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Developing longevity in the K-12 principal position: strategies for preparation, recruitment, and retention

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Developing longevity in the K-12 principal position: strategies for preparation, recruitment, and retention

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Content Running head: DEVELOPING LONGEVITY IN K-12 PRINCIPAL POSITION 1
DEVELOPING LONGEVITY IN THE K-12 PRINCIPAL POSITION: STRATEGIES FOR
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION
by
Elizabeth Ann Rabel Blackman
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
EDUCATION (LEADERSHIP)
May 2020
Copyright 2020 Elizabeth Ann Rabel Blackman
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 2
Dedication
This work is dedicated to my parents, Marianne and Richard Rabel. They have instilled
in the Rabel girls a love of learning, a commitment to personal and professional growth, and a
deep understanding of the importance of a loving family.
This work is further dedicated to the Blackman boys: Jacques, William, and Rourke.
They all encouraged me with a positive spirit as I spent hours studying, writing, or at USC. From
soccer games to baseball practices to swimming lessons, they never complained or scoffed as I
read, wrote, and learned. This is truly our family doctorate.
Finally and most importantly, I dedicate this work to my loving husband Darin. I thank
him for all the sacrifices he has made so that I could pursue my dream, and he provided support
and encouragement every step of this journey. I am grateful to have him as my partner and best
friend.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 3
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge my dissertation chair, Dr. Michael Escalante, for his support,
encouragement, and wisdom. From our very first leadership class to the final dissertation, Dr.
Escalante has coached and inspired our team and has profoundly impacted my leadership devel-
opment. I would also like to acknowledge the three members of my committee for their support:
Dr. David Cash, Dr. Owen Crosby, and Dr. Michelle Doll.
I acknowledge the participants of this study for their contribution and reflection through-
out the research process. Their honest feedback and responses provided our team with meaning-
ful material that impacts our profession and encourages continuous improvement in school
leadership development.
I acknowledge my fellow students in the dissertation group and the Thursday night
cohort. It is an honor to call them colleagues and friends.
I acknowledge my colleagues at Heritage Elementary and the Tustin Unified School
District for their support and encouragement of my continued education. The flexibility and
contribution of the team allowed me to pursue my lifelong goal of obtaining a doctoral degree.
Finally, I want to acknowledge the OC Crew for their unwavering support, friendship,
comradery, accountability, and the many joyful carpools up and down southern California.
Thanks to Lara, Rena, Rod, Gloria, and Kerri for their dear friendships.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
Abstract 7
Chapter One: Introduction 8
Background of the Problem 8
Statement of the Problem 9
Purpose of the Study 10
Research Questions 10
Significance of the Study 10
Assumptions 11
Limitations 11
Delimitations 12
Definition of Terms 12
Organization of the Study 14
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 16
History of the Principalship 16
Earliest School Leadership 17
Principal as Manager 18
Formation of the Modern-Day School Principal 19
The Principal as an Instructional Leader 21
Diversity Challenges in School Leadership 22
Issues of Race 23
Issues of Gender 23
Gender Roles by Leadership Position 25
Preparation for the Principalship 25
Obtaining an Administrative Credential 27
Recruitment of Principals 34
Principal Shortages 35
Strategies for Recruitment of Principals 38
Retention of Principal Candidates 41
Strategies to Promote Retention 42
Theoretical Framework 43
Four Frames by Bolman and Deal 44
The Principal: Three Keys to Maximizing Impact 46
School Leadership That Works: From Research to Results 48
Conceptual Framework 49
Chapter Summary 49
Figure 1. Conceptual framework for study 50
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 51
Research Questions Restated 51
Research Design and Method 52
Qualitative Research 52
Why Qualitative Methods 52
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 5
Research Team 54
Population and Sample 54
Access/Entry 55
Instrumentation and Protocols 56
Quantitative Instrumentation 57
Qualitative Instrumentation 57
Data Collection Approach 58
Data Analysis 59
Credibility and Trustworthiness 60
Ethical Considerations 61
Chapter Summary 61
Chapter Four: Findings 63
Study Participants 64
Qualitative Interview Participants 64
Quantitative Survey Participants 66
Findings for Research Question 1 66
Seeking Learning Opportunities 68
Job-Related Preparation 70
Mentors 71
Summary of Results for Research Question 1 73
Findings for Research Question 2 73
Networking 75
Tapping and Leadership Development 76
Political Factor 80
Summary of Results for Research Question 2 82
Findings for Research Question 3 82
Mentors 84
Relationships and Networking Within the District 86
Professional Networking and Associations 88
Compensation 89
Summary of Results for Research Question 3 90
Chapter Summary 90
Chapter Five: Discussion, Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusion 92
Purpose of the Study Restated 92
Summary of Findings 93
Research Question 1 93
Research Question 2 94
Research Question 3 94
Limitations 95
Implications 96
Recommendations for Future Study 98
Conclusion 99
References 100
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 6
Appendices
Appendix A: Research Participants’ Invitation E-Mail 111
Appendix B: Informed Consent 112
Appendix C: Principal Survey 113
Appendix D: Human Resources Administrator Survey 121
Appendix E: Immediate Supervisor of Principal Survey 125
Appendix F: Superintendent Survey 129
Appendix G: Principal Interview Guide 133
Appendix H: Human Resources Administrator Interview Guide 135
Appendix I: Immediate Supervisor of Principal Interview Guide 137
Appendix J: Superintendent Interview Guide 139
Appendix K: Question Alignment Matrix 141
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 7
Abstract
The K-12 public school principalship is a vital position in the education of children. The princi-
pal is charged with maintaining a positive school environment, ensuring that the educational and
behavioral needs of students are met, overseeing and managing programs and staff, and all
building operations and oversight. This qualitative study examined the preparation, recruitment,
and retention of K-12 public school principals and factors that contribute to longevity in the
principal position. The experiences and perspectives of the participants, comprised of six princi-
pals, three superintendents, two immediate supervisors of principals, and four human resource
officers, contributed to answering the three research questions. Quantitative surveys confirmed
the common themes that emerged in this study, which employed a large sample size of nearly 200
respondents. The research questions in the study were aimed at understanding factors that
support principal retention and success during principal preparation, recruitment, and retention.
Three themes supporting principal preparation were the deliberate actions of teacher leaders to
seek administrative experiences, their participation in leadership development opportunities, and
mentorship from other principals as skills were developed. Recruitment was aided by network-
ing of candidates, development of internal candidates, and the reputation of the hiring school
district. Retention of principals is grounded in a strong foundation of relationships and support
within the school district, along with mentoring. The themes of this study have implications for
aspiring and current principals, as well as school districts and preparation programs. Future
research could include a focus on job-imbedded training, enhancing university training programs,
developing strategies to recruit principals, and effective coaching and mentoring programs for
principals.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 8
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
The study analyzed the preparation, recruitment, and retention of K-12 public school
principals. This chapter contains the background of the problem, the statement of the problem,
purpose of the study, significance, limitations, and delimitations, and a definitions of terms.
Twenty-first-century principals are charged with serving as facilitators of learning,
building mangers, personnel officers, and being the lead learners of the school (Kavanaugh,
2005). Due to the complexities of the position, as well as increased accountability measures and
constraints on leadership, the position of principal is viewed as an undesirable career, and quali-
fied applicants have diminished in recent decades (Whitaker, 2003). Recruitment efforts are
increasingly important to mitigate the decline in applicants, as well as preparation programs
designed to address the needs of the position. The preparation process and receipt of an adminis-
trative credential should correlate with the understanding of practices to support 21st-century
school leadership (Orr & Orphanos, 2011). Retention of school administrators is a significant
concern, with administrators leaving their positions due to dissatisfaction with the nature of the
position. This dissatisfaction includes concerns with the requirements of the role, high levels of
stress, difficulties in achieving balance between family and work commitments, and relatively
low compensation compared to comparable management positions in other fields (Baker,
Punswick, & Belt, 2010; Gajda & Militello, 2008; Whitaker & Vogel, 2005).
Background of the Problem
The principalship is multifaceted, and many potential candidates do not recognize the
complexity of the position (Baker et al., 2010; Kavanaugh, 2005). Most principal candidates
hold the necessary prerequisites but do not have a thorough understanding of the requirements of
the job. The pressures of accountability systems, expectations placed on principals, low
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 9
compensation for high demands, and the excessive amount of time required for the job have led
to challenges retaining successful principals (Norton, 2002). The responsibilities of the
principalship have become more challenging and complex due to decades of mandated reform,
rapidly changing demographics, technological advances, and dwindling financial support for
schools (Fullan, 2014; Hoyle & Wallace, 2005; Marzano et al., 2005; Spillane & Lee, 2014).
Although many principals are successful in the position, the pipeline of aspiring principals with
potential for success may be insufficient (Meyer & Feistritzer, 2003; Normore, 2006). Research
has shown that 1 in 5 principals left their school within 2 years and that many school districts
report a lack of qualified applicants (Pijanowski, Hewitt, & Brady, 2009). Given the potential for
an insufficient pipeline of principals as well as principals leaving the position, further consider-
ation should be given to principal preparation, recruitment, and retention.
Statement of the Problem
The job of principals has become more complex and challenging since its origin, with the
roles, responsibilities, and expectations continually evolving since the inception of the position in
the mid-1600s (Brubaker & Simon, 1986). Aspiring principals must thoughtfully consider the
proper preparation, recruitment strategies, and skill sets for ongoing retention and success in the
position. Preparation programs, such as universities and nonuniversities, have made attempts to
train prospective principals to be recruited and to be successful in the position but may have
fallen short in their efforts (Barnet, 2004; Brown, 2005; Davis & Darling-Hammond, 2012; Hess
& Kelly, 2007; Jackson & Kelley, 2002). Supports for current principals, including networking,
mentoring, and coaching, have also contributed to most principals’ ongoing success in the posi-
tion (Brown, 2006; Matthews & Crow, 2003; Service, Dalgic, & Thornton,, 2016); however,
principal turnover still remains high (Hull, 2012. The fact that disparities in the recruitment and
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 10
retention of female principals and principals of color also exist magnifies the problem for these
subgroups (Hill, Ottem, & DeRoche, 2016; Hoff, Menard, & Tuell, 2006). These inadequacies
signify an overall problem in principals preparation, recruitment, and retention.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of California K-12 school principals. While the most significant direct influence on
student achievement is the teacher, the second most critical influence is the principal (Fullan,
2014). It is important to identify the preparation and supports that principals must have to meet
the challenges and complexities of the principalship, as well as the support and retention efforts
that districts must use to keep principals in their crucial role.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
1. How have training programs and professional experiences prepared principals to
manage the complexities of the principalship?
2. What are the perceptions of principals, immediate supervisors of principals, human
resources administrators, and superintendents regarding strategies to recruit successful principal
candidates?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of principals?
Significance of the Study
This study should serve to inform multiple stakeholders to improve the longevity of K-12
public school principals. Aspiring principals should utilize the results of the study to guide their
work as novice principals and ensure their ability to maximize their success in the school admin-
istrator position. This study should inform district leadership of best practices for the recruitment
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 11
and retention of principals, thus supporting their efforts in developing school administrators.
Human resources personnel should utilize the results similarly, with emphasis on recruitment
strategies to ensure a pipeline of qualified administrators. This study should inform superinten-
dents of recruitment strategies for successful principals and the support necessary to achieve
longevity in the position. Administrative preparation programs should utilize the results of the
study in the creation and monitoring of their principal preparation programs. This study should
inform current principals of the factors that relate to longevity in the principal position and the
theoretical framework.
This study will affect multiple stakeholders. University and preparation programs may be
evaluated on their effectiveness based on the criteria that emerge from the study. Human
resource personnel and district leadership will be affected by their hiring practices. Current prin-
cipals may be affected by incorporating strategies from the study into their current position.
Assumptions
The results of this study was based on the assumption that successful principals were
individuals who had been employed in their current position for 2 or more years. It was assumed
that all participants would answer surveys accurately and truthfully. Finally, it was assumed that
participants would be forthcoming and transparent regarding their responses to all interview and
survey questions.
Limitations
The first limitation of the study was that it could no sample the entirety of K-12 public
school principals in California. Second, only participants who completed surveys were included
in the study and results. Participants who were interviewed were selected based on inclusion
criteria. The results of this study were limited to the participants in the study. The study was also
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 12
constrained by the time and resources available to collect data, which might have reduced the
generalizability. Finally, the reliability of the survey and interview instruments may have
affected the validity of the study.
Delimitations
The delimitations of the study were its predetermined boundaries. The first delimitation
was the interview process that was employed. While surveys were solicited from throughout
California, the interview pool was limited. The research team interviewed exclusively educa-
tional administrators in southern California by utilizing existing professional networks to develop
research participants. Second, the team collected convenience data for interviews to ensure a
reasonable acceptance rate for interviews.
Definitions of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined based on the literature
reviewed:
Association of California School Administrators (ACSA): The largest umbrella organiza-
tion for school leaders in the United States, serving more than 17,000 California educators
(ACSA, 2019).
Beginning or novice principal: A principal who has been in the principalship for less
than 4 years.
Change agent: A leader who challenges the status quo (Marzano et al., 2005).
Coaching: A task-oriented, performance-driven relationship with a focus on increasing
an individual’s specific skills.
Colleagues: Peers who work in the same profession and are at the same level in their job.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 13
Direct supervisor: A district office administrator who oversees the evaluation and
mentoring of a site principal.
Human resource personnel: Those working in the human resources department of a
school district and who oversee hiring practices.
Job Description Index: Job satisfaction questionnaire developed by Bowling Green State
University (Balzer et al., 1997). The Job Description Index has five facets: Work on Present Job,
Pay, Opportunities for Promotion, Supervision, and People at Work.
Job in General: A scale that provides a rating for overall satisfaction with a job. It is
used in conjunction with the Job Description Index (Balzer et al., 1997).
Job satisfaction: A general feeling or attitude toward the job (Brayfield, Wells, & Strate,
1957).
Mentee: Person who is the “learner” in the mentoring relationship (Kerka, 1998).
Mentor: Individual who holds experience and knowledge and works with others to
develop their skills (Cohen, 1995).
Mentoring: A relationship in which an experienced person provides guidance and
support to a less experienced person (Haney, 1997).
Preparation programs: A university, professional organization, or embedded training
that supports a principal candidate in obtaining the skills necessary for the principalship.
Principal: The head or leader of a school; the person whose main responsibility is to
serve as the educational and instructional leader of the school (Brayfield et al., 1957; Waters,
Marzano, & McNulty, 2003).
Principal recruitment: The process or strategies used by aspiring principals to obtain their
first principalship.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 14
Principal retention: The process or strategies used by a principal or district personnel to
support the retention of the position.
Principalship: One who holds a position of presiding rank, especially the head of an
elementary school, middle school, or high school.
School district: A local education agency that operates schools in a local geographic
location.
Superintendent: The administrator or manager in charge of multiple schools within a
school district.
Tapping: The informal process of current administrators identifying and encouraging
teachers with leadership skills to pursue administrative positions.
