethnicity differences in the psychological
consequences of cyber victimization. Including ethnicity as a moderator in the associations
among psychological consequences (i.e., depression, anxiety, loneliness), cyber victimization,
and school-belongingness is important as minority adolescents generally report lower school-
belongingness (Wright & Wachs, 2019). Additionally, suburban schools and schools who are
more diverse tend to reinforce the importance of digital citizenship competencies. These results

21
have implications for education policies around supporting digital citizenship competencies
starting early in formal schooling (Lauricella et al., 2020).
With current research indicating serious implications for social media used, it comes as
no surprise that digital literacy is needed. Digital instruction is needed to increase the likelihood
of greater academic achievement and help maintain mental well-being. Much of the research
places the responsibility of digital literacy on parents and subsequently peers, but there is very
little research on the role of an obligation teacher’s play in providing DLI. After all, in many
cases a child spends more awake time with a teacher than with his or her parents, therefore if
students are found to voluntarily participate in on-line platforms during school hours and at home
then teachers must use instructional time to teach digital literacy.
School District Systems in Place for Technology Integration
Educators and educational stakeholders recognize the importance of a technology
instructional framework. Over the past 20 years the use of technology has emerged as one of the
greatest growing needs. In order to meet student needs in English and Math, for example, there
are Common Core State Standards for what students should be learning. Forty-seven states have
adopted the Common Core Standards for, however all states and many countries have adopted
the International Society for Technology in Education standards, also known as the ISTE
Standards.
The ISTE (2020) standards for teachers are a set of standards that make up a framework
for how teachers should plan to integrate technology into their instruction. Stakeholders maintain
that the ISTE standards are research-based standards that are educationally appropriate and
intended for teachers to use as a guide. The standards provided by the ISTE outline those aspects
of technology integration that are vital for success in producing teachers who are technology-

22
literate and effective. Institutions have used the ISTE standards to begin to form teacher
education programs through the integration of technology in teacher education (Bucci et al.,
2003). ISTE is committed to promoting appropriate uses of technology to support and improve
learning, teaching, and administration through its National Educational Technology Standards.
Aktay (2009) performed a survey designed study with questions generated from the ISTE
standards to help determine the teacher qualifications to use technology based on these standards.
Participants in the study were elementary school teachers who answered questions regarding,
internet use frequency and having a personal computer with confidence levels in areas such as,
promoting digital etiquette and responsible social interactions related to the use of technology
and information and collaborating with peers using digital tools and resources to support student
success and innovation. The results indicated that approximately more than 70% of prospective
primary school teachers feel qualified enough on most of the standards. However, some of the
prospective primary school teachers don’t feel qualified enough on some issues like participating
in local and global communities to explore creative applications of technology, collaborating
with community members and parents using digital tools, and modeling collaborative studies by
engaging students, colleagues and others.
Currently, no single definition is agreed by all scholars and practitioners on what it means
for teachers to be technologically competent (Kimm et al., 2020), however much like Aktay,
Kimm et al. (2020) created a survey based on the 2017 ISTE standards for educators with seven
sub-categories and twenty-four performance indicators. This survey was created to measure pre-
teacher perceived competence. The results indicated that these pre-service teachers perceived
low self-efficacy and were not proficient in their ability to implement instructional technology
practices. In comparison, pre-service teachers and teachers currently practicing in the field of

23
education do not feel knowledgeable enough to effectively teach according to the ISTE
standards.
Acceptable and Responsible Use Policies
Another national system in place for technology integration is the agreement of teachers
and students to follow commitments set in acceptable and responsible use policies. Unlike the
ISTE standards that are used on a national level, there is no one set acceptable and or responsible
use policy for educators. Students posting or sharing inappropriate pictures online or engaging in
instances of cyberbullying are two common situations that school leaders must address and
recently more often. To address those concerns, school stakeholders implement acceptable use
policies (AUPs) and or responsible use policies (RUPs) as a tool to guide the ways that students
(and teachers) use the Internet and digital technologies (Sauers & Richardson, 2019). Although
many acceptable and responsible use policies may communicate the same message, individual
school districts are left to create their own.
In an analysis of acceptable use policy, Flowers and Rakes (2000), equal access,
censorship, and freedom of information were identified as important to educators; however, these
issues were not often addressed in the AUPs examined in this study. The findings clearly
suggested that many K-12 schools were using AUPs but these policies did not meet the needs of
teachers adequately. Participants responded to questions such as, Who developed the policy?
with: committee, one person, school board, or other as the optional answers. In addition, when
participants were asked about the position of the committee members. The content analysis of 24
AUPs revealed that most of the policies were developed by personnel at the district level. Of the
24 AUPs examined, two were developed at the state educational network level, eight were
developed at the individual school level, and 14 were developed by personnel at the district level.

24
Many communities are implementing policies that guide student, teacher, and staff use of
technological resources to limit liability and restrict access to those resources that are deemed
appropriate for educational use, however when school districts have the liberty to create their
own acceptable use policies, policies often become ambiguous. In the Flowers and Rakes (2000)
study mentioned previously, two school districts grant permission to use social media in advance
of teachers using it but both districts claim that staff members are not allowed to access any
social media from the district’s network. Many teachers are left with inconsistent guidelines to
follow leaving teachers to wonder what is permitted or prohibited.
Approved Digital Platforms
Educational stakeholders realize the importance of engaging students in a growing digital
world. Understanding the benefits yet figuring out how to safely engage students with digital
platforms has caused school districts to implement the use of learning management systems,
digital programs, and educator created applications on educational platforms. Most school
districts have software that filters inappropriate words and blocks websites. This has become
standard since the Children's Internet Protection Act. Many safety policies are enacted by district
software and district firewalls but with 1:1 programs teachers are becoming more responsible for
teaching students about digital citizenship. Teachers and administrators are still concerned about
chat rooms, and social media postings (Miller, 2016). While firewalls may exist on school
grounds, when students are allowed to take devices home teachers are finding that students use
devices to download games and other applications. Permission to download on a school issued
device is hit or miss. Many students have games on their devices that are not district approved
but also are not necessarily restricted by the district.