Organization of the Study
This dissertation is organized into five chapters. Chapter One has presented an overview
of the study, including the background of the study, the statement of the problem, purpose state-
ment, limitations, delimitations, and a definition of terms used throughout the study. Chapter
Two provides an overview of the research and literature relevant to the preparation, recruitment,
and retention of principals in the K-12 public school system. Chapter Two also includes the
history of the principalship and its evolution, factors related to diversity, a theoretical framework
for the principalship, and the conceptual framework utilized in this study. Chapter Three pres-
ents the study’s methodology, the research questions utilized in the study, a description of the
sample, and data analysis utilized for the study. Chapter Four presents a comprehensive analysis
of the study’s findings and how they answered the study’s research questions. Finally, Chapter
Five presents a summary of the study’s findings; conclusions based on the findings; future
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 15
implications; and recommendations for further research relating to principal preparation, recruit-
ment, and retention.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 16
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Current research indicates that the recruitment and selection of qualified applicants for
principal positions have become increasingly challenging. A variety of factors influence this
challenge, including concerns with the nature of the evolving principal role, increased account-
ability, high levels of job-related stress and family dissatisfaction, and low compensation com-
pared to equivalent management positions in other fields (Whitaker & Vogel, 2005).
There is a shortage of qualified school administrators preparing for and applying for
administrative vacancies as school leadership is viewed as an undesirable career (Whitaker,
2003). An aging population of school leaders further contributes to the looming shortage of
principals. Harris (2001) noted that school principals are typically around 50 years old, with 10
years or less until retirement. The shift in the role of the principal and decrease in the volume of
administrative candidates is a significant challenge for K-12 education.
This literature review explores factors and research related to the recruitment, training,
and retention of principals in K-12 public schools, with specific interest on the California school
system. To better understand and explore the complexity of the position, this chapter begins with
a review of the history of the principalship and the evolving role of the principal’s position.
Issues of equity and diversity follow the historical context. A review of the preparation, recruit-
ment, and retention for the principal’s position will be explored. The chapter concludes with an
analysis of three frameworks for school leadership that will serve as the theoretical framework
for the analysis of the leadership nuances of the position.
History of the Principalship
The position of a school principal has evolved significantly in the past 300 years, from
that of a lead teacher to a building manager, and most recently as an instructional leader with
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 17
increased management responsibilities. During America’s infancy, at a time when the one-room
schoolhouse reigned, the teacher served all functions of administration. The role evolved to a
purely managerial role in the mid 1800s. The 1900s brought a variety of shifts in administration
as structures and controls were placed on schools and the modern-day school system emerged.
The 21st-century school principal is an instructional leader with significant accountability
requirements.
Earliest School Leadership
Public schools in the United States took their formation in the mid-17th century with the
implementation of the one-room schoolhouse (Brubaker & Simon, 1986). Beginning in 1647,
the schoolmaster served as the teacher of all students in the school. The primary focus of educa-
tion was to teach reading and writing in a multi-age classroom. School boards and special com-
mittees of town councils provided oversight for schools. The first school law was enacted in
Massachusetts and addressed school requirements for towns. The law stated that a town of over
50 families must have a school, whereas a town of over 100 families must create a Latin gram-
mar school.
During the next 100 years, 1647–1747, the role of the principal remained one of a head
teacher. While many schools in America remained one-room schoolhouses, those with multiple
classrooms had a lead teacher (Brubaker & Simon, 1986). This teacher served as the head
teacher and taught the highest grade in the school—the beginning form of a principal teacher.
While head teachers remained focused on teaching rather than dedicated to administration in
addition to instructional duties, they monitored students and teachers, organized classroom
procedures, implemented board policies, and performed clerical and janitorial tasks (Brown,
2005). Two structural systems for schools with more than one teacher emerged during this time:
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 18
the Lancasterian system and the double-headed school (Pierce, 1935). The Lancasterian system
was a monitorial system where the head teacher occupied the large hall, facilitated the study
hour, and instructed one or two classes. The double-headed school model was a two-story school
with divided authority where one teacher taught grammar, geography, and other subjects upstairs
and a writing master taught writing downstairs. In this model, students switched between the two
instructors mid-day (Pierce, 1935).
The following century, from 1747 to 1850, brought a significant shift in the role of the
principal, a precursor to the current principal role. School administrators remained active
teachers although their appointments were coordinated by a school board and council (Brubaker
& Simon, 1986; Kavanaugh, 2005). Their role, in addition to teaching, included clerical duties
and supervision as well as school management. From ensuring that accurate attendance records
were kept to maintaining the school building to serving as an intermediary between the faculty
and the board, the head teacher role was shifting significantly to the modern definition of a
principal. At this time, no formal training was required for school administration, with school
boards seeking the most efficient person to manage the school.
Principal as Manager
Throughout the next 70 years, the school administrator no longer served in a teaching
capacity, and there was an official shift to the title of principal. The principal’s duties were 59%
clerical, 24% organization of the school, 12% care of the facilities, and the remainder of the time
working with pupil personnel and discipline (Pierce, 1935). Instructional supervision included
class observations, testing and measuring, demonstration teaching, and facilitating teachers’
meetings. Brown (2005) noted that the Common School Movement was born of urbanization
and immigration spurred by a need to build nationalism and social order, with the objective of
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 19
shaping good citizens, reforming society, and stimulating economic growth. Population growth
in cities and increased demands on schools were the impetus for the formation of the principal
position and consequently spurred the establishment of the Department of Elementary School
Principals in 1912 (Kavanaugh, 2005).
Formation of the Modern-Day School Principal
The principal position during the most recent 100 years can be summarized through the
metaphors of Beck and Murphy (1993). This period has been a transition for schools from a
schoolhouse model to a multigrade school. During this time, males dominated the head principal
role of schools, with females relegated to teaching positions. The metaphors describing the
principal position have evolved through the decades from values broker, to democratic leader, to
instructional leader—among others.
In the 1920s the principal’s role was one of a values broker and a spiritual leader. Cub-
berley (1923) asserted that the administrator at this time was the sole leader of the school, a
social leader, and an evangelical missionary. Supervision of teachers and school management
were beginning to be viewed as a science, with an emphasis on managing through a democratic
style. The responsibilities included organizing the curriculum, supporting teachers with instruc-
tional strategies, and being socially present in the community. This era of school administration
was influenced by the Progressive Movement with moral earnestness (Brown, 2005).
The principal position shifted to a scientific manager in the 1930s (Beck & Murphy,
1993; Kavanaugh, 2005). The principal’s role was most similar to a business executive, with
schools run on business principles. Marketing, budgeting, and maintenance were primary duties
of the administrator, using current research as a guide. A movement to certification standards
and research-based practices was mounting, with nearly half of the states implementing
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 20
certification standards by 1932 (Brown, 2005). An industrial perspective was applied to schools;
students were viewed as “raw material” and schools viewed as “factories” (Knott & Miller,
1987).
Administrators in the 1940s were viewed as democratic leaders, with a focus on human
resources and being a leader of the home front (Brown, 2005). The school’s role during this time
when the United States was engaged in World War II was to prepare youth for productive lives,
with a cooperative curriculum and shared decision making for faculty (Kavanaugh, 2005). The
political impacts of the 1940s, including the end of the Great Depression and World War II,
brought a capitalistic perspective to education (Murphy, 1992).
New expectations for schools to apply research and increase scientific-based practices
emerged in the 1950s. The space race, culminating in the 1957 Sputnik launch by the Soviets,
shepherded in an era of scientific emphasis in education. This emphasis on science extended into
administrative practices with a focus on school facilities, recruiting and training of teachers, and
curriculum development (Brown, 2005). The 1960s built upon the theory-guided era with a
bureaucratic emphasis. School principals were viewed as powerful bureaucrats with technical
expertise, including a broad understanding of pedagogy, assessment, and accountability (Brown,
2005). This decade was a turbulent one for schools in general, as the nation grabbled with issues
of inequalities and segregation, significant factors in the Civil Rights Movement and the Brown
v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) decision.
Federal support for education and an increased emphasis on the humanistic needs of
children impacted education and the principal’s role in the 1970s, consequently requiring strong
leadership for school administrators. Labor unions and teachers contracts impacted principals’
duties and required them to serve as intermediaries and negotiators (Brown, 2005; Kavanaugh,
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 21
2005). According to Brown (2005), social problems in the 1970s, including teen pregnancy,
substance abuse, and racial conflict, impacted the duties of principals as they shifted into a social
services role.
The Principal as an Instructional Leader
The most recent decades brought about an era of instructional leadership responsibilities
for the principal. Publication of A Nation at Risk in the 1980s (National Commission on Excel-
lence in Education, 1983) shed light for America on the necessity for widespread school reform.
The principal became a visionary leader for schools and was charged with creating change in
schools and taking an active role in teaching and learning (Kavanaugh, 2005). Leadership of
teachers and transformational leadership were emphasized in the 1990s as a means of increasing
outcomes for student learning. Principals were tasked with being a leader, servant, social archi-
tect, and educator, as well as an active member of the community (Brown, 2005). The 1990s also
brought reform, with an emphasis of a bottom-up approach—empowering change from teachers.
Distributive leadership was required of principals, with an emphasis on shared leadership and
collaborative structures (Murphy, 1994). This era also was marked by a decrease in the authority
of the principal and diminishing power of the position (Brown, 2005).
The 21st-century principal is a facilitator of learning and a lead learner (Kavanaugh,
2005). Schools are seen as learning communities with administrators as facilitators of learning.
Principals must continue to serve as competent managers and as experts in human resource
practices, in addition to being accountability leaders. In a new wave of school reform, with
accountability at the center of school leadership, principals must also serve as a change agent.
Their visionary abilities, moral compass, and focus on equity and access all place demands on the
school principal.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 22
The school principal’s position has undergone many shifts and demands throughout the
300-year history of the American school. These shifts have placed increased demands on the role
that require significant training and preparation, along with outstanding leadership and instruc-
tional skills. The current role, with its significant accountability, creates pressures for the
recruitment of competent leaders and the replacement of principals who are not meeting per-
formance and accountability expectations. The following discussion explores these demands as
they relate to diversity, preparation, recruitment, and retention of the 21st-century principal.
Leadership frameworks provide a theoretical framework for research-based practices related to
the principalship.
Diversity Challenges in School Leadership
Historically, the school principal’s position in the United States has been dominated by
White males, despite the increasingly diverse student population. According to a 2003–2004
study, 82% of school principals in the United States were Caucasian. Of this minority percent-
age, 10% of principals were Black and 5% were Hispanic (Sanchez, Thornton, & Usinger, 2008).
The representation of school leadership by race does not reflect the diversity of current American
schools. Sanchez et al. (2008) found that minority school principals contributed to the achieve-
ment of all students. They asserted that emphasis in recruitment and preparation should be
placed on ethnic minorities, with the desired outcome of a population of school administrators
mirroring the demographics of society. A gender imbalance in leadership roles exists in addition
to the lack of racial diversity. In a recent study by Hoff and Mitchell (2008), 18% of superinten-
dents in the United States were female; in contrast, 75% of teachers in this nation are female.
Hoff and Mitchell noted that gender equality in top administrative positions is inadequate. The
limited recruitment and retention of women in public education limit the human capital and talent
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 23
for administrative positions (Watson & Normore, 2017). In this section issues of inequality for
school administrators regarding both race and gender will be explored.
Issues of Race
The primary race of principals is Caucasian, including in schools with high numbers of
Hispanic students and students of color. In a recent study of Latino administrators by Fernandez,
Bustamante, Combs, and Martinez-Garcia (2015), the value placed by districts on ensuring
ethical representation was a significant concern for participants. In addition to hiring diverse
administrators, an effort has been made to mentor future generations of principals. With the
steep increase of Latino/a students in public schools, the imbalance of ethnic representation and
the desire to create parity of population to administrators are crucial. “Attention to school
support for students of color becomes important when schools and communities become increas-
ingly diverse” (Murakami, Hernandez, Mendez-Morse, & Byrne-Jimenez, 2016, p. 281).
Females of color, including Asian American women, find entering into administrative positions
to be a challenge. School principal positions are dominated by White male leaders and remain
segregated by gender roles. In schools with significant Asian American student populations,
there is a higher prevalence of Asian American principals (Liang & Peters-Hawkins, 2017).
Diversity of gender and race in school leadership positions does not mirror that of the population
of America’s schools and overall demographics.
Issues of Gender
Female school administrators primarily work in elementary school settings, though
women are making strides in overall representation in principal positions. Hill, Ottem, &
DeRoche (2016) noted that in 1987–88, 12% of principals were women, with the percentage
growing to 47% in 2011–12. Over half of new principals were women in 2011–12, thus showing
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 24
an increase of women entering school leadership roles. In a survey regarding the promotion of
teachers to administrative roles, respondents noted that male teachers had a swifter trajectory in
their careers, with males being promoted to school principal positions at a younger age than
females (Brinia, 2012). Respondents cited that barriers to promotion of females included limited
experience of candidates, breaks in service due to childbirth and child-rearing responsibilities,
difficulty promoting after returning to work after raising children, and family commitments
(Brinia, 2012). Hoff et al. (2006) classified barriers related to female underrepresentation into
four categories: access, acculturation, advancement, and advocacy. They noted that females were
less likely to change districts to gain access to advanced positions, with 69% of females reporting
that they were promoted within the district where they had taught. In determining their career
path and trajectory into a principal position, under 20% of females stated that their intended
career path included administration. Respondents indicated that delays in advancement were due
to family commitments, a desire to gain experience prior to entering a principal position, or
burdens in completing the administrative credential program (Hoff et al., 2006). Female admin-
istrators noted that they struggled to advance in their careers compared to their male colleagues.
Administrators tended to have later entry into administrative positions and less support that
further contributed to the gender-based imbalance (Hoff & Mitchell, 2008). The literature has
overwhelmingly noted that there is a gender imbalance in school leadership, with women princi-
pals taking a slower route to career advancement.
Female principals provide a varied approach to school administration that is cited as
highly effective compared to their male colleagues. Factors and behaviors such as community
engagement and facilitation of collaboration and community are noted as strengths of women
principals:
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 25
Research within the field of education suggests there are differences in leadership behav-
iors between men and women and, moreover, that the leadership behaviors enacted by
women are more effective than the leadership behaviors exhibited by men in improving
school outcomes. (Fuller, Pendola, & LeMay, 2018, p. 3).
Certain practices associated with female school leadership are found to provide a substantial
increase in student performance and school outcomes, including collaboration, elevating the
practices and contributions of others, and providing an inclusive environment (Sanchez &
Thornton, 2010). The effectiveness of female administrators is proven in educational research,
contrary to the underlying gender bias held in American education.
Gender Roles by Leadership Position
The rate of females in administrative positions decreases at the secondary level, with high
schools having the smallest percentage of female leaders. Female administrators tend to be
allocated to elementary positions. In higher level administrative positions, such as those of high
school principals and district management, including assistant superintendents and superinten-
dent, male leaders are more common (Nogay & Beebe, 2008). Nogay and Beebe (2008) con-
tended that there is a prevailing resistance to female leadership in cabinet and superintendent
roles. While females are gaining prominence in overall school leadership, chief leadership
positions remain out of reach for most.
Preparation for the Principalship
There are multiple routes that aspiring principals take to obtain relevant work experience,
appropriate education, and an administrative credential. Foundational understandings of school
administration and best practices for school principals are key aspects of these programs. In
order to obtain a state credential or license to serve in school administration, a program or
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 26
alternative certification process is required. According to superintendents, these programs should
place an emphasis on understanding the depth and breadth of the scope of school administration,
the demands of administration, a coherent understanding of instructional practices and the ability
to monitor and provide support to enhance instruction, and an understanding of human resources
and fiscal management (Cray & Weiler, 2011). Programs can be categorized as traditional, or a
university-based credentialing program that may also include a master’s degree, or a nontradi-
tional route to certification, such as an internship, a leadership academy, test, or county-based
administrative credential program (Hale & Moorman, 2003). Engaging in an administrative
credential program correlates with an understanding and application of effective practices for
school leadership (Orr & Orphanos, 2011). In a research study comparing students from More-
head State University to those from alternate programs, it was determined that the type of
program in which candidates participate indirectly related to their effectiveness as administrators.
Real-life learning opportunities and mentorship were found to be highly supportive to novice
administrators (Barnet, 2004). The process of licensure and certification is shown to increase
effectiveness of school administrators, particularly when principals complete an outstanding
program.
Although there is evidence of the effectiveness of school administration programs, these
programs face criticism for not providing adequate training for novice administrators to prepare
them for the complexities of leadership roles. According to Cray and Weiler (2011), superinten-
dents in Colorado have found that the administrative programs that their new hires undergo prior
to certification are inadequately preparing school principals for the position. Critics of programs
also noted that a lack of content in these preparation programs attend to the requirements of
special needs students and special populations. Emphasis should be placed on supporting
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 27
students with behavioral and academic needs and the role of administrators in special education
(Styron & LeMire, 2011). Critics have suggested that for principal preparation programs to
adequately support the formation of quality school administrators, they must create a foundation
for the complexities of school administration.
Obtaining an Administrative Credential
An administrative credential is required for any person to serve in the role of school
principal. As part of a the credential, aspiring principals must hold a valid teacher’s credential
and have 3 years of teaching service. There are a variety of pathways to the credential, including
preparation through a university program, nontraditional preparation programs, and passing a
comprehensive administrative exam. The most common pathway is the university preparation
program, which generally is accompanied by a master’s degree in school administration or
education.
University programs. A common path to the administrative credential is through a
university credential program, which may be part of a master’s degree in education. Typical
administrative programs provide instruction in curriculum and development; teaching and
learning; management of schools; community engagement; and special topics such as special
education law, finance, and personnel. Programs typically include clinical experience and
required fieldwork in some capacity. The programs are often constructed to support teachers and
teacher leaders and may be online or delivered in a traditional classroom (Darling-Hammond,
Meyerson, LaPointe, & Orr, 2007). University programs provide the most typical road to admin-
istrative credentials and preparation for school principal positions.
Research-supported, university-based administrative credential programs have a number
of common features. Preparation programs are under scrutiny by educational professionals due
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 28
to their limited success in adequately preparing teachers for the rigors of school leadership.
Proven programs include careful recruitment of teacher leaders who have the qualities and expe-
rience that would prepare them for the work of the principal. In a 2012 study of five successful
university-based programs, Davis and Darling-Hammond found that the programs had specific
characteristics that supported the development of quality school administrators. These features
includes a partnership with local districts to recruit students and to support the fieldwork portion
of the credential. The programs utilized a cohort model to build relationships among students.
Additionally, the programs included an assessment of knowledge including portfolios to ensure
that students developed the skills necessary for the position (Davis & Darling-Hammond, 2012).
The components of university-based programs vary by institution but must always provide
content to support the state certification in administration.
University programs are often criticized for their methods and relevance regarding current
school practices. Weaknesses in programs include limited instruction in school management and
accountability as they relate to school improvement and reform. In a study of university
programs, including an analysis of course content, the following issues were documented:
1. Less than 2% of content supported school improvement and management.
2. Five percent of instruction addressed data analysis and research-based practices for
school reform.
3. There was inadequate instruction in teacher dismissal and documenting inadequate
teachers as well as teacher compensation.
4. Traditional school management was the emphasis on instruction for the administrator,
with little development of skills around instruction and accountability (Hess & Kelly, 2007).
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 29
These critiques illustrate a utilization of a formulaic and inadequate approach to administration,
thus showing a lack of response to current research, trends, and needs in education.
Nonuniversity programs and alternative programs. County offices of education and
private institutions provide credential programs, including relevant coursework, as an alternative
to university programs. Twelve states, including Florida, currently provide alternative certifica-
tion routes whereby school boards can institute pathways to certification for administrators.
These programs are desired due to the need for highly qualified school administrators and the
demands of the position, as well as the lack of quality preparation programs that are training
administrators to meet these demands (Hess & Kelly, 2005). Alternative credentialing programs
are a result of changes in state certification structures and requirements. Credential program
providers, including those in traditional institutions and for-profit entities, feel that restricting
certification programs provides more dynamic and relevant content to prepare administrators for
the demands of transformational school leadership (Hess & Kelly, 2005). Funding and support
for alternative programs are established through state and federal grants, as well as business
partnerships and foundations. While programs vary, most seek to train promising school leaders
currently working as teachers and teacher leaders in schools (Hess & Kelly, 2005).
Alternative credentialing programs are sponsored by a variety of institutions and entities,
including nonprofit foundations, universities, and private programs. Georgia’s Leadership Insti-
tute for School Improvement provides training for prospective school principals in understanding
and supporting students from poverty and impacted schools in order to close the achievement and
opportunity gap for students. Georgia’s program emphasizes school data analysis, school culture,
instruction, and change as a means to address the needs of high-poverty schools. This program is
designated for invited districts only, and participants must have the support of their district to
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 30
enroll (Hess & Kelly, 2005). California State University, Fresno, offers a nontraditional, two-tier
program to prepare administrators for the demands of school leadership. In the first stage, candi-
dates participate as master teachers to understand the demands of teaching and school-based
instructional leadership. The second phase of licensure includes work as an assistant administra-
tor to build skills in transformational leadership. Critics of this program have noted that it does
not radically diverge from traditional principal preparation programs (Hess & Kelly, 2005).
School districts in partnership with local universities also provide paths to school admin-
istration licensure. These programs provide practical training of current district teachers to
prepare them to transition into principal positions (Hess & Kelly, 2005). Private licensure
programs such as New Leaders for New Schools, run through a nonprofit agency, provides
intensive and highly selective summer academies to prepare school leaders with an emphasis on
instructional leadership, organizational leadership, and transformational leadership (Hess &
Kelly, 2005). While programs vary, the objective of most alternative credential programs is to
provide a robust experience for candidates to equip them to be effective change agents in public
schools—understanding the complexities of the position and the demands of diverse public
schools.
Preservice programs. Intern programs and preservice programs allow working profes-
sionals to gain their administrative credential while working as school administrators. An
internship in administration may take on the form of additional leadership roles while teaching or
a departure from classroom teaching with the sole responsibilities of an administrator. Intern-
ships provide developing administrators with hands-on experience in the field while learning the
content associated with school leadership. Typically, interns learn from sitting school adminis-
trators with guidance from a mentor or coach. Internships provide novice administrators who
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 31
have proven leadership ability, based on previous teacher leader experience and formal training
while engaged in school leadership (Thessin & Clayton, 2013). Internships often address school
reform and 21st-century school leadership. Turnaround leadership, or the reform of a struggling
school using best practices and comprehensive school improvement plans, focuses on site-based
work. The intern’s role in this structure is to work within a district improvement process using
district structures and procedures (Lochmiller & Chesnut, 2017). Although not a common
mechanism for entering school leadership positions, the internship provides features and access
to hands-on learning that differ vastly from university and nontraditional credentialing programs.
Effectiveness of intern programs is an area of interest for school researchers. Clayton and
Myran (2013) conducted a study of former interns to understand the needs of internship programs
and opportunities to improve such programs. Areas for improvement noted by the study included
training for mentees to provide adequate coaching to interns, a formal understanding of the role
of internships in a district improvement plan, elevating the level of participation rather than
observation of interns, and planning around the deliverables of an internship program. Spe-
cifically, respondents felt that it was pertinent that districts carefully define the qualities and
characteristics for successful potential interns, the knowledge and skills that interns should
develop while engaged in an internship, and the method with which districts will align these
elements (Clayton & Myran, 2013). To ensure that the internship process produces quality
school administrators, there must be a clear definition of the structure of such programs.
Licensing exams. States such as California offer a competitive exam as an alternate for
experienced leaders to obtain their administrative credential. The California Preliminary
Administrative Credential Examination (CPACE) is a path for professionals to receive the Pre-
liminary Administrative Services Credential. This exam assesses candidates’ understanding of
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 32
professional knowledge, educational practices, skills, and leadership competencies (Sutcher,
Podolsky, Kini, & Shields, 2018). This exam, which replaced the School Leaders Licensure
Assessment in 2011, consists of content knowledge and a performance assessment. In order to
obtain a preliminary credential through this exam, both sections must be passed. While about
75% of candidates pass the content portion of the CPACE, 37% are able to pass the performance
task, with an overall pass rate of 36% (Poster & Taylor, 2018). In addition to passing the
CPACE exam, candidates for the California Preliminary Administrative Services Credential must
have a valid license to teach in California and have classroom teaching experience
(TeachingCertification.com, 2016). The CPACE exam is a less common method of obtaining an
administrative license as opposed to university programs and other means of licensure.
Relevant experience. In addition to obtaining a state administrative credential, aspiring
administrators must engage in relevant work experiences to build their expertise. This experi-
ence is based both on the management and instructional leadership components of the principal
position. The principal role has transitioned from being one of a disciplinarian and manager to a
comprehensive leader, with responsibilities in planning, managing finances, educational reform,
and student achievement. In fact, the leadership of the principal has an impact second only to
student achievement, with the role of the teacher having the most profound impact (Pannell,
Peltier-Glaze, Haynes, Davis, & Skelton, 2015). To prepare school leaders for the rigors of the
position, a variety of strategies are employed to build relevant work experience. As part of
strengthening the leadership experience of prospective principals, school districts may offer
leadership programs to build a pathway for teacher leaders to move into the ranks of administra-
tion. This work provides support for the elements of school leadership.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 33
Professional associations such as the ACSA offer robust training programs for aspiring
and newly hired school administrators as well as ongoing professional development for school
principals. Associations play a pivotal role in development of school leaders and provide
mentorship and experience to support their development. Due to the unique and complex range
of responsibilities for principals, a variety of agencies and organizations must work to support the
professional learning of principals. “To consistently provide high quality professional develop-
ment throughout the principal’s career, the states’ education leaders need to coordinate learning
opportunities that are designed and delivered for maximum impact across the continuum of
principal development” (Thomas & Kearney, 2010, p. 11).
Professional organizations play a role in developing the skills and strategies of school
leaders. Networking and training through these professional organizations are strategies
employed by aspiring administrators to build exposure to district leadership and increase promo-
tion opportunities. The National Association of Elementary School Principals (NAESP; 2019) is
an organization of elementary school principals intended to support the challenges of leading
21st-century schools. The NAESP seeks to support principals to increase student achievement in
all communities and for all children. Similar to NAESP, the National Association of Secondary
School Principals (NASSP; 2019) provides training and advocacy support for principals and
other school leaders. NASSP works to create transformational leadership for 21st-century
schools with an emphasis on secondary school needs and practices. The California Association
of Latino Superintendents and Administrators (CALSA; 2019) provides mentoring, leadership,
and instructional capacity building for Latino educators. The ACSA (2019), California’s school
administrator association, has a mission similar to the NAESP and NASSP. As part of their
ongoing efforts to promote principal leadership, ACSA provides a variety of training academies
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 34
to develop job specific skills and knowledge. One such program is Coaching Leaders to Attain
Student Success (CLASS), which provides a blended approach to training and development. The
program supports the growth of novice principals, based on a need for additional professional
development beyond the preservice programs (Bloom, Castagna & Warren, 2003). Professional
associations play a vital role in the support and training of school leadership in a variety of
capacities.
In addition to providing mentorship and training, professional organizations take an
active role in advocating for education and issues related to the professionalism of educational
careers. The development of accountability systems for principals is one initiative of ACSA,
with the support of the organization WestEd (Kearney, 2005). The proposed system promotes
effective administrators and provides guidance for new administrators on the necessary skills for
school leadership.
The effective preparation of aspiring principals includes an understanding of educational
systems and structures, in addition to general principles of management, school finance, human
resources, and pupil personnel guidelines. Instructional leadership and 21st-century leadership
are emerging themes in administrative preparation programs as well. An administrator may
choose a variety of preparation paths to develop these skills, including formal programs, intern-
ships, and a licensing exam. Regardless of the path to the credential, the principal’s role is one of
increasing responsibility and is multifaceted.
Recruitment of Principals
The recruitment process for administrators differs greatly from the teacher recruitment
experience. This process is intended to understand the skills and qualities of principal candidates
and is often robust and lengthy. The literature regarding school administrator recruitment shows
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 35
common themes, including the fact that recruitment efforts indicate a shortage of principals, the
expanding responsibilities of the principal position, and reflections from superintendents related
to recruitment.
Principal Shortages
The literature on school administrator recruitment highlights the shortage of qualified
principals. Surveys of school districts conducted in 1996 in the United States indicate a shortage
in school administrative positions in all levels of education. The shortage is a particular concern
in urban districts, where superintendents have noted that temporary principals are being hired to
fill vacancies, often at multiple sites (Whitaker, 2003). There is a more significant shortage of
female and minority principals (Tracy & Weaver, 2000). District leaders have noted that the
discrepancy between White male principals and female and minority principals is a concern for
recruitment efforts. Compounding the principal shortage is the imminent retirement of approxi-
mately 40% of sitting principals (Tracy & Weaver, 2000). In a recent study in Massachusetts,
over 60% of principals planned to retire in the next decade (Pijanowski et al., 2009). The U.S.
Senate (as cited in Thomson, Blackmore, Sachs, & Tregenza, 2003) shared concerns regarding
the imminent school administrator shortage and proposed financial support to address the deficit.
Government interventions have included a $50 million annual allocation from the U.S. Senate
and a $10 million annual allocation from the Bush administration (Thomson et al., 2003).
Building a pipeline for principal training and recruitment is a priority effort across the United
States.
Throughout the past 5 decades, the role of the principal has changed significantly in both
responsibilities and pressures. With the advent of educational reform efforts, additional duties
have been assigned to principals, including implementing Common Core standards, responding
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 36
to accountability measures, managing community and parent demands, and providing efficient
school climates (Whitaker, 2003). Tracy and Weaver (2000) assert that there are significant
changes in the climate facing schools that lead to reluctance from school leaders to seek principal
positions. These factors include school privatization, public conflict in schools, increased
diversity, increased school violence, and the accountability movement. The increasing demands
on personnel in this position is a significant factor in failed recruitment efforts.
Recruitment and training efforts studied explored the perceptions and motivations of
educators who transitioned into an administrative position. Candidates have cited the ability to
impact schools in a positive way, their relationship with community members and administrators,
and increased compensation as factors supporting their advancement (Cruzeiro & Boone, 2009).
The research has also explored the obstacles cited by teachers regarding their choice to remain in
teaching rather than move into an administrative role. The major detractors to staying in princi-
pal positions include high levels of stress and the overwhelming time commitment required of
the position (Pijanowski et al., 2009). The literature draws attention to a high turnover in princi-
pals due to educators stepping down from the role and districts terminating administrative
contracts. Human resources professionals note that poor fit, poor judgment, and concerns with
temperament contribute to turnover (Pijanowski et al., 2009).