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Many teachers are asking if applications are secure and filtered. In most cases the answer
is yes, however it is filtered while on the school campus. Once students leave it is impossible for
school districts to ensure apps or websites fall under CIPA guidelines (Miller, 2016). When
internet connection is made from home or even a local Starbucks, students encounter filtering
capabilities that are much less secure than the school network.
Based upon the research it is widely known that social media is a large influencer to
students of all ages. While research seems to claim collaboration is a major benefit of social
media, social media can also support increased creativity (Hagler, 2013). Social media may
enable a learner to learn outside of the everyday classroom to create and gain problem solving
insight from multiple communities, while managing their own learning (Greenhow & Lewin,
2015). Contrary to the aforementioned benefits, research also suggests that the number of hours
spent on social media can impact one’s own body image, promote cyberbullying and
victimization. The number of hours spent on social media can also increase the likelihood of
depression and aggression. Educational leaders and teachers must make the effort to increase the
benefits of social media and promote digital citizenship as a means to decrease the negative
behaviors (Gleason & Von Gillern, 2018)
Teacher Training and Professional Developments
Each year teachers will likely participate in professional development and training. These
trainings range across the board from reading, math and science to art, P.E. social emotional
learning (SEL), and technology. Teacher training on technology is too broad and unless digital
literacy is specifically addressed, teachers may continue to be reluctant in their use of social
media to teach digital literacy. Although, recent scholarship suggests school districts leverage the
use of social media by training teachers how to safely integrate digital citizenship, research

26
surrounding policies and training that govern teachers’ use of social media is limited (Rodesiler,
2017). In fact, many teachers have taken a self-directed teacher professional development
approach. When researchers study the independent professional growth of teachers many have
found teachers learn through blogging that supports reflective practice (Rosenberg et al., 2016).
Focusing on how and why teachers use Twitter, Carpenter and Krutka (2015) found that teachers
sought their own version of professional development from crowdsourcing ideas, seeking
resources, and forming connections with other educators. This however does little to encourage
or train teachers on their own instruction of digital citizenship and ways to incorporate social
media.
In both a European project and a study in China, results showed teacher professional
development on digital media and literacy was similar. While media and digital literacy are
defined as key competences for teachers today, it was revealed that after professional
developments teachers have low levels of digital skills and their training on digital education
fails to meet the needs of students and a growing digital world. Ranieria et al. (2017) report on
the results of E-Media Training Lab. Training scenarios for in-service teachers, which were
experimented in different types of organizations, from university to private association.
Participants included 81 teachers from Belgium, Finland, France, England, Italy and Portugal
and aimed to address research questions such as, What are the main successful and/or
challenging aspects of training in-service teachers about media and digital literacy, and is a
blended modality of delivery of training courses on media and digital literacy education
sustainable for in-service teachers training? Napal Fraile et al. (2018) analyzed the DIGCOMP
project. Forty-three secondary school teachers in initial training assessed their own level of

27
competence in 21 sub competence in five areas. Overall, pre-service teachers’ conceptions about
their level of digital competence was low.
Teacher Practices When Teaching Digital Citizenship
As technology access and use increases in early childhood classrooms and at home, there
is an increased need to support students’ understanding of how to be safe, responsible, and
cooperative digital media users. Not until recently have school districts emphasized the
importance of digital citizenship. Teaching digital citizenship competencies in elementary school
can vary based on factors such as demographics of the students and the amount of educator
experience but as teachers begin to teach digital citizenship as early as kindergarten not all
competencies are taught equally (Lauricella et al., 2020).
Lauricella et al. (2020) state that in their study of 585 K-5 teachers, these participants
were asked what curricula and or resources they used to support students' development of digital
citizenship competencies in their classroom with the option to select ten different options
including, I don't use digital citizenship curricula or resources in my classroom. If teachers
reported that they used a digital citizenship curriculum, they were asked about which of six
digital citizenship competencies they taught and were allowed to select all that applied.
Teachers reported that they taught digital citizenship during early elementary school
grades. Three-quarters of 3-5 teachers and 60% of K-2 teachers reported that they taught digital
citizenship in their classroom. The majority of K-2 teachers (62%) and 3–5 teachers (69%)
reported using some sort of digital citizenship curricula in their classroom (Lauricella et al.,
2020).
While it is true most of the literature indicates teachers are using some form of digital
citizenship curriculum, educators should ensure to include ongoing feedback to the students and

28
integrate digital citizenship throughout other curricular areas. Teachers should also make an
effort to use real world experience and integrate approved platforms such as Skype, Zoom and
Padlet when appropriate (D. Young, 2014).
Effective Pedagogy
There are multiple ways for educators to help students develop their abilities to
effectively engage in digital communication through in class activities that bridge students’
learning and out of school experiences. Researchers consistently maintain three notable ways for
these learning experiences to unfold. One way to bridge in school instruction with outside
experiences is by allowing students to create digital research projects such as PSA
announcements. Creative projects such as this allows the student to grow more knowledgeable
about their interest while raising awareness about issues in their own community and broader
communities through social media. The second strategies used by experts is the idea of students
using their abilities to investigate issues, prepare arguments, and connect with publicly elected
officials. This strategy invites students to create powerful persuasive media and participate in
political processes and connect personal commitments and interests to systems, cultures, and
histories. Third, it is found through empirical data that teenage Twitter helps in the development
of digital citizenship practices. Communication skills are enhanced through practice while
allowing students to consider their influence over their communities (Doster, 2013; Gleason &
Von Gillern, 2018; Hagler, 2013).
In a best practice guide by Poore (2016), she shares the pedagogy behind the educational
benefits of blogs, wikis, social media and podcasting. Blogs are a good way to solicit critique
and reflection from students. Students enjoy blogs because there is constant posting being added
and commented on. Blogs also give teachers a look at how their students develop their thinking

29
over time. Wikis are used because it forces students to collaborate and have ongoing cooperative
efforts in a community of learners. Wikis and blogging lend themselves to a social constructivist
approach while encouraging high-level cognitive engagement. Third, Poore shares how social
networking has educational benefits. Social networking fosters connections, communication and
sharing. Although Poore suggests social networking is best used for class projects the benefits
come from interacting as a group not as an individual. Students experience peer learning, and
create a community where they can share useful information by posting videos, reflecting and
negotiating. Finally, Poore suggested using the power of podcasts. As with the other strategies
presented previously, podcasts encourage collaboration, peer learning and challenge students to
work together if there are technological hitches.
Leadership Support
As noted previously, the social media policies analyzed in a study by Rodesiler (2017)
established what educators are prohibited from doing with social media, however, those social
media policies also consistently supported staff members’ educational use of social media.
School districts provided support in various ways. Some provided a process and policy for seeing
approval to use social media while others provided a process to communicate with parents via
social media.
An article written by Schachter (2013) found that teachers were allowed to use social
media to communicate with teachers as well but found that teachers need district policies just as
much as the students. Teachers are found to text students or post things via social media that
teachers consider private. Many teachers are allowed to use social media via the official school-
based accounts to communicate with parents as long as they received previous permission from a
supervisor. In the Rodesiler (2016) study approval could be obtained from more than one type of

30
administrator. Most teachers claimed the person to approve the use of social media could be the
superintendent or technology director but, in most cases, approval came from the administrator
or principal. No matter who was approving the use of social media, teachers were still required to
obtain permission to post or use it personally.
Summary of Literature Review
An overview of the literature as it relates to the purpose of this study was shared in this
chapter. Researchers are split on whether DLI should include social media engagement. While
many researchers agree there are benefits to engaging students in their interest, many contend
that the integration of technology is too risky. While students can benefit from social networking
they also can be subjected to unsafe digital environments. A strong plethora of research states
that collaboration, peer interaction, and critical thinking are all major benefits of social
networking. Although parents and educators are aware of the potential benefits, they are also
hindering the potential risk. In an attempt to gain experience in the benefits yet be cautious of the
risks the need for digital citizenship is key. Digital citizenship should be incorporated along with
social media as a way for educators to begin taking preventative measures amongst elementary
school students. Research repeatedly indicates long term use with social media can elicit
cyberbullying, and make students vulnerable to victimization and long-term health mental risk
such as depression and aggression for pre-teens and teens. In addition, when we consider digital
citizenship and appropriate social media practice, the digital divide cannot be ignored. People of
color and those with low socioeconomic status are more at risk for unhealthy mental habits.
A deep look into the research provides insight to the importance of digital literacy, and
the needs for practice in the classroom. The research review here also provides a look into what
school districts and teachers are doing to facilitate positive behaviors inside and outside of the