Identified skills of effective principals. Prior to formally beginning the recruitment
process, district administration determines the needs of the school site and the ideal qualities of
principal candidates. Input from stakeholders is often included to ensure that the selected candi-
date will meet the needs of the organization. Professional standards guide the expectations for
school principals and the expectations of districts when hiring personnel. The National Policy
Board for Educational Administration implemented such standards in the 1980s, followed by
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 37
similar standards from the NAESP and the National Association of Secondary Principals. The
Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium’s (ISLLC) Standards were also created as expec-
tations for principal candidates (Jackson & Kelley, 2002). Districts use this and input from
stakeholders regarding specific needs and expectations for the site to drive their recruitment
processes. Districts identify, select, and screen candidates to reflect leadership skills and relevant
experience to support their work in school-based leadership (Jackson & Kelley, 2002). Through
the identification of specific expectations for employment, districts are able to recruit candidates
relevant to their needs and objectives.
The varied demands on the principal require candidates to have specific characteristics
and qualities to be effective. According to superintendents, knowledge of curriculum, a strong
teaching background, and relevant leadership experiences are the key qualities of principal candi-
dates. Each state also has minimum qualifications for administrative credentials, such as a
teaching credential, minimum number of years of teaching, and an administrative credential
program or master’s degree (Cruzeiro & Boone, 2009). Cruzeiro and Boone (2009) noted that
personal qualities found among successful principal candidates include leadership skills, confi-
dence, collaboration, and the ability to motivate colleagues. A variety of researchers have
explored the characteristics of effective principals that guide quality recruitment efforts.
Indicators of effectiveness include being a strong manager, providing instructional leadership,
being collaborative and community based, and being a fit for the needs of the school (Ash,
Hodge, & Connell, 2013; Parylo & Zepeda, 2014). The recruitment of a successful school prin-
cipal is a necessity for schools and districts.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 38
Strategies for Recruitment of Principals
Districts utilize a variety of strategies and measures to recruit and develop school admin-
istrators, including developing teacher leaders into school administrators, tapping or encouraging
teachers to enter into the administrative profession, and using strategic interviewing methods.
Developing teacher leaders. Teacher leaders are often developed by districts to move
into administrative positions, as they have proven their effectiveness in their school-based roles.
The recruitment of teacher leaders creates a pipeline into administrative positions. The develop-
ment of teacher leaders is supported by early identification of potential leaders, the mentoring of
these leaders, and ample opportunities for identified leaders to experience site-based leadership
and perfect their skills (Normore, 2006). Both principals and cabinet-level district officials,
including superintendents, should actively seek potential leaders and support their transition into
leadership positions. The careful mentorship of teacher leaders with administrative potential
increases the likelihood of their entering leadership roles (Pijanowski et al., 2009; Whitaker,
2001). Ample leadership experiences while teaching is encouraged for teacher leaders. Superin-
tendents are encouraged to seek out early- and mid-career teachers and provide support and
opportunities for these individuals. This process increases the duration that leaders will serve in
the principal role, which decreases turnover and allows for more years of service from effective
administrators (Pijanowski et al., 2009). Careful selection of potential principals is pivotal to
ensuring that those in the position have the qualities and characteristics necessary for leadership
positions. These individuals should have academic potential, instructional expertise, and natural
leadership skills. Providing comprehensive and broad exposure to leadership situations ensures
the preparation for site leadership (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2008). The early identification and
cultivation of teacher leaders provides a sustainable pipeline for school principal positions.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 39
Tapping. Administrators note that tapping, or being personally encouraged to apply for
open positions, is the primary motivator when moving into administrative positions. Current
practices encourage the creation of a principal pipeline through leadership development strate-
gies, including tapping, along with the redefinition of principal positions to provide a stronger
base of future administrators (Thomson et al., 2003). A variety of methods are documented for
career changes related to the principal position, including self-initiation, recruitment, requesting,
reassigning, removing, and passing over. The act of recruitment is often referred to as tapping,
or direct recruitment of potential administrators (Farley-Ripple, Raffel, & Welch, 2012). The act
of tapping supports the development of aspiring administrators and motivates teachers to con-
sider the principal role. Districts may encourage sitting administrators to utilize this strategy to
develop their internal leadership candidates with an emphasis on leadership skills and potential
and not simply race or gender (Myung, Loeb, & Horng, 2011). The act of tapping provides a
stable pipeline and leadership development within a school district.
Interview process. Principal interviews often proceed in multiple stages as district
officials narrow the pool of applicants. Interviews are typically conducted in a panel format with
various stakeholders serving on the interview team. Districts should use the interview process as
a means to select candidates with the leadership ability to increase student achievement or with a
record of successful work in closing the achievement gap (Ash et al., 2013). The model principal
hiring process includes recruitment, screening of candidates who have the desired characteristics
sought by the district, a preliminary district interview to determine competency, and a final
school-based interview to ensure that candidates meet the specific needs of the school site (The
New Teacher Project [TNTP], 2006). Ensuring that a structured and methodical process is
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 40
followed provides the greatest possibility of selecting a high quality candidate (Schlueter &
Walker, 2008). The interview process is pivotal for the selection of the school administrator.
Recommendations for recruitment. In a climate of increased accountability in schools,
creating recruitment strategies is necessary to school and district success. Districts are facing
increased competition for school administrators and are using aggressive recruitment strategies to
attract high-quality candidates (Winter, Rinehart, Keedy, & Bjork, 2004). Winter and Morgen-
thal (2002) found that candidates were drawn to high-performing schools and that there was a
shortage of qualified administrators for low-performing and urban schools. The authors asserted
that districts must prioritize the recruitment efforts for these schools to ensure that qualified
candidates are found. Women and minorities must be actively recruited for all administrative
positions, including those at the district level, such as directors and assistant superintendents
(Petzko, 2002). In order to meet the recruitment demands of principal positions, the assistant
principal position should be utilized as a platform for training and development of future princi-
pals. Instructional leadership is opposed to the traditional work of the assistant principal, who
often is tasked with discipline and attendance concerns rather than instructional leadership
opportunities (Petzko, 2002). Developing an aggressive recruitment effort provides districts with
competitive access to administrative candidates.
In order to meet the demands for principal positions, educational leaders have noted that
the principal position itself must be redefined: “According to extant education literature, many
principals report ever-increasing duties make the job appear undoable and, as a result, fewer
people aspire to the position” (Stark-Price, Munoz, Winter, & Petrosko, 2006, p. 82). The vast
duties and responsibilities of the position deter many prospective candidates from pursuing
administration. Redesigning the responsibilities of the position and allocating extraneous duties
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 41
to other administrators may increase the applicant pool. Recruitment efforts should also include
increased economic incentives and benefits, in addition to the restructuring of the principal
position (Stark-Price et al., 2006; Winter et al., 2004). It is imperative that school districts
consider the role of the principal and their recruitment and development efforts to ensure that
highly qualified administrators are recruited for principal positions.
Retention of Principal Candidates
Retention of high-quality school administrators is a challenge for school districts, particu-
larly as the responsibilities of the position become increasingly challenging. Due to an aging
population of principals, retirement is imminent for approximately 70% of principals, with over
60% of principals intending to leave the profession within 6 years (Gajda & Militello, 2008).
The general attrition of principals is higher than previous data indicate, raising concern regarding
the retention of school administrators. Those who intend to leave the profession have cited the
following reasons for leaving: inadequate compensation for the demands of the position, high
levels of stress, management demands, as well as high-stakes testing (Baker et al., 2010; Gajda &
Militello, 2008). Salary is the most significant reason for principals to laterally move to other
districts, with principals citing high salaries as reasons to remain in current districts (Baker et al.,
2010). Middle school principals and those principals who work in racially diverse schools have
higher turnover than peers (Baker et al., 2010). Retention of principals in small and rural
districts proves more challenging than those in suburban and urban districts due to the working
conditions and salaries in rural areas (Fuller, Hollingworth, & Young, 2015). In all scenarios, the
retention of principals is a primary concern of districts as schools face an imminently retiring
leadership force. Due to the high volume of work placed on an administrator and the complexity
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 42
of the position, many assert that the position should be restructured to provide relief for school
principals (Gajda & Militello, 2008).
Strategies to Promote Retention
School principal retention leads to school stability and academic growth. This section
illustrates practices utilized by districts to improve principal retention.
Coaching. Coaching and support provide new administrators with guidance, feedback,
and motivation as they navigate the challenges of the principalship. Leadership coaches play a
role in supporting the professional development of new principals and the ongoing learning of
veteran principals. Coaches may focus their work on instructional improvement, school reform,
data analysis, or specific strategies targeted to a school-based need. Support in reflecting and
analyzing school politics and pressures are also areas of support from leadership coaches (Loch-
miller, 2018). Principals have suggested that when faced with policy change or the implementa-
tion of new practices, there is an increased need for coaching support and leadership guidance
(Hussin & Al Abri, 2015). Executive coaching of principals and other district leaders can
enhance relationships, support school transformation, assist schools in establishing visions and
mission statements, and provide strategic planning to accomplish school goals (Farver & Holt,
2015). Principals have found coaching to provide the support that allows them to be more
effective in their position as school leaders. Research on the outcomes of coaching document
that principals who receive job-embedded training and coaching have greater growth in leader-
ship and school test scores than their peers (Warren & Kelsen, 2013). Leadership coaching is a
proven strategy to the promote professional growth and retention of principals.
Mentoring. Mentoring relationships enhance the skills of school principals and provide
confidential support to maximize the effect and satisfaction of the principal. Mentorship takes a
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 43
variety of forms such as mentorship from a superintendent, self-selected mentors, and assigned
mentors. Regardless of the format of a mentorship relations, good administrative mentors have
the following characteristics: ample time to devote to a mentoring relationship, the ability to
actively listen to a mentee’s concerns and struggles, the ability to build strong relationships,
confidentiality, and confidence (Coleman, 1996). Productive mentor relationships also have
frequent communication and the ability for the mentor and mentee to engage in thoughtful
discussions around areas of need (Schechter, 2014). Programs and training to support quality
mentors promote these strategies in addition to practical communication skills, reflective listen-
ing, coaching techniques, and trust building (Sciarappa & Mason, 2014). The ability of mentors
to listen to concerns is the highest indicator of mentor success.
Mentorships may take a variety of forms and could be supervisors or district leaders,
including the district superintendent. In a study conducted by Hinman (2002), a correlation was
found between the transformational abilities of a superintendent and a positive relationship with
site principals. Implications from this study supported the ongoing professional development for
superintendents to promote mentoring relationships with principals as a means of growth.
A mentoring relationship positively supports both the mentor and mentee. The Learning
Partners Program uses a triad method to provide mentorship with a veteran principal supporting
two novice principals. In a survey of effectiveness, both mentors and mentees noted that the
relationship benefitted their knowledge and skills (Syed, 2015). The symbiotic relationship
developed through mentoring provides support to all parties engaged in the relationship.
Theoretical Framework
In this dissertation the researcher utilized three frameworks to develop an understanding
of the theories that impact the recruitment and retention of principals. Bolman and Deal’s (2017)
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 44
four frames analyze the four primary functions of a school leader: the structural, political, human
resource, and symbolic frames for leadership. This framework provides an overarching under-
standing of the complexities and the role of the principal. School Leadership That Works by
Marzano et al. (2005) provides insight into the skills and strategies that effective principals
employ in their positions. The application of these principles supports school leaders in their
retention and career advancement. The final framework applied to this study is The Principal:
Three Keys to Maximize Impact by Fullan (2014). This framework extends the work of Marzano
et al. (2005) as it analyzes the skills of the principal. Fullan’s work synthesizes the specific skills
and strategies employed by leaders into three categories; the three frames work in partnership to
support an understanding of the theories that govern the role of the principal.
Four Frames by Bolman and Deal
Leadership theory can be applied to understanding the challenges of school administra-
tion and the recruitment of principals. Bolman and Deal’s (2017) four frames analyze the
leadership work of the principal and serve as a framework for this dissertation, as well as a
foundation for the two additional theories utilized.
Structural frame. The structural frame describes an organization as an entity that
accomplishes goals. It emphasizes the relationship that the leader has in ensuring that there is an
environment for employees to fulfill their roles with clear delineations between positions and
responsibilities. The leader must ensure that the structure is designed to support the specific
needs of the organization and is tailored to the organization’s objectives. In this leadership
structure, clarity, structure, and personal preferences are constrained and the organization is
governed by rational and systematic thoughts (Bolman & Deal, 2017).
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 45
Human resource frame. Bolman and Deal’s (2017) human resource frame indicates that
employees bring capital to an organization and the purposeful role that an organization plays in
supporting and empowering employees. Bolman and Deal emphasized the concept of the organi-
zation’s role in creating and supporting employees. The frame finds that successful organizations
use resources to grow the professional abilities of employees in order to develop the organization
as a whole. The literature and research on principal recruitment indicate the unique challenge of
the position, the evolving role of the principal, and concerns with creating an adequate pipeline
for candidates. Current practices and recruitment efforts are insufficient to meet the needs of
K-12 public education in the coming decades.
Political frame. The political frame views the leader as an advocate who manages
conflict and disagreement to build the capacity of an organization. This frame acknowledges the
leader as one who builds coalitions to accomplish the goals of the organization. The political
leader understands that his or her most important role is to allocate scarce resources and to
comprehend the power that accompanies this task. Decisions and goals are negotiated and
bargained, with a common understanding and goals emerging from this jockeying (Bolman &
Deal, 2017).
Symbolic frame. Vision and charisma are the core of the symbolic leadership frame,
with the leader emphasizing culture. A symbolic leader is likely to value pomp and circumstance
and to take an active role in ceremonies and opportunities to display the culture of the
organization. A symbolic organization has symbols and artifacts that define the perspective of
the entity. A symbolic leader pays special attention to creating and emphasizing what an organi-
zation is and what it embodies (Bolman & Deal, 2017).
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 46
The four frames provide a context for the four dimensions of leadership work and the four
contexts that principals must consider and operate from. The frames may be utilized by princi-
pals to provide an analysis of the demands of the position and the relationships developed with
stakeholders.
The Principal: Three Keys to Maximizing Impact
Fullan’s (2014) work, The Principal: Three Keys to Maximizing Impact, analyzes the
three primary elements of the work of a successful principal. Fullan’s impetus for the develop-
ment of the keys is the identified increased stress and decreased job satisfaction of school princi-
pals. It is noted that 50% of school principals feel stress frequently, that about 60% of principals
are satisfied with their position (a decrease of 10% in the past decade), and that 75% of principals
deem the job as too complex (Fullan, 2014). As a result of these factors, Fullan developed three
keys for principals to maximize their work and to increase their satisfaction in the position.
First key: Lead learner. Creating a culture of learning is the first priority for a principal.
The principal must ensure that learning and instructional improvement are at the heart of all that
a school does. He or she cannot do this work alone and should develop a team of teachers and
leaders to support the work of instructional improvement. The culture created by a principal
allows for schools to maximize the impact of the school and to provide a coherent academic
program. The principal’s role includes developing the professional capital of the team. Profes-
sional capital is the human capital, social capital, and decisional capital of the team. Human
capital is the quality of the teaching force in a school and their abilities as instructors, interven-
tionists, and mentors to children. Social capital is the relationships formed by an administrators
and their interactions with staff and community members. A strong social relationship forms a
culture of a school and encourages the development of a common cause among the staff as well
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 47
as an obligation to perform. The decisional capital of the leader is his or her ability to engage the
social and human capital of an organization and the knowledge required to effectively utilize the
human capital of the school. Decisional capital refers to the leader’s ability to make sound
professional decisions and to utilize professional judgement in his or her work. Fullan’s (2014)
first key requires a leader to develop a school-based team committed to learning and to have the
leader serve a model for this initiative.
The second key: Being a district and system player. A sound school administrator
must ensure that his or her school is functioning as a component of the district and the larger
initiatives and methods employed at the system level. In an era of increased scrutiny and
accountability, the role of the administrator as a system player is increasingly challenging. In
contrast, the ability to engage and collaborate across districts and schools provides a structure for
continuous improvement. The work across a district, the district coherence, builds the capacity
of the district as an entity and the individual schools within the district. This work also leads to
the long-term development of a district’s mission and capacity for change and accountability.
Fullan’s (2014) second key supports principals to understand their role within the larger context
of a school system and the benefits and challenges of developing a system-wide mission.
The third key: Becoming a change agent. The third key of the principal is his or her
ability to lead passionately and with professional mastery. An effective principal must gracefully
charter a path for the staff to change and support the team members as they adopt refined think-
ing regarding their instructional role and obligations. Leaders must find a balance in their change
efforts between supporting those who adapt to change quickly and nudging resistant staff in the
direction of the organization. Leading through change requires principals to have the confidence
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 48
and resilience when their efforts flounder and an understanding that their mastery of the position
and passion for excellence enable organizational gains.
School Leadership That Works: From Research to Results
In order for a school to provide academic achievement and opportunity to its students, it
must have effective leadership. Marzano, Waters, and McNulty’s (2005) studied what makes
schools effective compared to their ineffective counterparts. They examined school vision,
teacher attitude, school climate, organization, and opportunities provided to students to deter-
mine the characteristics of a successful school administrator. Their work provides a comprehen-
sive and delineated understanding of 21 specific responsibilities of a principal that impact student
achievement.
Five responsibilities were found in the meta-analysis by Marzano et al. (2005) to have the
most significant impact on achievement: change agent, discipline, flexibility, input, monitoring,
and situational awareness. The change agent has a willingness to challenge the status quo,
analyzes the common practices of a school, and provides dialogue to ensure that the school is
achieving. Discipline refers to the protection that an administrators provides to teachers to allow
teaching and learning to be the highest priority. A leader’s flexibility and situational awareness
allow the principal to adapt his or her style to the needs of the school and staff, as well as to be
attuned to problems or potential problems to proactively alleviate situations. The principal also
must encourage input from staff in determining the goals and objectives of the school and must
monitor staff to ensure that these goals are met.
The framework provided in School Leadership That Works (Marzano et al., 2005)
emphasizes the characteristics that a principal uses to provide a quality learning environment.
Leadership initiatives are divided into first-order and second-order change. First-order change
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 49
requires administrators to attend to the 21 responsibilities of leadership, including nine key
responsibilities: optimizer, affirmation, ideals and beliefs, situational awareness, visibility, rela-
tionships, communication, culture, and input. Second-order change follows as a school develops
a change initiative and incorporates the work of the leadership team as an extension of the school
principal. The application of the framework of Marzano et al. (2005) allows principals to priori-
tize and optimize leadership opportunities to enhance change initiatives.
Conceptual Framework
The researcher adopted the conceptual framework shown in Figure 1, which illustrates the
development of principal leadership by school administrators who employ these theoretical
frameworks. Through continuous development utilizing the four frames (Bolman & Deal, 2017),
The Principal: Three Keys to Maximizing Impact (Fullan, 2014), and School Leadership That
Works (Marzano et al., 2005), a leader develops the skills to persist in a school principal position.
Successful principals exercise the four frames (Bolman & Deal, 2017) to navigate the relation-
ships and function of their work, shifting among a political frame, a human resources frame, a
symbolic frame, and a structural frame. Leaders adopt the Three Keys (Fullan, 2014) to assert
themselves as lead learners, district and system players, and a change agents. The successful
principal develops and implements strategies from School Leadership That Works (Marzano et
al., 2005) through situational awareness, intellectual stimulation, the role as a change agent, and
input from stakeholders. The application of these three theoretical frameworks are dependent on
the function of principals’ work and their objective in the complexities of school leadership.
Chapter Summary
This chapter was a review of the literature relevant to the study of the preparation,
recruitment, and retention of K-12 public school principals. The literature has indicated that the
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 50
Figure 1. Conceptual framework for study. Based on Reframing Organizations:
Artistry, Choice, and Leadership (6th ed.), by L. Bolman and T. Deal, San Fran-
cisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; The Principal: Three Keys to Maximizing Impact, by M.
Fullan, 2014, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; and School Leadership That
Works: From Research to Results, by R. J. Marzano, T. Waters, and B. A.
McNulty, 2005, Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
demands of the 21st-century principal require careful preparation, mentorship and fostering of
leadership skills, and an in-depth understanding of the management and instructional leadership
for K-12 schools. Additionally, successful principals may utilize theoretical frameworks to direct
their efforts as leaders.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 51
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Public school principals have experience in their preparation, recruitment, and retention
that serve to prepare them for longevity and success in their administrative careers. However,
due to the complexities of the position as well as increased accountability measures and con-
straints on leadership, the position of principal is viewed as an undesirable career and qualified
applicants have diminished in recent decades (Whitaker, 2003). The purpose of this study was to
examine the preparation, recruitment, and retention of California K-12 school principals. It is
important to identify the preparation and supports that principals must have to meet the chal-
lenges and complexities of the principalship as well as the support and retention efforts that
districts must use to keep principals in this crucial role.
This chapter discusses the specific research methods of the study regarding the prepara-
tion, recruitment, and retention of principals. The chapter contains an explanation of the research
design methods as part of the data collection process. A discussion of the benefits of employing
qualitative research methods will be shared, including interviews and surveys. Methods of
sampling, gaining access, protocols, and the data collection approach will be provided, along
with an explanation of the instrumentation. Ethical considerations for this study will be dis-
cussed.
Research Questions Restated
This study was seeking to understand the following research questions:
1. How have training programs and professional experiences prepared principals to
manage the complexities of the principalship?
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 52
2. What are the perceptions of principals, immediate supervisors of principals, human
resources administrators, and superintendents regarding strategies to recruit successful principal
candidates?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of principals?
Research Design and Method
Qualitative Research
This qualitative study utilized both surveys and interviews of K-12 principals, immediate
supervisors of principals, human resources personnel, and superintendents to explore the prepara-
tion, recruitment, and retention of principals. The research questions and conceptual framework
guided all aspects of the research design. According to Maxwell (2013), the function of the
research question(s) is to explain what a study’s intent is in order to help focus the study and to
provide guidance on conducting a study. Interviews and survey lenses were developed from the
research questions. Surveys of a large sample of K-12 principals, immediate supervisors of
principals, human resources personnel, and superintendents provided data regarding the experi-
ences that led administrators to their principal positions and the existing supports to assist them
in maintaining their positions. Interviews were utilized to allow the researcher to discover the
experiences of K-12 principals and those who hired and supervised them, as well as to reflect on
the principal’s leadership development, factors related to obtaining their position, the experiences
that shaped their success or struggles in the position, and the climate that supported their school
leadership work.
Why Qualitative Methods
Qualitative research is the most appropriate method to answer the research question about
the experiences of K-12 principals, immediate supervisors of principals, human resources
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 53
personnel, and superintendents to explore the preparation, recruitment, and retention of princi-
pals. This approach allows the researcher to explore a subject or investigate something in a
systematic way (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Qualitative researchers seek to understand how
people view their own world and the experiences people had and to analyze the words of people
to gain understanding (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A qualitative research design has five compo-
nents: goals, conceptual framework, research questions, methods, and validity. The relationship
and interactions of these design components lead to a robust research design method and eventual
understanding (Maxwell, 2013). Qualitative methods were selected for this study to explore and
understand the experiences of K-12 principals and their preparation, recruitment, and retention in
principal positions.
Surveys are a systematic tool to address the research question; to provide robust data
regarding a wide sample of professionals’ experience; and to substantiate statements made during
the interviews of K-12 principals, immediate supervisors of principals, human resources person-
nel, and superintendents (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The survey allows a researcher to collect a
large sample for the purpose of understanding the experience of K-12 principals, immediate
supervisors of principals, human resources personnel, and superintendents collectively (Creswell,
2014). The use of an interview and surveys of the same categories of individuals substantiates
the participants’ responses from the interview and supports the answering of the research ques-
tions. When surveys and interviews are used in partnership, data can be triangulated to ensure a
clear answer to the research questions.
Interviews provide descriptive data in the words of the participant, thus allowing insight
into the thoughts, experiences, and feelings of the subjects (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003). The inter-
view tells a researcher what cannot be observed in any other way and provides access into
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 54
another person’s perspective (Patton, 2002; Weiss, 1994). Interviews are a necessary component
of the qualitative research process, as they allow the researcher insight into the participants’
experiences and ensure that findings are accurate and reflect the experiences of the participants
(Maxwell, 2013).
Research Team
This study was conducted by a group of 12 researchers from the University of Southern
California’s (USC) Rossier School of Education as part of their doctoral dissertation. The study
was guided by a USC chair and a team of experts and mentors. Data collection for this study was
done as a group to provide a comprehensive sample. Specific comments and information
gleaned through the interview process relevant to multiple researchers may be reported by other
researchers. While the data were collected cooperatively with shared research questions, proto-
cols, and study design, each researcher’s study remains individual and unique.
Population and Sample
The purpose of this study was to examine the preparation, recruitment, and retention of
K-12 principals. To fulfill this study’s purpose, the researcher focused on current principals,
immediate supervisors of principals, human resources personnel, and superintendents. Purpose-
ful, convenience sampling was used for this study due to the necessity to obtain timely study
results and to limit the pool of potential subjects. Purposeful sampling provides a researcher with
insight into a specific population and informs the researcher on the experience of a specific
population (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This method allows the researcher to deliberately select
individuals with the necessary experiences to test the theory or research question and to establish
comparisons between individuals and settings (Maxwell, 2013). Due to the time constraints of
the project and in order to ensure proper data collection, the researcher utilized convenience
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 55
sampling through existing professional networks to recruit study participants. Convenience
sampling allows a researcher to select a sample based on location, availability, and access (Mer-
riam & Tisdell, 2016). The survey sample was considerably larger than that of the interview
sample.
The research team elicited responses for surveys through existing networks, such as
colleagues of the researchers, ACSA, and through the USC network of superintendents and
school leaders. Interview participants were identified through these same means during the
spring of 2019.
Access/Entry
Obtaining permission to conduct a study and gaining access to participants who met the
design parameters were essential for this study. To receive permission to conduct the study, the
researcher obtained clearance from the USC Institutional Research Board (IRB). The clearance
documents indicated that the study was appropriate, ethical, conducted in accordance with the
university’s standards, and would not present risk to any study participants.
The study utilized a survey shared through a variety of methods, along with interviews of
a smaller sample of principals and district office personnel. Maxwell (2013) noted that the rela-
tionships that one creates with participants and gatekeepers—those who allow access to partici-
pants—are a vital element in the study design. Ideal participants for this study were current
principals, immediate supervisors of principals, human resource personnel, and superintendents.
Participants had to willingly agree to participate in the two aspects of the study; and the research-
ers had to ensure the highest levels of professionalism, confidentiality, and ethical behaviors to
encourage their participation (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003). Researchers elicited responses for the
survey portion of the study through an email invitation sent to potential respondents; this email
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 56
contained an explanation of the study, a written explanation of informed consent for the study,
and a link to complete the survey (Appendix A).
Research participants who engaged in the interview provided their informed consent prior
to interviews, along with an explanation of the study using a written informed consent document
(Appendix B). Additionally, the researcher gained permission for the interviews to be audio
recorded. Identifying potential consequences for study participants and clearly articulating the
purpose of the study are necessary to ensure support and full participation (Maxwell, 2013).
Before the interviews, in the process of scheduling appointments, the researcher shared the
parameters of the interviews and surveys and provided participants with a general knowledge of
the time requirements and scope of their participation. At the beginning of the interview, the
goal of the project was shared and informed consent established. Permission will be asked of
participants to tape record the interview, with the assurance that names and definable data would
be redacted. Participants were informed that no harm was intended in the interview process.
Instrumentation and Protocols
The research team utilized a structured approach for the surveys and interviews, with all
participant interviews conducted using the same survey and interview protocols. The team used
the research questions, conceptual framework, and theories regarding school leadership to create
all protocols. Protocols were tailored based on the respondent’s job function to ensure clarity and
purposeful data collection. The use of a structured approach is beneficial, as it allows for data to
be comparable across individuals, settings, and helps when comparing data among subjects
(Maxwell, 2013). This approach supports the researcher’s goal of comparing three individuals’
experiences as they developed the skills and knowledge for administration. Bogdan and Biklen
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 57
(2003) asserted that even when an interview guide is employed, the structured approach allows
participants the latitude to express themselves.
Quantitative Instrumentation
Quantitative data were collected through surveys of current principals, immediate super-
visors of principals, human resources personnel, and superintendents (Appendices C-F). Surveys
were appropriate for this study as they allowed the researcher to collect a large sample of data
from a broad population (Weiss, 1994). The surveys collected responses from participants using
a 4-point Likert scale. The 4-point scale required participants to either agree or disagree rather
than provide a neutral response. A response of strongly agree yielded 4 points; agree, 3 points;
disagree, 2 points; and strongly disagree, 1 point. An option of not applicable yielded a numeri-
cal value of 0. The four surveys were pilot tested for clarity of wording and question design.
Data from these quantitative instruments were analyzed in comparison to the qualitative data
collected through interviews.
Qualitative Instrumentation
A qualitative interview matrix was used to collect qualitative data from study participants
(Maxwell, 2013). The purpose of the qualitative interviews was to provide descriptive data in the
words of the participant, thus allowing insight into their thoughts, experiences, and feelings
(Bogdan & Biklen, 2003). The interview tells a researcher what cannot be observed in any other
way and provides access into another person’s perspective (Patton, 2002; Weiss, 1994). Qualita-
tive interviews from the four subject groups (i.e., principals, immediate supervisors of principals,
human resources personnel, and superintendents) were compared to survey responses to triangu-
late data in response to the research questions.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 58
The qualitative interview matrix was designed by the team of 12 researchers to ensure
that all researchers gathered data using a consistent tool (Appendices G-J). Interviews utilized a
structured approach with standardized, open-ended questions and subsequent probes to delve
deeply into the participant’s experience (Patton 2002). This interview approach, as opposed to an
unstructured interview, ensured that all participants answered the same set of questions that
directly related to the research questions (Patton, 2002). Due to the varied nature of the
responses of participants, the probes used by researchers may have varied to encourage a
complete answer from each individual. Deviations in probes were expected based on the experi-
ence of the participants and the differences among the 12 researchers, although the team hoped to
minimize discrepancies.
Survey and interview protocols addressed the three research questions in this study. All
instruments were submitted to the USC IRB for approval in the spring of 2019 as part of the
approval process to complete research on human subjects.
Data Collection Approach
Data from quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews were conducted concurrently.
Qualitative survey data were captured using the Qualtrics
™
survey program. Once the window
for data collection concluded, the group of 12 researchers analyzed the quantitative and qual-
itative data to identify themes and trends in the data.
Qualitative interviews were scheduled at the convenience of the participants and were
conducted in the participant’s workplace or office, thus highlighting the interviewer’s status as a
guest in the participant’s space. This process also minimized disruption to the participant’s
schedule and signaled respect for the participant’s work and schedule. Weiss (1994) noted that
the style of the qualitative interview may appear to be a conversation, but only the respondent
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 59
offers reflection and insight while the interviewer provides structure and directs the conversation
to topics that support the interview and ultimately answer the research question. The interview
began with the building rapport and sharing casual conversation in order to minimize researcher
effect. Bogdan and Biklen (2003) advised that interviewers do the following in the interview:
listen carefully, ask for clarification, try different techniques, and concentrate intently on the
subject. During the interview, the advice of Bogdan and Biklen was followed to establish trust
and to promote open sharing and reflection. The interviewer took simple notes along with audio-
taping the interview. Interviews lasted 30–60 minutes, and only one interview was conducted per
participant.