31
classroom. Although the ISTE standards are used across the country and internationally, it was
discovered that these standards do not integrate the use of social platforms as a commitment,
therefore accountability is lost. Most teachers, parents and students are aware of AUP and or
RUPs put into place at school districts across the nation, however when the agenda for teaching
professional development does not meet the growing needs of our students the standards become
less powerful. Many teachers report the use of Twitter, to engage in a form of professional
development and have chosen to train themselves through exploration and feedback from other
educators. Those who do practice DLI report such practices as using a curriculum specifically
designed for digital literacy, but experts claim that although digital citizenship can be taught
using a curriculum, it is more beneficial to incorporate social. Finally, the leadership support and
teacher’s personal experience with social media play a large role in the level of practice teachers
engage in when teaching digital literacy with social media instruction. Studies indicate that
teachers are more likely to not just use DLI but include social media when their administration
and stakeholders provide levels of support and when teachers have not had negative experiences
with social media themselves.
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to describe teacher knowledge and practices used
by teachers to teach digital citizenship in elementary school settings. This study attempts to
understand how teachers use the ISTE standards to understand and adhere to their district
policies surrounding digital citizenship and social media. This study also investigated teacher
beliefs and personal experience with social media to describe how those experiences might
impact teacher work motivation when engaging DLI.

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• Research Question 1: Are there group differences by racial/ethnic, gender and school
type in the use of ISTE standards?
• Research Question 2: Are there group differences in the use of social media platforms
for digital literacy instruction by racial group, gender, and type of school?
• Research Question 3: Are there group differences in teacher district policy awareness
by racial group, gender, and type of school?
• Research Question 4: Are there group differences in feelings of support for digital
literacy instruction by racial group, gender, and type of school?
• Research Question 5: Are there group differences in a teacher’s personal experience
with social media and overall work motivation for digital literacy instruction by racial
group, gender, and type of school?
o Hypothesis: Teachers who have negative experiences with social media in
their personal and professional lives will have decreased motivation to provide
digital literacy.

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Chapter Three: Methodology
This study explored teacher practices related to teaching social media literacy under the
adoption of the ITSE standards. This study sought to understand teacher knowledge of district
social media policy, and teacher perceptions of district support when using social media during
instruction and what factors contribute to teacher work motivation when teaching social media
literacy. The methods used to gather data and including characteristics of the participants as well
as the instruments used to determine teacher knowledge and motivation are described in this
chapter along with participants and recruitment procedures.
Participants and Procedure
The participants for this study are elementary school teachers who teach in grades three
through fifth grade. There was an attempt to get a diverse group of teachers that make up various
nationalities and ethnicities. Respondents in this study range in age, race, gender and years of
teaching experience. Participants are teachers who are actively teaching in a traditional public
school, private school, charter or non-traditional public school setting in the greater Los Angeles
Area.
An email was sent to principals and assistant principals in an effort to gain participants
from their staff from various demographic areas that include various school districts. An on-line
survey was emailed to teachers and a paper version of the survey was made available. The
sampling procedure used in this study is convenience based on snowball sampling. Additional
convenience sampling was used to recruit participants via social media platforms such as
Facebook and Twitter. Prior to taking the survey, participants were provided information that
explains the purpose of the study and informed of confidentiality. The approximate time to

34
complete the survey was ten minutes. By participating in this study participants were entered into
a raffle with the opportunity to obtain one of two amazon gift cards in the amount of $50.
Instrument
The survey instrument consisted of 52 questions in five subsections including
demographic questions, teacher implementation of social media into their lessons, teacher
knowledge of district policy, and teacher’s feelings of support and teacher motivation to provide
instruction using social media.
Demographic Questions and Teacher Social Media Use
Demographic questions included gender, age, race, years of teaching experience, type of
institution, personal use of social media and district or county in which they currently teach. In
an effort to describe how teachers' personal experience with social media might contribute to
their teaching practice, teachers were asked five questions in the demographics section that
measured their experience which includes items such as, “How often do you use social media
platforms such as twitter, Facebook, TikTok, and or Instagram?” and “How often do you
experience negative feelings as a result of engaging in social media?
Teacher Implementation of Social Media
The second section of the data collection survey is a researcher-designed instrument to
measure social media instruction implemented by the teacher based upon the ITSE (2020)
standards for teachers and students. The ITSE standards are intended to help students become
empowered learners, deepen educator practice, promote collaboration and challenge traditional
approaches to technology instruction. These standards provide a framework for teaching that is
amplified by technology and claims to give direction to educators as they plan instruction. All
U.S. states have adopted a version of the ITSE standards, therefore these are standards teachers

35
should use when planning lessons requiring technology and on-line practice. The researcher,
considering the main anchor standards in the following areas, developed the instrument: learner,
leader, citizen, collaborator, designer, facilitator and analyst. The instrument items are the
standards reframed into a survey format. ITSE educator standard three is the citizen anchor
standards, which indicates the following: Educators inspire students to and responsibility
participates in the digital world. As a survey question the format will change to, “I inspire
students to and responsibility participate in the digital world.” Teachers will respond using a 5-
point Likert scale indicating their range in practice under the specific standard (Appendix A).
This section of the questionnaire included seven questions that were scored on a five-
point Likert scale ranging from 1 – never, 2 – rarely, 3 – sometimes, 4 – often, to 5 – always.
Sample questions include: “I design learner driven activities and environments that recognize
and accommodate learner variability” and “I continually improve my practice by learning from
and with others and exploring proven and promising practices that leverage technology to
improve student learning.” This instrument has a high reliability rating with a Cronbach’s alpha
coefficient of .903 based on its alignment with the ITSE standards.
Teacher Knowledge of District Policy
The third section of the survey instrument is created and composed of seven questions
designed to assess teacher knowledge around district social media policies. Research widely
suggests that many teachers are not confident in their knowledge surrounding their district social
media policy or consequences for students and or employees (Rodesiler, 2017). In addition, there
seems to be no standard district social media policy therefore district policies are constantly
changing and the difference between formal and informal policy are unclear (DiScala & Weeks,
2013). Therefore, this subsection of the instrument attempted to describe what knowledge