Data Analysis
Once both qualitative and quantitative data were collected, the researcher used methods
described below to analyze the data and synthesize findings from the data. Data analysis is the
process of working with the data, organizing interviews and observations, coding, synthesizing,
and looking for patterns (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). All members of the research team collected
and analyzed the data to triangulate and validate findings from the surveys, interviews, and the
body of literature related to the principalship. The recommended first step in qualitative data
analysis is to read the interview transcripts (Harding, 2013; Maxwell, 2013). Members of the
research team used the data collected from surveys and interview responses to organize and
prepare the data for analysis.
For the purpose of this study, the research team utilized the strategies outlined by Cres-
well (2014) to analyze the data. Once the data were organized, the data from surveys and inter-
views were coded and analyzed to determine themes (Creswell, 2014). The research team used a
computer-based program and shared codebook to code the data. Miles, Huberman, and Saldaña
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 60
(2014) stated that data can be initially summarized into segments using first-cycle coding. In
addition to first-cycle coding, the researcher utilized a predeveloped a list of a priori codes based
on information from the literature review. A priori codes are derived mostly from the researcher
team’s previous reading or knowledge of the topic (Harding, 2013). As the research team
analyzed the data, empirical codes developed. The qualitative and quantitative data were com-
pared using the Question Alignment Matrix (Appendix K). The findings using this approach will
be discussed and analyzed in Chapter Four of the full dissertation.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Qualitative research involves researchers to analyze field notes, transcripts, and data in
order to draw conclusions and develop theories while ensuring that credible findings are created.
As noted by Miles et al. (2014), this process should be done with care to avoid analytic bias that
invalidate findings and lead researchers to conclusions that are incorrect. A variety of techniques
can be applied to minimize researcher bias and to increase credibility and trustworthiness. The
two techniques that researchers employ most frequently are checking for representativeness and
checking for researcher effect. Checking for representativeness ensures that findings from the
research indeed represent the larger population (Miles et al., 2014). In this study, which used
convenience sampling, the researcher was concerned that conclusions would be limited to the
experiences of the sample of participants and would not be reflective of the collective experi-
ences of K-12 principals. Additionally, the researcher was concerned that the interviews with a
relatively unknown colleague would produce researcher effect. Researcher effect is when the
presence of an outsider creates a social behavior that is not typical (Miles et al., 2014). To
minimize researcher effect, the researcher worked to establish rapport, ensure confidentiality, and
utilize probes to ensured that accurate responses were shared.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 61
Ethical Considerations
It is imperative that qualitative researchers maintain the utmost ethical practices, as they
personally serve as the research instrument. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) asserted that the validity
and reliability are dependent on the ethical nature of the researcher. The rigor of the research and
the researcher’s training and experience are critical to ensuring credibility in qualitative research.
In order to ensure that this study was ethically conducted, the researchers did a review of the
literature on principal preparation, recruitment, and retention to understand the themes, concepts,
and theoretical framework—thus providing an understanding of the subject matter. The
researchers further ensured rigorous research practices by creating robust survey and interview
protocols, including an informed consent statement that shared the intent for the data. All
protocols were evaluated by the USC IRB to ensure they were ethical and appropriate for use in
research.
Interviews and surveys each present ethical dilemmas as they provide access to the
private thoughts and experiences of the subject (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Participants may be
concerned with the consequences of sharing the intimate details of their lives and the potential
repercussions of disclosing these thoughts (Maxwell, 2013). The informed consent expresses the
methods to promote confidentiality in the study, the parameters of the data, and the allowance for
any responses of concerning nature to be considered off the record.
Chapter Summary
This study aimed to understand the effects of the preparation, recruitment, and retention
of K-12 principals to support longevity of school principals through a qualitative research
approach. Data were collected by a team of 12 researchers, using both surveys and interviews
that were analyzed for common themes and trends. The objective of the researcher was to
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 62
analyze the data to make informed recommendations to hiring districts, preparation programs,
and school leadership to address the emerging shortage of principals.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 63
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to understand the preparation, recruitment, and retention of
K-12 public school principals. This chapter explores and analyzes data collected by the research-
er through qualitative interviews and companion surveys and presents the findings as they related
to the research questions. Interviews were conducted of principals, human resources personnel,
immediate supervisors of principals, and superintendents and aimed to answer the three research
questions. Interviews allowed the researcher to discover the experiences of K-12 principals and
those who hired and supervised them as well as to reflect on principals’ leadership development,
factors related to obtaining their positions, the experiences that shaped their success or struggles
in the position, and the climate that supported their school leadership work. Surveys conducted
by a team of 12 researchers of 115 K-12 principals, 28 immediate supervisors of principals, 22
human resources personnel, and 21 superintendents provided data regarding the experiences that
led administrators to their principal positions and the supports that existed to assist them to
maintain their positions. Qualitative data from participants were collected to further understand
the experiences and perspectives of principals and their leadership as related to their preparation,
recruitment, and retention. When surveys and interviews are used in partnership, data can be
triangulated to ensure findings are accurate and reflect the experiences of the participants
(Maxwell, 2013). Themes from the research on principals’ success and school leadership were
applied to the data to confirm the researcher’s findings.
This study sought to answer the following research questions:
1. How have training programs and professional experiences prepared principals to
manage the complexities and challenges of the principalship?
2. What are the perceptions of principals, immediate supervisors of principals, human
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 64
resources administrators, and superintendents regarding strategies to recruit successful principal
candidates?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of principals?
The research team conducted the study in southern California and analyzed the experi-
ences of K-12 public school principals, with data primarily collected in Orange County. Qualita-
tive research provided the researcher with an understanding of how educators viewed their own
world and the experiences that people had through analyzing the words of the interviewers
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The relationship and interactions of these design components led to
a robust research design method, and eventual understanding (Maxwell, 2013). In addition to
comprehensive interviews of participants, anonymous survey data were collected to confirm and
further analyze experiences and themes from the research.
Study Participants
Qualitative Interview Participants
Interviews of participants in southern California K-12 public school districts were con-
ducted to gain insight into the experiences of educational administrators as they related to the
preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals. Fifteen subjects were interviewed from
across three districts. In each district the superintendent, a human resources professional, an
immediate supervisor of principals, and two principals were invited to participate. In one district,
the Human Resources Department was engaged in a significant transition; therefore, no adminis-
trator fit the requirements and base knowledge to respond to the interview. In another district,
two human resources administrators were interviewed together, as they worked in tandem to
recruit, support, and train K-12 principals. All participating districts were unified districts with
K-12 grade spans.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 65
District A, a suburban district in southern California, served 27,000 students across 37
schools at the time of this study. The school district served predominantly middle-class families
and had a low unduplicated count. The district was considered high achieving with a 95% gradu-
ation rate and high ranks on state dashboard measures. The superintendent was the primary
contact in the district and served to facilitate all participants. A director of secondary education
provided input regarding principal retention and supervision. This district was in the midst of a
major recruitment for an assistant superintendent and director of certificated personnel and con-
sequently had no appropriate human resources personnel for the purpose of this study. Two
elementary principals were interviewed, as recommended by the superintendent.
District B was an urban-suburban district with a widely diverse student population. At
the time of this study, both a large population of students from low socioeconomic homes, with
46% of children qualifying for free or reduced-price lunch, as well as very affluent families were
represented. The district had just over 20,000 students and 32 schools. The superintendent was
the main point of contact. A human resources director and director of education were inter-
viewed. Additionally, a middle school principal and elementary principal, both considered
exemplary by administration, were interviewed. The middle school principal was in her second
year in the position, while the elementary principal was in his second assignment as an adminis-
trator.
District C was a very high-achieving suburban district in southern California and served
34,000 students in 38 schools at the time of this study. The district has been recognized with 70
Gold Ribbons or Distinguished School awards, had a 95% graduation rate, and performed at the
highest levels on state metrics. As with the other two districts, the superintendent was the
primary point of contact for District C. In addition to the superintendent, two human resources
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 66
administrators, one immediate supervisor of elementary principals, and two elementary princi-
pals were interviewed.
Quantitative Survey Participants
A survey provided additional data regarding the experiences of educational leaders
regarding the preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals. The surveys were developed
for respondents’ roles and included demographic data collection for principals. Each participat-
ing interviewee was provided with an electronic survey via email immediately following his or
her interview. During both the invitation to participate and at the conclusion of the interview, the
researcher notified participants of the electronic survey. The team of 12 researchers utilized a
shared survey to maximize data collection; 186 surveys were solicited from participants, with an
overall response rate of 22%. The response rates were as follows: 56% for superintendents, 16%
for principals, 41% for immediate supervisors, and 53% for human resources administrators.
Surveys were provided to participants in all 37 districts. All survey and interview partici-
pants were from public school districts in southern California, primarily in Los Angeles, Orange,
and Riverside Counties. Some districts were unified and served K-12 students; others were high
school districts or elementary school districts.
Findings for Research Question 1
In order to understand how training programs and professional experiences prepare
principals, Research Question 1 asked, “How have training programs and professional experi-
ences prepared principals to manage the complexities and challenges of the principalship?”
The literature around principal preparation programs highlighted a necessity for programs
to center around foundational understandings of school administration and best practices of
administration. According to superintendents, these programs should place an emphasis on
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 67
understanding the depth and breadth of the scope of school administration, the demands of
administration, a coherent understanding of instructional practices and the ability to monitor and
provide support to enhance instruction, and an understanding of human resources and fiscal
management (Cray & Weiler, 2011). Real-life learning opportunities and mentorship were found
to be highly supportive to novice administrators (Barnet, 2004). The literature emphasizes
concerns from superintendents regarding a lack of depth within university credentialing
programs. According to Cray and Weiler (2011), superintendents in their study found that the
administrative programs that their new hires underwent prior to certification inadequately
prepared school principals for the position. Critics of programs also noted a lack of content in
these preparation programs attending to the needs of special needs students and special popula-
tions. Emphasis should be placed on supporting students with behavioral and academic needs
and the role of administrators in special education (Styron & LeMire, 2011). Critics have sug-
gested that for principal preparation programs to adequately support the formation of quality
school administrators, they must create a foundation for the complexities of school administra-
tion.
Preparation for the principalship is done through a variety of channels including training
programs and on-the-job training. Data analysis of interviews and survey data revealed three
primary means to prepare for the principalship:
1. Principal candidates sought learning opportunities while teaching to engage in school-
level leadership, ranging from participating in district leadership academies to university-based
administrative programs;
2. Job-related preparation through administrative tasks and positions provided candi-
dates with leadership experience and growth opportunities; and
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 68
3. Mentors encouraged principal candidates to grow professionally and linked candi-
dates with the opportunities above.
Seeking Learning Opportunities
Aspiring principals pursued learning opportunities during their time as teachers, assistant
principals, or teachers on special assignment (TOSAs) to obtain the necessary skills and strate-
gies to be promote to a site-based principal position. This learning was accomplished through
learning academies and university-based programs for school leadership. Leadership academies
were noted to be more supportive of aspiring principals as compared to formal university
programs.
Leadership academies were described by candidates to be formal programs established by
school districts to shepherd the leadership training of its teacher leaders. The programs varied in
length and topics, though all programs were considered as pipelines for leadership development,
as noted by superintendents. Superintendent B shared that in his district, attendees from these
academies often moved into TOSA roles and subsequently assistant principal and principal
positions (interview, June 13, 2019). Superintendent C noted that the development of leaders
through the program ensured that the district both understood the candidates and indoctrinated
them in the methods and philosophies of the district (interview, June 5, 2019).
Principals who engaged in leadership academies found worth in the learning experiences.
According to Principal 1 from District B (Principal 1B), “I, in my 7th year of teaching, became a
part of our district’s leadership institute, which was to prepare people from within for leadership
positions” (interview, June 25, 2019). When asked by the researcher about the effectiveness of
the program, Principal 1B stated:
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 69
It was most effective because I got to learn from the directors and the assistant superinten-
dents that were in place at the time. It gave you a ton of information, and that was proba-
bly where I learned the most. And that was where I got the most preparation leading up to
the job. (interview, June 25, 2019)
Principal 1B compared this experience to his site-based leadership experiences, work with
mentors, and university preparation programs.
Professional organizations also provide leadership academies, such as the ACSA’s
Principal Leadership Academy. Principal 1C noted: “I did attend the ACSA Leadership Acad-
emy at UCLA [University of California, Los Angeles]. It’s a week-long aspiring principals or
new principals academy that was—but it was just the week” (interview, June 13, 2019). When
the researcher asked about the most effective learning opportunity to prepare for school adminis-
tration, Principal 1C noted that this academy supported her learning but was not the most promi-
nent opportunity:
The district I came from prior to my current district—they mentored people that wanted
to be administrators through, quite frankly, through putting them in the job, but they had a
position called Leadership Assistant where we were out of the classroom part of the week
and we assisted with what would be typical assistant principal duties, and that’s really
where I learned the bulk of my administrative. (interview, June 13, 2019)
District-based leadership academies positively provided learning for candidates, though the
leadership programs had varying reviews.
Principals noted in interviews that university programs provided minimal support to them
as they embarked on their careers. They found that the networks and connections made during
the programs were supportive, but little impact was made on them through content and practicum
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 70
activities. However in the survey, 80% of participants felt that university programs provided
training and experience that were important in preparing them for their position as a principal.
This was less impactful than mentorship and job-related training, as described in the next section.
Job-Related Preparation
Job-related preparation was cited by candidates as an influential method for preparing for
an administrative position. The principals, immediate supervisors of principals, human resources
personnel, and superintendents interviewed noted that the leadership work that teachers do while
in the classroom, their positions as TOSAs or quasi-administrative work, and assistant principal
roles all contributed to adequate preparation for the principalship.
While serving as a teacher, work done as a teacher leader supports the learning of princi-
pals. Principal 2C shared in an interview that “my principal where I taught was incredibly sup-
portive and gave me lots of opportunities as a teacher leader on site. I was also designee in her
absence. Her mentorship was really key to my preparation” (interview, June 17, 2019). In her
roles as a TOSA, Principal 2C directed the elementary summer school. This role allowed her to
implement a program for 4 consecutive years and to develop her skills under the guidance of an
administrator.
Prior to being a principal, serving as an assistant principal was perceived by interviewees
as a supportive step in their development. According to Principal 2B, when asked about her most
influential leadership experience, serving as an assistant principal provided her with an opportu-
nity to hone her skills (interview, July 23, 2019). Principal 1C cited the assistant principal role,
specifically as it was split between two sites and two principals, as being an effective training for
her subsequent principal positions:
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 71
I think being an AP [assistant principal] has to be. Interestingly enough, in Anaheim,
because of budgets when they cut the leadership assistant role, they split APs, so they
were—that’s how they got rid of half of them. They all used to have full-time APs. They
cut the leadership assistant role and then they split APs between schools, so I was 50% at
one school and 50% at the other school. I learned a ton from watching two different
administrators because they would often be doing similar things, but I would watch two
different styles of doing it. (interview, June 13, 2019)
The theme of serving in the assistant principal roles at two schools, with contrasting leadership,
was noted by additional principals as impactful. Principal 2C reported that she worked as the
assistant principal at contrasting schools. This experience allowed her to observe varying ways
that leaders function and then determine the best fit for her own style (interview, June 17, 2019).