36
teachers possess and to what varying degree they are well informed of district social media
policy. Participants were scored using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 – Not at all aware,
2- slightly aware, 3 – moderately aware, 4 - very aware, 5 extremely aware. Some questions
include: “I am aware of the progressive discipline procedures for social media policy violations,”
and “I know what resources are available to assist me should I encounter a problem (Appendix
A).
Teacher Feelings of Support
The third subsection of the instrument is a subscale of the English Teacher Motivation
Scale (ETMS). This instrument is based on a 5-point Likert response format (1 = strongly
disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = no strong feelings either way; 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree).
Although this instrument was intended to measure work motivation overall, there was a subscale
specifically created to measure teacher’s feelings of support. Contextual factors contribute to
teacher work motivation. In the ETMS instrument the factor termed “School Leadership” is
considered a contextual factor and includes nine items. These items are specifically intended to
measure the support of school principals and their management style (Choi, 2014). Participants
were asked to consider their feelings of support when planning to incorporate social media into
their lessons and when engaging students in social media practices. Questions that measured
levels of support are; “I am not allowed sufficient freedom to do what is necessary for teaching
social media literacy well” and “The principal of my school does not like teachers to get in-
service teacher training on social media.”
The Cronbach alpha coefficient of the initial 47 item instrument was .89. There were
three additional subscales on the ETMS instrument, however those items are intended to measure
teacher work motivation. The subsection measuring teacher support is relevant to this study

37
therefore the 38 items in the remaining three subscales were not used. The English Teacher
Motivation Scale (ETMS) is considered appropriate for the intended sample population.
Although the original sample population for the ETMS was all secondary English teachers, the
sample population for this study is composed of teachers who teach at the elementary level.
Original questions were provided to secondary English teachers reflecting their feelings of
support when teaching over all. Modifications were made to the subscale on the ETMS in order
to gain specific feedback regarding support when using social media in the teacher practice.
Teacher Motivation
To measure teacher motivation a modified version of the Work Task Motivation Scale for
Teachers (WTSMT) is used. The WTSMT is a 90-item instrument designed to assess five
motivational constructs in teachers towards six types of teaching tasks. These tasks include (a)
class preparation (b) teaching (c) evaluation of students (d) classroom management (e)
administrative tasks and (f) complementary tasks (e.g., tutorial guidance, involvement in
committees, extracurricular activities, continuous improvement training, and extra class
monitoring). Task b, categorized as teaching, is a specific task relevant to this study. The items
specific to this task aim to measure motivation for teaching overall but items have been modified
to gather data when teaching using social media to teach digital literacy precisely. Participants
were scored using a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (does not correspond at all) to 7
(corresponds completely. Some questions include “I teach using social media because I like
doing the task” and “I teach using social media because I find this task important for the
academic success of my students.”
The WTMST were not only reliable but found to access interest, success and pay.
Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency values for the five types of motivation values ranged from

38
an average of .64 to .96. Overall, internal consistency values met the criterion of .70 proposed by
Nunnally (1978). The final version of the WTMST includes a total of 90 items (15 items × 6
tasks; Fernet et al., 2008).

39
Chapter Four: Results
The purpose of this study was to examine teacher capacity for DLI using the ISTE
standards as a benchmark for quality instruction. The results of the data analysis for each
research question are reported in this chapter. Preliminary Correlational Analysis is included,
followed by the results and analysis of each research question in this study. Finally, this study
called for additional analysis with results reported in this chapter.
Preliminary Correlational Analysis
Preliminary analysis of the data includes the means and standard deviations of all major
variables in the study along with Pearson product correlation analysis for: (a) The Use of the
ISTE Standards, (b) Use of Social Media as a Resource, (c) District Policy Awareness, (d)
Feelings of Support, and (e) Overall Motivation. All but one correlation was statistically
significant at a level of p <.01. The use of ISTE standards and district policy awareness were
highly correlated (r = .534, p <.01) indicating that teachers who use the ISTE standards as a
benchmark for instruction over others are also more familiar with their district responsible use
policy. Notably, using social media as an instructional resource was negatively correlated with
overall motivation (r = -.574, p <.01).
Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Product Correlations for Measured Variables
Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5
1. ISTE 16.11 6.29 1 .316** .534** -.312** -.420**
2. Social Media Use 15.59 4.49 1 .258** -.018 -.575**
3. DP Awareness 12.57 6.59 1 -.273 -.285
4. Support 26.87 3.46 1 .249**
5. Motivation 39.75 21.78 1
* ISTE: International Society for Technology in Education
* DP Awareness: District Policy Awareness

40
Analysis of Research Questions
Research Question 1
Are there group differences by racial/ethnic, gender and school type in the use of ISTE
standards? Three one-way ANOVAs were run with race/ethnicity (4), gender (2), and school
type (2), as separate independent variables and the use of ISTE standards for the dependent
variable. This was due to small and uneven cell sizes that did not allow for a 3-way factorial
analysis. There were no significant results.
Research Question 2
Are there group differences in the use of social media platforms for digital literacy
instruction by racial group, gender, and type of school? The results of three one-way ANOVAs
showed a significant difference in racial/ethnic groups [F (3,116) = 3.982, p = .010], gender
group difference [F (1,116) = 4.792, p = .031] and school type [F (1,118) = 10.744, p = .001].
Table 2
Summary of One-Way ANOVAS Comparisons for Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and School Type With
the Use of Social Media Platforms for DLI
Variable F Df p
Post hoc group
differences
Race/Ethnicity 3.982 3, 116 .010 AA< Bl, C/Lx, WH
Gender 4.792 3, 116 .031 Male < Female
School type 10.74 1, 118 .001 Private < Public
Note. Lower scores indicate higher use of social media during DLI.
Post hoc analysis to identify specific racial/ethnic group differences revealed that Asian
Americans used social media during DLI at a higher rate (M = 10.97, SD = 4.78) than all other
groups for the use of social media during DLI (see Table 3).

41
Table 3
Means and Standard Deviation for Use of Social Media Platforms for DLI by Race/Ethnicity,
Gender, and School Type
Variable Mean* SD
Race/Ethnicity

Asian American (n = 7)

10.97

4.78
Black (n = 63) 15.36 4.34
Chicano/Hispanic/Latinx (n = 32) 17.08 3.93
White / Caucasian (n = 18)

Gender

Female (n = 97)

Male (n = 21)

Type of School

Private/Charter (n = 31)

Traditional Public (n = 89)
15.56

15.97

13.64

13.41

16.36
4.78

4.49

4.14

4.28

4.45
*Lower scores indicate higher use of social media during DLI.

Research Question 3
Are there group differences in teacher district policy awareness by racial group, gender,
and type of school? The results of three one-way ANOVAs showed a significant difference in
school type [F (1,117) = 4.397, p = .038] with teachers from public schools having lower
awareness (M = 11.86, SD 6.29) than private/charter schools (M = 14.78, SD = 7.12)

42
Research Question 4
Are there group differences in feelings of support for digital literacy instruction by racial
group, gender, and type of school? The results of three one-way ANOVAs showed there was no
significant difference by race/ethnicity, gender, and school type in feelings of support.
Research Question 5
Are there group differences in a teacher’s personal experience with social media and
overall work motivation for digital literacy instruction by racial group, gender, and type of
school? The results of three one-way ANOVAs showed there was no significant difference in
race/ethnicity, gender, and school type in overall work motivation for DLI.
Additional Exploratory Analyses
Additional exploratory simple regression analyses were conducted to examine specific
predictive pattern of relationships among the major variables. Use of social media to network
was a significant predictor of ISTE standards, use of social media as resource and district policy
awareness. Years of experience also significantly predicted district policy awareness, and
experiencing negative feelings from using social media predicted feelings of support (see Tables
4-6).
Linear regression analysis results as predictors of teacher’s use of ISTE standards and use
of social media to network were significant (p = .004), with r squared accounting for 7% of
variability. Linear regression analysis of teachers’ use of social media to network as a predictor
of teacher use of social media as a resource to teach digital literacy resulted in significance (p =
<.001), accounting for 16.5% of variability. Linear regression analysis of teachers’ use of social
media to network as a predictor of teacher district policy awareness resulted in significance (p =
<.001), accounting for 10% of variability. Linear regression analysis of teachers’ years of

43
experience as a predictor of teacher district policy awareness resulted in significance (p = .018),
accounting for 4.7% of variability. Linear regression analysis of teachers’ experiencing negative
feelings as a predictor of teacher feelings of support by school leaders to use social media to
teach DLI resulted in significance (p = .041), accounting for 3% of variability.
Table 4
Summary of Simple Regressions for the Use of ISTE Standards, Use of Social Media, and
District Policy Awareness With Using Social Media to Network
Variable R2 Β p
ISTE .073 -.041 .004
Use of social media as a resource .165 4.006 .001
DP awareness .101 -2.131 .001
Note. ISTE = International Society for Technology Education. DP Awareness = District Policy
Awareness

Table 5
Summary of Simple Regression for District Policy Awareness and Years of Experience
Variable R2 Β p
DP awareness .047 -.188 .018
Note. DP Awareness = District Policy Awareness

Table 6
Summary of Simple Regression for Feelings of Support and Negative Feelings
Variable R2 Β p
Feelings of support .037 -.752 .041

For the dependent variable overall motivation, a multiple regression analysis was
performed to determine if hours spent on social media platforms and using social media to

44
network were predictors of teacher overall motivation. The overall model was significant with
22% of variability explained but only social media networking was a significant predictor.
Table 7
Summary of Multiple Regression With Hours Spent and Networking as a Predictor of Overall
Motivation
Predictors R2 β p
Overall model .222 .044
Social Media Networking 9.933 .001
Hours Spent Using Social Media .367 .502

45
Chapter Five: Discussion
The purpose of this study is to describe the pedagogy and practices used by teachers
specifically, third through fifth grade teachers, when teaching digital literacy. This study was
conducted to gain knowledge of teacher’s practices in an effort to gain insight regarding the use
of social media to teach digital literacy. This study strategically focuses on teacher knowledge of
their district social media policy, to what extent teachers use social media as a resource for
instruction and are there group differences based on race, school type and gender. Equally
important, this study attempts to understand a teacher's feelings of support for using social media
and if teachers are motivated to use social media in their instruction of digital literacy.
This chapter will cover the main findings of the study and describe the overall outcome
based upon the research questions. Following the discussion of the findings this chapter will
report the implications for practice. The limitations are included in this chapter as considerations
of the study, followed by the recommendations for future studies.
Discussion of Main Findings
The preliminary analysis of the results show significant findings between minimal
variables. There were significant findings in group differences among race, gender and school
type when using social media as a resource to teach digital literacy. Asian Americans were found
to use social media more over Blacks, Chicano or Latinx, and Whites respectively. Female
teachers were found to use social media more than males and teachers who teach in traditional
public schools used social media more than private and charter schools.

46
Group Differences by Racial/Ethnic, Gender and School Type in the Use of ISTE
Standards
This study sought to find if race, gender and school type could predict a teacher's use of
the ISTE standards. The ISTE standards are a set of standards adopted by all 50 states as a
foundational guide that will ground teachers with a road map to empower students through
digital instruction and technology. These standards have been adopted in all 50 states in the U.S.,
and therefore this study aimed to understand if demographics were factors that predicted the use
of these standards. The results of this study indicate no significance in the use of ISTE standards
based upon race, gender and school type.
Although there was no significance in the aforementioned research question, it is
important to acknowledge that although widely adopted, research suggests an overwhelming
number of educators do not feel competent or efficacious in their knowledge and use of the ISTE
standards. In an article titled “Exploring Teachers’ Technology Integration Self-Efficacy
Through the 2017 ISTE Standards,” by Gomez et al. (2021), 327 teachers were surveyed. Where
knowledge and use of the ISTE standards were used to measure the level of confidence, results
indicate more than 50% of the surveyed teachers reported a level of confidence for integrating
technology that was fair for the subscales of Technology Literacy and Digital Citizenship.
Perhaps more importantly is the research that suggests that although teacher candidates
self-report technology competency at the somewhat experienced and knowledgeable level, their
overall technology competency has not yet reached the proficient level of the ISTE educator
standards (Baek & Sung, 2020).

47
Group Differences in the Use of Social Media Platforms for Digital Literacy Instruction by
Racial Group, Gender, and Type of School
Research question number two asked, when using social media platforms for DLI, are
there group differences among racial groups, gender and school type? The results indicated that
there was a significant difference in all groups by comparison. Asian Americans were found to
use social media as a resource more than Blacks, Latinx, and Whites. Thirty-three percent of
Asian Americans reported using social media platforms to teach digital citizenship “nearly
always,” while 28% of Blacks, 31% of Latinx, and 33% of Whites reported “rarely” using social
media platforms to teach digital literacy. Forty-Four percent of Asian Americans reported
“often” using social media to collaborate with students while 46% of Blacks, 72% of Latinx, and
56% of Whites reported “rarely” using social media for the purpose of collaboration. This
outcome aligns with research regarding technology and web-use among Asian Americans,
Blacks, Hispanics, and Whites. The results of a study performed by Owens and Lilly (2017)
indicates that Asian Americans had higher web-use skills. Asian American used the web more
than other groups regardless of resources or experience, and that students of Hispanic origin
report knowing less about the Internet
There was also a significant difference in gender. Teachers who identify as male were
shown to use social media as a resource for DLI over teachers who identify as female. Forty
percent of teachers who identify as male reported using social media to activate prior knowledge
“often” and 31% of female teachers reported rarely using these platforms to do the same. In
addition, 35% of male teachers used real social media accounts to demonstrate appropriate use,
while 51% of female teachers reported “rarely” using real social media accounts as a pedagogical
practice for appropriate social media behavior. Multiple studies are synonymous with the idea

48
that although male teachers have high computer self-efficacy, and are found to invest more time
using technology, this does not guarantee that males will be able to thoughtfully and effectively
integrate technology in the classroom environment, for example, though male instructors
generally report having more competence and comfort with using technology, female teachers
are more likely to utilize and integrate digital literacy when using technology in their
instructional practice (Yang & Spears, 2017).
Finally, the results of data analysis indicated that teachers who reported public school as
their teaching institution used social media as a resource less than those who taught at a private
or charter school. Results indicated that 32% of public-school participants “rarely” used social
media to teach digital literacy and 40% of private or charter school teachers “nearly always”
used social media during DLI. Eleven percent of public-school teachers and 24% of private or
charter school teachers reported using social media to collaborate “often.” The results of this
study indicate public school teachers used social media less in their instruction. This result is
parallel to research that shows private school teachers have better digital skills in comparison to
their public sector peers (Tabieh et al., 2021).
Group Differences in Teacher District Policy Awareness by Racial Group, Gender, and
Type of School
When investigating whether there were group differences in teacher knowledge of their
districts social media policy, teachers from public schools had lower district policy awareness. A
number of factors may contribute to this study’s results. Much of the research supports an
explanation of an acceptable or responsible use district policy as being ambiguous, local district
created, and leaving teachers with inconsistent protocols to follow (Flowers & Rakes, 2000).