Job-related preparation through teacher leadership roles, TOSA roles, and assistant
principal roles was confirmed in the survey data as highly impactful to leadership development.
Of the principals, 93.5% responded affirmatively that having experience as a teacher leader was a
crucial element in preparing them for their position as a principal. Sixty-seven percent of princi-
pals and 100% of immediate supervisors of principals, human resources personnel, and superin-
tendents indicated that prior work experience was more important than university training
experience in preparing principals for their current positions.
Mentors
Guidance from principal mentors and informal networks provide guidance to principals
as they prepare for the position. Research interviews showed a high level of praise for mentors to
inspire candidates to become principals and to develop the skills necessary for the position.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 72
Mentors model for principals the skills and characteristics needed for school leadership.
Principal 2B shared that having a female minority principal, such as herself, helped her to realize
that she could serve in a school leadership role. She was also struck by the mentor’s effective-
ness in the position, sharing that “I just thought that she did an exceptional job with our staff, and
it was incredible watching her. I think at that point, it was very clear to me that I wanted to move
up into administration” (interview, July 23, 2019).
Mentors with contrasting leadership styles also promoted principals’ interest in the role.
Principal 1A noted that having two principal mentors exposed her to how different leaders
conducted themselves:
I also had a great mentor who had a very different style than [her first principal—name
removed for confidentiality] in my second assignment as an assistant principal, and he
taught me things that I couldn’t have learned from her because she was just a different
type of leader than he was. And so I learned a lot from him and a lot of the people’s skills
and how to kind of massage situations to—to be calm and productive when maybe the
other party is not in that state of mind. I learned a lot of that from him because he was
just—PR [public relations] was, was his thing. He wore that hat well. (interview,
June 17, 2019)
Mentors serve not only to guide principal candidates in how they perform their jobs but
also to provide motivation to seek promotions and professional growth. Principal 1A noted that
her principal, when she served as an assistant principal, encouraged her to seek leadership oppor-
tunities, even if that activity required her to pursue positions outside the district (interview,
June 17, 2019). The experience of mentors and their political savvy provide aspiring principals
with the guidance to pursue their own promotion opportunities.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 73
Survey data confirmed the above findings regarding mentorship. Nearly all principals
(96.8%) felt that having mentors was instrumental in preparing them for their position as a prin-
cipal. Ninety-three percent of principals noted that informal networks of support (e.g., profes-
sional colleagues) were important in preparing them for their position as a principal. One
hundred percent of immediate supervisors of principals, human resources personnel, and superin-
tendents responded affirmatively to these survey statements. The survey data confirmed the
interview data, as well as the data found in the research.
Summary of Results for Research Question 1
Principal preparation is done through training programs and on-the-job training. Results
from this study pointed to three common themes from the qualitative interview participants;
these themes were confirmed through qualitative surveys. The first theme was that principal
candidates sought learning opportunities while teaching to engage in school-level leadership,
ranging from participating in district leadership academies to university-based administrative
programs. Secondly, job-related preparation through administrative tasks and positions provided
candidates with leadership experience and growth opportunities. Finally, mentors encouraged
principal candidates to grow professionally and linked candidates with opportunities.
Findings for Research Question 2
To better understand strategies used by districts and principals in the recruitment process,
Research Question 2 asked, “What are the perceptions of principals, immediate supervisors of
principals, human resources administrators, and superintendents regarding strategies to recruit
successful principal candidates?”
Recruitment strategies for aspiring principal candidates were documented in the literature
regarding school-based administration. Indicators of effectiveness of a principal candidate
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 74
include being a strong manager; instructional leadership; and being collaborative, community
based, and a fit for the needs of the school (Ash et al., 2013; Parylo & Zepeda, 2014). The devel-
opment of teacher leaders is supported by early identification of potential leaders, the mentoring
of these leaders, and ample opportunities for identified leaders to experience site-based leader-
ship and to develop their skills (Normore, 2006). The careful mentorship of teacher leaders with
administrative potential increases their likelihood of entering leadership roles (Pijanowski et al.,
2009; Whitaker, 2001). Additionally, the research noted that current practices encourage the
creation of a principal pipeline through leadership development strategies, including tapping,
along with the redefinition of principal positions to provide a stronger base of future administra-
tors (Thomson et al., 2003). The reputation of the district and its political potential factor into
recruitment efforts. Winter and Morgenthal (2002) found that candidates were drawn to high-
performing schools and there was a shortage of qualified administrators for low-performing and
urban schools. Well-resourced districts are more able to attract candidates.
Recruitment for the principalship is done through a variety of channels and techniques by
both candidates and districts. The data analysis of interviews and survey data revealed three
primary means for principal recruitment:
1. Networking and the reputation of candidates were considered when recruiting candi-
dates;
2. Districts actively recruited through their existing teaching force by endorsing them as
leaders, developing their leadership skills, and promoting from within; and
3. Candidates sought positions in their districts due to the reputation of the district and
its resources.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 75
Networking
The reputation of candidates and previous experience, particularly their performance and
relationships, are factors for recruitment. Districts consider the reputation of candidates carefully
before inviting them to be a part of a district administration team. Performance in the classroom
as teachers in addition to leadership experiences provide insight into a candidate’s viability.
In interviews of human resources personnel, immediate supervisors of principals, and
superintendents, the quality of candidates’ reputations was a primary factor in recruitment.
Superintendent B noted:
What we look for is were they respected and valued teachers? Knowledgeable in instruc-
tion, knowledgeable in classroom management, developed good relationships with kids.
Being a really good teacher is the first identifier for us. If they’re going to coach teachers,
they have had to have experience of being successful in the classroom. That’s the first
building block. The second one—and it’s a little more difficult hurdle for teachers who
are moving into administration—is, what’s their world view? Is it just the classroom, or
do they understand how everything works together as a team? And that they’re not only
going to be leading a team, but they’re part of a bigger team throughout the district, and
how do we help each other to make sure that we’re raising the bar for all students?
(interview, June 13, 2019)
Superintendent B (interview, June 13, 2019), Superintendent C (interview, June 5, 2019),
and Superintendent from District A (interview, June 5, 2019) all shared that the experiences that
candidates have in leadership roles impact their reputation. According to the superintendents,
these experiences broaden the world view and perspective of principal candidates.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 76
Candidates for administration positions must be mindful to foster positive relationships
within the district. Principals noted during their interviews that the personal connections that
they made with staff and district office personnel contributed to their recruitment. Principal 1A
(interview, June 17, 2019) and Principal 2A (interview, June 19, 2019) shared that their reputa-
tions from teaching and previous district work, along with established relationships in their
current school districts, helped them to obtain their principal positions. Principal 2B shared how
her reputation supported her in obtaining her principal position:
I think that I’m very authentic, and I’m very real, and I recognize that I’m not perfect, and
I allow myself to be in the seat of a learner, always. And if I make a mistake, I can own
my mistake. And I’m always willing to ask any of my directors, any of my supervisors,
for feedback or advice because I feel like I’m learning, and I do want to be the best
principal I can be. (interview, July 23, 2019)
Creating positive relationships with colleagues and being well networked within and beyond the
district encourage principal promotion.
Survey data confirmed the above findings regarding networking. Of the principals,
96.7% found that their previous experience in education was an important factor in being
recruited in their current positions as principals. One hundred percent of immediate supervisors
of principals, human resources personnel, and superintendents responded affirmatively to the
these survey statements.
Tapping and Leadership Development
Promotion within the district through tapping was cited in the interviews of nearly all
principals, immediate supervisors of principals, human resources personnel, and superintendents.
This strategy describes a process for seeking out potential school leaders based on performance
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 77
in teacher–leader roles and fostering their leadership development. Participants noted that this
process took place often during a teacher’s teaching tenure, and most often a trusted principal
was the leader who tapped the aspiring principal. When speaking about the principal who
encouraged her to seek a leadership position, Principal 1C commented:
He is wonderful, and I would not be an administrator if not for him. He called me into his
office one day and was like, “Hey, you should be an administrator”; and at first I said,
“No, thank you. That doesn’t look very fun to me.” He had just started at our school, and
I watched what he did for school culture and how that changed our school. And watching
that made me think like, “Okay, that’s something I might be interested in,” because that
makes the job looked different than what my perceptions of it had been previously.
(interview, June 13, 2019)
Principal 2A shared a similar path to becoming a principal with a trusted administrator.
She found that her principal supported and always encouraged her:
When she was my principal, she would try to encourage me to think bigger, you know,
and get into an administrative role. Obviously, we all need to do it on our own time
schedule, but she was always encouraging. Like she saw something in me that I never
saw in myself. (interview, June 19, 2019)
Principal 2A continued to grow her leadership and instructional skills after the initial conversa-
tion with her then principal but, after nearly a decade of continued teaching, chose to pursue
school-based leadership.
While tapping was a prominent theme in both the literature and interview data, survey
statements were not offered to support tapping. The volume of interview responses noting the
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 78
prevalence of tapping in the recruitment process led the researcher to understand the importance
of this method for recruitment.
Mentoring from veteran administrators promotes the development of school leaders as
part of the recruitment process. Principal 1C expressed that in [name removed for confidential-
ity] there was a specific pattern that candidates had to follow (interview, June 13, 2019). They
first became a literacy coach and followed by being an assistant principal and then principal.
This process allowed them to be mentored and to build leadership capacity under the guidance of
a trusted principal. Principal 2C found that the mentorship of her principal when she served as a
TOSA built her skills in leadership and supported her in the recruitment process (interview,
June 17, 2019). The mentorship leading up to a principal position positively supported candi-
dates in obtaining the leadership roles.
Candidates who possessed strong skills in instructional leadership were sought out by
districts when recruiting principals. Immediate Supervisor from District B (Immediate Supervi-
sor B) shared that the skills of principals to navigate instruction in [name removed for confidenti-
ality] was one of the most important traits in hiring (interview, July 15, 2019). Human Resources
Administrator C (interview, June 4, 2019) and Immediate Supervisor A (interview, June 12,
2019) concurred that instructional leadership and the ability to analyze data and make sound
instructional decisions were necessary skills for all principals hired into their districts. Interview
data from additional immediate supervisors of principals, human resources personnel, and super-
intendents contained references to the necessity for instructional leadership in the current climate
for schools.
Principals found that their own strong instructional skills supported them in obtaining
their principal positions. For example, Principal 1C expressed, “I was really well rounded as far
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 79
as anything that was happening in instruction. So that was one of the big things that sold them on
me. And then the other piece with them was the school culture piece” (interview, June 13, 2019).
The importance of developing instructional leadership, as opposed to managerial skills alone,
was noted in the interviews as value-added skills for candidates. Principal 2A described the
difference:
I can remember talking to my mentor years ago about a principalship and you know being
an instructional leader versus the manager and how you really need to be both, and some
principals are really good at managing but are not good instructional leaders, and so it
gets to be really moving your school forward—you need to be both. So I am strong with
my instruction, and I think that’s my teaching background with also new ways of learning
the whole new generation, 21st-century learning—whatever we want to call it today—but
using technology effectively, using it intentionally to support our students, giving all of
our students opportunities to be creative. I’m very good with that, and I work really well
with other teachers in getting them comfortable to take risks as well. I did that when I
was a teacher. I just kind of started talking with the other teachers and spreading it and
getting them excited, and I think that would probably be the number one. (interview,
June 19, 2019)
The reputation of a principal candidate as an instructional leader was a key factor in principal
recruitment.
The final component of leadership development that enhanced recruitment efforts for
principals was previous experiences. Principals found that having experience in working with a
variety of principal leadership styles supported them in developing their own leadership styles.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 80
Principal 2B explained that her leadership style was a synthesis of the styles of those for whom
she had worked:
I had had really diverse experiences and working with a lot of different schools. Overall,
before I became a principal, I worked at six different schools. I worked for maybe nine to
10 principals. I had kind of seen what I had appreciated about each of the different
leaders that I worked with. And also with my own personality, kind of created my own
unique style. (interview, July 23, 2019)
Leadership development was a strong theme in interviews regarding the recruitment of principals
and what districts looked for in candidates.
The survey data confirmed the findings of research interviews regarding tapping and
leadership development, particularly as it related to instructional leadership. Ninety percent of
principals surveyed indicated that their level of understanding of district initiatives and goals was
an important factor in being recruited as a principal. Eighty-nine percent of immediate supervi-
sors of principals and 100% of human resources personnel and superintendents responded
affirmatively to these survey statements; 97% of principals indicated that having instructional
leadership experience was an important factor in being recruited into the position of principal.
Political Factor
Principal candidates sought out districts based on their reputation. This reputation might
be based on the district philosophy, its resources, and the caliber of employees within the school
district. Principal 2B moved from a well-known and highly regarded district to a nearby district
due to its reputation (interview, July 23, 2019):
[Name removed for confidentiality] is a highly regarded district in Orange County. And
to be quite honest with you, I feel like the lucky one that they picked me because just
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 81
there’s a lot of really quality people here, and it’s a highly regarded district” (interview,
July 23, 2019) Principal 1A shared that the district’s philosophy encouraged her to
move from a nearby district as well:
What I love is that—and what continues to attract me to stay in this district, is that I’m
given the freedom to make decisions that will support my school. But for me, I interview
teachers and I hire who I want. I hire my custodians; I hire my IAs [instructional assis-
tants]; I hire every member of staff here; and it’s a blessing and a curse. It takes a lot of
time. But the blessing is that I get to build a team here that is a good fit for the school.
(interview, June 17, 2019)
Principal 2C (interview, June 17, 2019) and Principal 1C (interview, June 13, 2019), who
worked in the same district, also were motivated to move to their district due to its caliber in the
region. They felt that obtaining a principalship in their current district was prestigious, due to the
impressive experiences of colleagues and administration. The autonomy, decentralization, and
empowerment provided by their district encouraged them to seek their positions. Superintendent
C, the superintendent of [name removed for confidentiality] shared that the district reputation is
one of its most powerful recruitment tools (interview, June 5, 2019). Due to the impression that
others had of their district, they were able to select the most capable of candidates. Superinten-
dent B noted that principals were attracted to their district due to the vast resources available to
them to support students (interview, June 13, 2019). Not only were employees compensated
well, but also resources for student achievement were readily available to sites, thus providing
principals with the support needed to be effective in their role.
Recruitment through a positive reputation of the district, as well as the district being
considered well resourced, was confirmed in the survey data as highly impactful to leadership
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 82
development. Eighty-seven percent of principals noted that the reputation of the school district
was an important factor in applying for the principal position. One hundred percent of immediate
supervisors of principals, human resources personnel, and superintendents responded affirma-
tively to these survey statements. A district’s reputation attracts candidates and supports recruit-
ment efforts.
Summary of Results for Research Question 2
Recruitment for the principalship is done through a variety of channels and techniques by
both candidates and districts. Results from this study pointed to three common themes from the
qualitative interview participants; these themes were confirmed through qualitative surveys.
First, careful networking of candidates and the reputation of candidates were considered when
recruiting principals. Secondly, districts actively recruited through their existing teaching force
by endorsing teachers as leaders, developing their leadership skills and promoting from within.
Finally, candidates sought positions in their districts due to the reputation of the district and its
resources, or its overall political effectiveness.
Findings for Research Question 3
To better understand strategies used by districts and principals with regard to retention in
the principalship, Research Question 3 asked, “What are the perceived strategies that support the
retention of principals?”