49
In addition, Ahn et al. (2011) analyzed AUPs and other district technology policies to
investigate how policies are framed and if they are in common with how teachers actually
practice using social media during instruction. Ahn et al. sampled 99 of the largest elementary
and secondary school districts in the U.S. It was found that about 20% of the AUPs explicitly
noted media literacy goals. Approximately 50% of the AUPs in their study framed Internet
access as a privilege rather than a right, and social media policies either banned social media use
or limited their use. Ahn et al. concluded that “policy language” sets the educational goals of
technology in schools, therefore, the idea that teachers simply disengage with using social media
as a resource should be considered when looking at the results of this study.
Group Differences in Feelings of Support for Digital Literacy Instruction by Racial Group,
Gender, and Type of School
When three one-way ANOVAs were run to determine if there were group differences by
race, gender and school type for feelings of support when teaching digital literacy there was no
significance. This result is not consistent with research that suggests such support is vital. In a
study conducted by Dennen et al. (2020), teachers described their leadership as strongly
supportive of using social networking sites marketing and communication, and potentially for
instruction as well. One teacher, however, stated that a previous administrator who was not
supportive “felt like social networking sites were time-wasters, they weren’t educational, and
they wanted to protect the kids” (p.21 ). Multiple teachers commented on how the shift from an
administration that was unsupportive to a supportive one has opened opportunities for both
teachers and students to freely use social networking sites during the school day.

50
Group Differences in a Teacher’s Personal Experience With Social Media and Overall
Work Motivation for Digital Literacy Instruction by Racial Group, Gender, and Type of
School
Finally, it was hypothesized that teachers who have negative experiences with social
media in their personal and professional lives will have decreased motivation to provide digital
literacy. Analysis indicates that there was no significant difference found among race, gender
and school type when analyzing if a teacher’s personal experience was significant to overall
work motivation. This finding is somewhat consistent with research that suggests teachers who
use social media are more inclined to use social media to engage students in self-regulated
learning (Matzat & Vrieling, 2016). Interestingly, teachers report being under scrutiny for
inappropriate use of social media but also under peer pressure to connect. Although to connect or
not connect creates some internal tensions it should not be seen as negative feelings. Many
teachers reported simply not having enough time to engage so the opportunities to experience
negative feelings are simply not there (Fox & Bird, 2015).
Additional Analysis
Although analysis of the major variables garnered minimal results, there was a need for
additional exploratory analysis. Simple regressions were performed to determine if there were
predictive patterns of relationships among the major variables. These additional analyses suggest
that teachers who used social media to network used the ISTE standards more than teachers who
did not. Teachers who used social media to network was also a predictor for teachers who used
social media as a resource in instruction. In addition, teachers who used social media to network
reported a greater awareness of their district social media policy.

51
Teachers who had more years of experience in the teaching profession were found to
have greater district policy awareness, however as stated earlier more experienced teachers are
more aware of the district policy but are less likely to engage students in social media use during
DLI because no matter the benefits the potential consequences are unclear. Baek et al. (2008)
discovered that experienced teachers were more resistant to integrating technology in their
teaching compared with less experienced teachers, however, less experienced teachers integrate
the computer into their teaching better than experienced teachers. This suggests that less
experienced teachers are more knowledgeable in their technology use and more willing to
explore instruction using social media. Teachers who reported experiencing negative feelings
also experienced feelings of support to use social media as a resource in their instruction.
Finally, participants were asked how many hours they spent on social media and if they
used social media to network. Using the collected responses and overall motivation as the
dependent variable it was found that overall, teachers who spent more hours on social media and
used social media to network predicted higher overall motivations to use social media in their
instruction. Based on the evidence reported, advice and support for teachers should cover issues
of how to think about peer pressure and privacy. Together with a stronger advocacy of the
benefits of using social media as a professional, such discourse might increase motivation to use
it in instruction (Fox & Bird, 2015).
Implications for Practice
The results of this study have important implications for educational leaders, curriculum
creators, and educational technology practitioners to consider. In an effort to further educate
teachers on the benefits of digital literacy, school leaders should plan to engage teachers in
professional development. This professional development should specifically inform teachers of

52
the district responsible use policy with a specific focus on teacher and student practices when
using social media. Those who facilitate professional learning, should include research on the
student deficit in digital citizenship learning and collaboration if educators do not plan to engage
students in a growing community of digital learners. Facilitators should also discuss and engage
in adult learning theories to model the benefits of DLI.
According to the results of this study teachers who engage with social media to network
are more likely to teach using ISTE standards, use social media as a resource and are more aware
of district policy. School leaders can investigate how educators are using social media to network
and use these data to align practices with ISTE standards. In addition, teachers who use social
media to network can share best practices with fellow educators.
Study results also indicate that teachers who teach at private/charter institutions and
teachers with more experience overall were more aware of their district responsible use policy.
One implication would be to seek out professional experts and researchers in the area of private/
charter policy versus public school policy and create a space for collaboration between the
leaders of such institutions. Educational leaders should be invited to share and respect
differences in policy reform. While school districts continue to struggle with what training
should be prioritized, this research supports more experienced teachers receiving specific more
rigorous in-service and training that include dissecting district policies specifically surrounding
social media practices during instruction (Sauers & Richardson, 2019)
Finally, the idea of a teacher’s personal experiences and time spent engaging social media
should not be ignored. The results of this study suggest that teachers are being supported when
they have experienced negative feelings during their personal use of social media and not
surprisingly the more time teachers spend on social media, they are more motivated to use social

53
media as a resource in their classroom instruction. Educational practitioners should consider the
social emotional needs of teachers prior to communicating the expectations of social media use
to engage students in digital literacy. While teachers may be more motivated to use social media
during DLI, it is important to note that personal practices vary widely in comparison to the use
for education. Educational leaders should provide professional learning that include the ISTE
standards as a foundational map for creating grade level appropriate objectives while using social
media as a resource to meeting objectives at the benchmark level.
Limitations of the Study
While this study had a mixture of results that were significant and some results had no
significance, some limitations should be considered. First, there were multiple analyses with
significant results based upon a teacher's response for networking and negative feelings, however
the survey questions on networking and negative feelings were limited and generic. No definition
of networking or negative feelings was provided to participants, for example, one survey
question asked, “How often do you use social media to network?” with very often to never on a
Likert scale response option. Results of the study using data from these survey questions have
implications for practice, however, limited survey questions should be taken into account.
Next, a limitation to this study is the scale of participants. Most participants were from
CA with very few from other states. In addition, one sampling method included sending the
survey to school principals, therefore, many participants were from a small number of school
sites. Teachers who participated in the survey based upon social media postings or snowballing
may have created a narrow population of teachers from areas out of state, or specific to
secondary, charter, or private schools causing some outliers, and findings should not be
generalized. The sample size also represented a small population of Asian American and White

54
teachers. Seventy-nine percent of the participants were African American and Hispanic. A larger
sample size of Asian Americans, and Whites would make for more robust results when analyzing
data based upon race and ethnicity, therefore a more purposeful sampling of these populations
should be considered. In addition, this study aimed to investigate group differences based upon
race/ethnicity, gender and school type. Study participants who identified their workplace as a
private institution or a charter institution were collapsed into one group. Again, a more
purposeful sampling method of private schools teachers and charter school teachers should be
considered.
Finally, the intended participants were third through fifth grade teachers, a large sample
size indicated “other” on the survey and therefore many educators represented an unknown span
of grade-levels. Therefore, all results cannot be generalized to third, fourth or fifth grade teachers
at the elementary level. This wide range of educators in grades K-12 is important to consider
because instructional objectives and engagement strategies for digital literacy will vary greatly
based upon the ISTE standards. Researchers should ponder over whether the option to select
“other” as a participant should be eliminated to seek a specific population of third through fifth
grade teachers.
Recommendations for Future Studies
Although there are a plethora of research-based practices for DLI, the need for more
research and data analysis is needed in the elementary grades. This study aimed to describe the
practices of teachers in upper elementary. This study attempted to consider the personal
experiences of teachers and if it could predict the practices of those teachers when using social
media to provide instruction for digital literacy. With many predictions based upon a teacher’s
personal networking experience, researchers should define networking and include additional

55
questions to determine networking themes, and practices. In addition, it was hypothesized that
teachers who experienced negative feelings in their own use of social media would be less likely
to engage in DLI using social media. Future researchers should include more specific questions
that will help substantiate greater data to analyze and therefore provide a more robust analysis
for negative feelings as a predictor for DLI.
Future researchers in the field of instruction using social media should seek to include a
larger demographic based upon race/ethnicity and school type. While research suggests a
growing population of social media users (Lenhart, 2015), the results of this student included a
large number of Black and Hispanic participants. A future researcher should decide to be specific
to a racial group or be intentional about the sample size to include a larger number of participants
in other specific demographic groups. In addition, as student enrollment in private and charter
schools continue to grow, only 31 of the 120 survey participants were from a private or charter
school combined. Future researchers should consider the growing number of educators who
provide DLI in other institutions not considered to be public schools.
Finally, the recommendation of a mixed methods approach is suggested. While
demographic data, a motivational construct and a teacher’s capacity in the area of their district
social media policy can be collected through survey questions, interviewing teachers in a more
qualitative manner may help to gain a larger insight on pedagogical practices used or not used
when using social media as a resource. This will enable researchers to make connections to
specific themes across educator practices, provide supporting data for curriculum development
for students and teachers and provide specific examples of personal experiences that may affect
study outcomes.

56
Conclusion
The goal of this study was to describe the group differences and elements pertaining to
teacher pedagogy during DLI. In this chapter the main findings, implications for practice,
limitations and recommendations for future research are included. This study incorporates
significant findings in the area of the use of social media as a resource to teach digital literacy.
When one way ANOVA comparisons were performed, Asain American teachers scored the
lowest indicating a greater use of social media. Women used social media more and teachers
who taught at public institutions used social media more to teach digital literacy. While teachers
at a public school were found to use social media more, teachers employed at private/charter
institutions were found to be more aware of their district responsible us policy. Finally, female
teachers were found to use social media more in comparison to those reporting male as their
gender type.
Most implications for practice suggest that educational leaders be more strategic in
professional development and planning for educators. These professional developments should
speak to the needs of new teachers versus experienced teachers, while deliberately considering
the social emotional learning needed when encouraging teachers to participate in digital
instruction using social media platforms. Although there are limitations to this study largely
concerning participant samples, research in the area of social media should continue while
specifically targeting research and analysis for students in the upper elementary grades. This
study is unique in that research has targeted upper secondary teachers and those in higher
education. This study is important because it is imperative that educational leaders and teachers
engage students in digital literacy and digital citizenship at a larger capacity during the

57
elementary years. Educators are encouraged to remain accountable to students and the wide
spectrum of learning and collaboration taking place in our digital world.

58
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Appendix A: Examining Teacher Practices for Digital Literacy
Q0 Teachers who teach in elementary grades three, four or five are invited to participate in the
following survey. The purpose of this study is to describe teacher practices for digital literacy.
This survey also attempts to describe the motivation and support for such practices. We hope to
help inform future teachers, current teachers and educational leaders about potential digital
engagement strategies for elementary students. The following survey will take approximately 15
minutes and is anonymous. By participating in this survey, you are indicating your consent to be
part of this study. You may stop at any time without incurring any penalty. At the end of the
survey, you will have the chance to be entered into a raffle to win a $50 Amazon gift card. This
research has been reviewed by the USC Institutional Review Board (IRB). The IRB is a
research review board that reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and
welfare of research participants. Contact the IRB if you have questions about your rights as a
research participant or you have complaints about the research. You may contact the IRB at
(323) 442-0114 or by email at irb@usc.edu.

Q1 1. Which selection best describes your organization?
o Traditional Public school
o Private School
o Charter School

Q2 2. What grade(s) do you teach?
▢ Grade 3
▢ Grade 4
▢ Grade 5
▢ Other

Q3 3. Number of years you have been teaching?
▼ 1 ... 16 year or more

68

Q4 4. What is your gender?
o Male
o Female
o Transgender male
o Transgender Female
o Non-Binary
o Other ________________________________________________

Q5 What is your race / ethnicity?
o American Indian or Alaska Native
o Asian American
o Black or African American
o Chicano / Hispanic / Latinx
o Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander
o White
o Other ________________________________________________

Q6 5. What is your approximate household income per year?
o Under 50,000
o 50,000 - 100,000
o 100,000 - 150,000

69
o 150,001 - 200,000
o Over 200,000

Q7 6. What is your age?
▼ 20 ... 70

Q8 7. Please check all options that you personally use:
▢ Facebook
▢ Instagram
▢ Snap Chat
▢ TikTok
▢ Twitter
▢ None of the above

Q9 8. On average how many hours per week do you spend engaging with your personal social
media accounts?
▼ 0 ... > 10

Q10
The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) Standards are a set of nationally
approved standards adopted by California to guide teachers in technology instruction. The
following questions relate to teacher practices using the ISTE standards.
A copy of the ITSE standards are included here.

The following questions are meant to understand the extent you implement digital literacy
instruction using the ISTE standards for educators as an instructional framework?
1 -Never 2 –
Rarely
3 -
Occasionally
4 - Often 5 -
Nearly
always
6 -
Always

70
9. I
continually
improve their
practice by
learning from
and with
others and
exploring
proven and
promising
practices that
leverage
technology to
improve
student
learning.
o o o o o o
10. I seek out
opportunities
for leadership
to support
student
empowerment
and success
and to
improve
teaching and
learning.
o o o o o o
11. I inspire
students to
positively
contribute to
and
responsibly
participate in
the digital
world.
o o o o o o

71
12. I dedicate
time to
collaborate
with both
colleagues
and students
to improve
practice,
discover and
share
resources and
ideas, and
solve
problems.
o o o o o o
13. I design
authentic,
learner-driven
activities and
environments
that recognize
and
accommodate
learner
variability.
o o o o o o
14. I facilitate
learning with
technology to
support
student
achievement
of the ISTE
Standards for
Students.
o o o o o o
15. I
understand
and use data
to drive their
instruction
and support
students in
achieving
their learning
o o o o o o

72
goals.
Q11 How frequently do you use social media platforms as a resource to engage students during
digital literacy instruction e.g., Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat, Instagram, TikTok?
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 -
Occasionally
4 - Often 5 -
Nearly
always
6 -
Always
16. I use
social media
to teach
digital
citizenship.
o o o o o o
17. When
using online
platforms I
use social
media to
activate prior
knowledge.
o o o o o o
18. I use
social media
to engage
students.
o o o o o o
19. I use
pages of real
social media
accounts as
examples of
appropriate
and
inappropriate
use.
o o o o o o

73
20. I
collaborate
with students
through
social media
platforms.
o o o o o o

Q12 To what extent are you aware of your district policy when using social media platforms for
digital literacy instruction?
1 - Not at
all aware
2 -
Slightly
unaware
3 -
Slightly
aware
4 -
Somewhat
aware
5 - Aware 6 -
Highly
aware
21. I
understand
my district
social media
policy.
o o o o o o
22. I
understand
the security
and privacy
measures put
in place by
my district.
o o o o o o
23. I
understand
the
progressive
discipline
procedures
for social
media policy
violations.
o o o o o o

74
24. I know
what district
supports are
in place to
help teachers
communicate
policy to
parents.
o o o o o o
25. I
understand
my rights as
an educator
who teaches
lessons using
social media.
o o o o o o
26. I know
where to find
available
district
resources for
technology,
digital
citizenship
and social
media.
o o o o o o

Q13 Please respond to the following regarding your feelings of support when teaching digital
literacy using social media methods as a supplemental instructional resources.
1 -Strongly
disagree
2 - Disagree 3 - No
strong
feelings
either way
4 - Agree 5 - Strongly
agree
27. The
principal of my
school runs the
school
reasonably.
o o o o o

75
28. The
principal of my
school does
not listen to
teacher’s
opinions on
running the
school.
o o o o o
29. The
principal of my
school treats
teachers fairly.
o o o o o
30. I am not
given the
sufficient
freedom to do
what is
necessary for
teaching well.
o o o o o
31. I have a
good
relationship
with the
principal.
o o o o o
32. The
principal of my
school
supports
teachers to
teach well.
o o o o o
33. The
principal of my
school does
not like
teachers to get
in service
teacher
training.
o o o o o

76
34. The
principal of my
school helps
me to deal with
difficult
students.
o o o o o
35. My school
acknowledges
and praises
teachers who
teach well.
o o o o o
Q14
To what extent do the following statements apply to you when using social media to teach digital
literacy?

I use social media when teaching digital literacy because . . .
1 - Does
not
correspond
2 3 4 5 6 7 -
Corresponds
completely
36.
Because it
is pleasant
to carry
out this
task.
o o o o o o o
37.
Because I
find this
task
interesting
to do
o o o o o o o
38.
Because I
like doing
this task.
o o o o o o o

77
39.
Because it
is
important
for me to
carry out
this task.
o o o o o o o
40.
Because
this task
allows me
to attain
work
objectives
that I
consider
important.
o o o o o o o

Q15 I use social media when teaching digital literacy . . .
1 - Does
not
correspond
2 3 4 5 6 7 -
Correspond
s completely
41.
Because I
find this
task
important
for the
academic
success
of my
students.
o o o o o o o
42.
Because
if I don’t
carry out
this task,
I will feel
bad.
o o o o o o o

78
43.
Because I
would
feel guilty
not doing
it.
o o o o o o o
44. To
not feel
bad if I
don’t do
it.
o o o o o o o
45.
Because
my work
demands
it.
o o o o o o o

Q16 I use social media when teaching digital literacy because . . .
1 - Does
not
correspond
2 3 4 5 6 7 -
Correspond
s completely
46.
Because
the school
obliges me
to do it.
o o o o o o o
47.
Because
I’m paid to
do it.
o o o o o o o
48. I
always
see the
relevance
of carrying
out this
task.
o o o o o o o

79
49. I used
to know
why I was
doing this
task, but I
don’t see
the reason
anymore.
o o o o o o o
50. I don’t
know,
sometimes
I don’t see
its
purpose.
o o o o o o o

Q17 Please consider your personal experience with social media when answering the following.
1 - No negative
feelings
2 - Few
negative
feelings
3 - Some
negative
feelings
4 - Strong
negative
feelings
51. To what
extent have you
experienced
negative feelings
because of social
media?
o o o o

Q18 Please consider your personal experience with social media when answering the following.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Occasionally 4 – Always
52. To what
extent have you
used social
media to
network?
o o o o

End of Block: Default Question Block

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study aims to describe teacher capacity for digital literacy instruction based upon the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) standards. Using the ISTE standards as a framework this descriptive study investigates teacher practices and pedagogy as it relates to Digital Literacy Instruction (DLI) with social media engagement for upper elementary students. The purpose of this study was to describe the teacher's understanding of their district’s social media policy and feelings of support by leadership when using social media to engage students during DLI. This study also explores teacher beliefs that may contribute to teacher work motivation when using social media platforms as an instructional resource. The results of this study yielded significant results in the area of social media use to engage students. Asian Americans, males and teachers who reported teaching at a private or charter school were found to use social media platforms more than other participants in the racial group, gender group and school type group. Teachers with more years experience were found to have more district policy awareness while teachers who spent more hours on social media and teachers who used social media to network showed significant results in their use of the ISTE standards, district policy awareness and use of social media as a resource in their instruction. Based upon this study the implications for practice include, thorough professional development and training on district responsible use policies, in depth exploration of the ISTE standards and greater collaboration among public and private school institutions.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Thompson, Tamala Tanesha (author)

Core Title Digital literacy: teacher pedagogy and practices among upper elementary students with growing interest in social media

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership

Degree Conferral Date 2022-08

Publication Date 09/06/2022

Defense Date 06/10/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag digital citizenship,digital instruction,digital literacy,elementary,ISTE standards,OAI-PMH Harvest,responsible use policy,RUP,social media,student engagement,teacher motivation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Chung, Ruth (committee chair), Hinga, Briana (committee member), Williams, Jaqueuline (committee member)

Creator Email tamzlyfe@gmail.com,ttthomps@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC111637627

Unique identifier UC111637627

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Type texts

Source 20220906-usctheses-batch-977 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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