Strategies to promote the retention of principals found prominently in the literature
revolved around the mentorship and coaching of principals, as well as maintaining adequate
compensation. Mentorship is regarded as a primary strategy to support retention. Regardless of
the format of a mentorship relations, good administrative mentors have the following characteris-
tics: ample time to devote to a mentoring relationship, the ability to actively listen to mentee’s
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 83
concerns and struggles, the ability to build strong relationships, confidentiality, and confidence
(Coleman, 1996). Productive mentor relationships also have frequent communication and the
ability for the mentor and mentee to engage in thoughtful discussions around areas of need
(Schechter, 2014). Despite mentorship and compensation, principal attrition does occur. Those
who intend to leave the profession cite the following reasons for leaving: inadequate compensa-
tion for the demands of the position, high levels of stress, management demands, as well as high
stakes testing (Baker et al., , 2010; Gajda & Militello, 2008). Salary is the most significant
reason for principals to laterally move to other districts, with principals citing high salaries as
reasons to remain in their current districts (Baker et al., 2010). Despite the demands of the prin-
cipalship role, through mentorship and compensation, principals find satisfaction and remain in
the position.
Retention of principals is done through a variety of means by both candidates and
districts. Data analysis of interviews and survey data revealed four primary means of principal
recruitment:
1. Retention increased when principals had a mentor, whether self-selected or assigned,
to support them in their initial years in the position;
2. Relationships with directors, assistant superintendents, and the superintendent sup-
ported principals in retaining the position;
3. District superiors found that a principal’s engagement in professional associations and
professional networking increased their retention; and
4. Compensation and benefits provided from the district increased retention for princi-
pals, particularly in well-resourced districts.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 84
Mentors
Principals and superiors cited quality mentorship as supporting the retention of principals.
Mentors may be assigned by a district or selected by principals. Both forms of mentorship were
supportive of the principal’s experience in their initial years in the position. When asked about
mentorship relationships, Principal 1A expressed that both the official mentorship as well as
informal support from colleagues provided her with feedback, advice, and guidance during her
first years (interview, June 17, 2019). The ability to discuss circumstances with colleagues was
invaluable as she navigated the initial years in the role.
Principals found that having a veteran principal as a mentor, particularly one who worked
in a neighboring school and/or one self-selected by the principal provided them with guidance
and support during difficult situations. Principals cited that mentors met with them frequently
and were available via phone or email to discuss and provide direction. In interviews, principals
described their mentors as respected members of the administration who had experience and
qualities relating to the mentee. When asked about his mentor, Principal 1B responded that the
mentor was an advocate for children, was able to share his experiences and decisions, and built
community (interview, June 25, 2019). These were all skills that Principal 1B wished to develop
in himself and were in his core values as an administrator. As his mentor was retiring, Principal
1B shared:
I’m definitely going to miss that bond, but I know that I will form others with other
principals, too, but it’s the trust in the individuals that are doing the same job that you are.
And you reach out to them. . . . I couldn’t do it without being able to call them and know
that we have each other’s back. And they’re doing the same job I am, too, you know?
(interview, June 25, 2019)
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 85
The close connection between mentor and mentee and the ability to speak freely without
judgment were traits referred to in principal interviews. Human Resources Administrator B
noted that a confidential mentorship relationship is necessary to support principals through
delicate situations (interview, July 23, 2019).
Coaching support, similar to a structured, assigned mentor, further supported novice
principals in their new vole. Principal 2B was linked to an outside consultant who met with her
monthly to discuss goals and action steps (interview, July 23, 2019). The follow-through and
dialogue around these goals encouraged the success of Principal 2B in her work.
Principal 2A worked with a retired principal and superintendents as a coach for two years
as part of her administrative credential program. When asked about the coaching relationship,
Principal 2A explained the following:
She has had a lot of experience, and she’s very knowledgeable about leadership. I’ve
gone to her quite a bit this year, and we work monthly meetings and her coaching and her
mentorship has really helped me this year as well. If there was ever like a question like,
I’ve had some questions about how to deal with certain student issues or personnel issues,
I would talk them out with her and then she would be able to provide me some feedback.
And I think because of that, the way I ended up addressing those different issues that I’ve
been involved in this year went smoothly. (interview, June 19, 2019)
Principal 2A noted that at the end of the 2 formal years of coaching with her mentor, she
remained in touch regularly and continued to rely on her for support. The existence of a formal
coaching relationship, particularly with a retired principal, enhanced the experience of a new
principal and led to better retention.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 86
The theme of mentorship was strongly supported in surveys and in the literature. Eighty-
four percent of principals noted that having a mentor or mentors provided them with processes or
strategies that currently supported their success in retaining their position as a principal. One
hundred percent of immediate supervisors of principals, human resources personnel, and superin-
tendents responded affirmatively to these survey statements; providing mentors to principals
promotes the retention of school administrators.
Relationships and Networking Within the District
The literature and interviews indicated that relationships within a district and having a
network of support with superiors, departments within the district office, and among colleagues
promoted retention for principals. Immediate supervisors of principals attested in interviews to
the benefit of having open communication with their principals and the principals’ ability to
network in a district. Immediate Supervisor C explained that each year he reminded principals
that they should be reaching out to others for support. He told them, “It is when we don’t hear
from you that we worry” (interview, June 5, 2019).
Principal 2B explained that in [name removed for confidentiality], educational services
administrators met with principals at least monthly to review goals and progress. The network in
[name removed for confidentiality] supported her in her work with communication as an expecta-
tion for principals:
I would say that every single person in this district—directors, principals included—are
always there for you. I mean, you can just pick up the phone . . . call them and ask for
feedback, ask for thought partners in things that might be happening, and they are all
happy to help. And they just care. (interview, July 23, 2019)
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 87
The significance of a strong district network was cited by all principals in interviews and
by most immediate supervisors of principals. Superintendent C reflected that when principals
build close relationships and networks in the district, it indicates to him that they are able to make
connections and are team players—skills that are highly regarded in the district. He noted the
correlation between networks and principal retention, sharing that principals who do not make
these attempts do not typically retain their positions (interview, June 5, 2019).
The position of principals was noted in the literature to be at times stressful, overwhelm-
ing, and daunting. Principals expressed in interviews that informal networks among principals
and networks with district personnel were key techniques to combat these pressures. Principal
1B shared that he thought his relationships with other principals to be the key element in his
ability to retain his position (interview, June 25, 2019). Principal 1C expressed the following
regarding relationships and retention in the principal position:
There’s a lot of pressure there, and so I try to think I’m managing 900 kids and I don’t
even know how many parents there are, and my staff’s almost 100. It’s a lot of people,
and it’s a lot of pressure all the time. And then I go to a principals’ meeting where there’s
a group of people that I’m connected with, that I’m authentic with, and it makes that
pressure manageable. I have to bet that if you talk to people that don’t make it, it’s
because the job can be lonely. You’re not talking to a lot of people, and you’re shoulder-
ing a lot of things; but when you can go to a meeting where you are connected with a
group. (interview, June 13, 2019)
The network established between principals and district staff and the ability to openly
communicate provided principals with a forum of support. This support allowed principals to
retain their positions and to be successful.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 88
The quality to feedback and communication in networks is a key to principal success,
according to superintendents. When asked about networking and relationships, Superintendent B
responded:
[Good feedback is] honest, direct, supportive. We’re not doing principals any favors if
there’s an area they need to succeed that they’re not refining. So we need to help them
see their weaknesses, and we need to help them continue to grow in their strengths. We
have to be authentic. We have to evaluate them authentically, but it’s from a perspective
of continued growth. And to be honest, when there’s a principal who is not making the
grade, we have to cut that relationship, because we don’t want our other principals who
are making the grade to feel like we don’t hold high standards for everybody. (interview,
June 13, 2019)
Impactful networks include quality, honest feedback to improve performance.
Fostering quality relationships and a network of support for principals increases their
ability to retain their positions. Ninety percent of principals noted that their relationship with
directors, assistant superintendents, and the superintendent supported their success in retaining
their positions as principals. One hundred percent of immediate supervisors of principals, human
resources personnel, and superintendents responded affirmatively to these survey statements.
Networking within an organization and building relationships with supervisors and personnel
increases a principal’s retention in the position.
Professional Networking and Associations
Survey data regarding professional networking indicated that while it is a factor in
retention, it is not as impactful as mentors and relationships. Respondents who had been
promoted beyond the principal position responded affirmatively to the survey statement,
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 89
“Professional networks (such as NAESP, NASSP, ACSA, university networks) provide princi-
pals with processes/strategies that support their success in retaining their current position.”
Seventy-eight percent of immediate supervisors of principals, 100% of human resources person-
nel, and 80% of superintendents responded affirmatively to this statement. Principals responded
affirmatively 38% of the time, thus differing with the opinion of leaders in higher positions.
Compensation
Compensation for site administrators supported principals in retaining their position. In
interviews with human resource personnel and superintendents, compensation was revealed as a
motivating factor for principals. However, principals did not refer to compensation in their
interviews. They shared that the motivation to remain in the principal position was largely
related to the value they placed on systemic change and student achievement.
Superintendents noted that school boards and districts build salary schedules to recruit
and retain high-caliber school leaders. Providing additional benefits, such as affordable health
insurance, training, and opportunities for professional growth, encouraged the retention of
principals. Superintendent B asserted:
I think your board has to be committed to recruiting and retaining the best. Salary is
important. We pay well. We have good benefits, but then there are the side benefits. We
talked to most of our principals. They didn’t come here just because of the big salary;
they came here because they know they have a supportive culture. (interview, June 13,
2019)
District culture and side benefits promoted the retention of principals in their school districts.
Compensation as a motivator for retention was confirmed in surveys. Sixty-one percent
of principals noted that their compensation determines their desire to retain a position as a
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 90
principals. Fifty-six percent of immediate supervisors of principals found that compensation
promoted retention; 90% of human resources personnel and 70% superintendents responded
affirmatively to these survey statements. A district’s compensation was a factor in recruitment,
though other factors had a higher effect.
Summary of Results for Research Question 3
Retention of principals was accomplished through a variety of means by both principals
and districts. Results from this study pointed to four themes from the qualitative interview par-
ticipants that were confirmed through quantitative surveys. The first theme was that retention
increased when principals had a mentor, whether self-selected or assigned, to support them in
their initial years in the position. Secondly, relationships with directors, assistant superinten-
dents, and the superintendent supported principals in retaining the position. Third, district
superiors found that principals’ engagement in professional associations and professional net-
working increased their retention. Finally, compensation and benefits provided from the district
increased retention for principals, particularly in well-resourced districts.
Chapter Summary
This chapter examined the emergent themes identified by the researcher to answer the
study’s three research questions regarding the preparation, recruitment, and retention of princi-
pals in southern California. The themes were drawn from qualitative interviews (Creswell, 2014)
from 15 participants including: three superintendents, three human resources personnel, three
district personnel who were direct supervisors to site principals, and six site principals. The
emergent themes from this study were confirmed through qualitative data where applicable, as
well as by correlation to scholarly literature regarding principal preparation, recruitment, and
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 91
retention. Multiple data sources and the correlation of data through interviews, surveys, and a
review of the research strengthen the validity of the findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Three emergent themes were identified relating to principal preparation: (a) that principal
candidates sought learning opportunities while teaching to engage in school level leadership, (b)
that job-related preparation through administrative tasks and positions provided candidates with
leadership experience and growth opportunities, and (c) that mentors encouraged principal candi-
dates to grow professionally and linked candidates with leadership opportunities.
Three emergent themes were identified relating to principal recruitment: (a) that network-
ing of candidates and the reputation of candidates impacts recruitment; (b) that there was active
recruitment through the existing teaching force by endorsing future leaders, developing their
leadership skills, and promoting from within; and (c) that candidates sought positions in their
districts due to the reputation of the district and its resources or its overall political effectiveness.
Four emergent themes were identified relating to principal retention: (a) the value of a
mentor to support novice principals; (b) strong relationships with directors, assistant superinten-
dents, and superintendents; (c) engagement in professional associations and professional net-
working; and (d) compensation and benefits, particularly in well-resourced districts.
This chapter included a discussion of the identified themes that answered the study’s
three research questions. Chapter Five will present a summary of the study, limitations, implica-
tions, recommendations for future study, and the study’s conclusion.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 92
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS,
AND CONCLUSION
Purpose of the Study Restated
The purpose of this study was to understand the preparation, recruitment, and retention of
K-12 public school principals. This chapter explores the discussion, implications, and recom-
mendations based on the results of the study. This study utilized three frameworks to develop an
understanding of the theories impact the recruitment and retention of principals:
1. The four frames of Bolman and Deal (2017) were used to analyze the four primary
functions of a school leader: structural, political, human resource, and symbolic frames.
2. School Leadership That Works by Marzano et al. (2005) provided insight into the
skills and strategies that effective principals employ in their positions.
3. Fullan’s (2014) The Principal: Three Keys to Maximize Impact synthesizes the
specific skills and strategies employed by leaders into three categories. The three frames work in
partnership to support an understanding of the theories that govern the role of the principal.
The researcher of this study worked collaboratively with a team of 11 other researchers
from the USC’s Rossier School of Education to design the study, research questions, qualitative
methodology, and qualitative and quantitative instrumentation. The team collaboratively col-
lected survey data from educational leaders across southern California by utilizing a quantitative
survey instrument. The researcher worked independently to gather independent qualitative data
from three public school districts in California. Qualitative and quantitative instruments were
designed to align with the research questions of the study:
1. How have training programs and professional experiences prepared principals to
manage the complexities and challenges of the principalship?
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 93
2. What are the perceptions of principals, immediate supervisors of principals, human
resources administrators, and superintendents regarding strategies to recruit successful principal
candidates?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of principals?
Summary of Findings
Research Question 1
Principal preparation is done through training programs and on-the job training. Results
from this study pointed to three common themes from the qualitative interview participants that
were confirmed through qualitative surveys. The first theme was that principal candidates sought
learning opportunities while teaching to engage in school-level leadership, ranging from partici-
pating in district leadership academies to university-based administrative programs. Secondly,
job-related preparation through administrative tasks and positions provided candidates with
leadership experience and growth opportunities. Finally, mentors encouraged principal candi-
dates to grow professionally and linked candidates with the above-mentioned opportunities.
Emergent themes were confirmed through survey data and indicated that serving as a
teacher leader, having a trusted mentor, and having informal networks positively influenced
preparation. Of the principals, 93.5% responded affirmatively that having experience as a
teacher leader was a crucial element in preparing them for their position. Nearly all principals
(96.8%) felt that having mentors was instrumental in preparing them for their position as a
principal. Ninety-three percent of principals noted that informal networks of support (e.g.,
professional colleagues) were important in preparing them for their positions. One hundred
percent of immediate supervisors of principals, human resources personnel, and superintendents
agreed that networks supported a candidate’s preparation.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 94
Research Question 2
Recruitment for the principalship is done through a variety of channels and techniques by
both candidates and districts. Results from this study pointed to three common themes from the
qualitative interview participants that were confirmed through qualitative surveys. First, careful
networking of candidates and the reputation of candidates were considered when recruiting prin-
cipals. Secondly, districts actively recruited through their existing teaching force by endorsing
individuals as leaders, developing their leadership skills, and promoting from within. Finally,
candidates sought positions in their districts due to the reputation of the district and its resources
or its overall political effectiveness.
The themes regarding recruitment of principals revealed in the interviews were confirmed
through survey data. Networking, including experience in education, was reported to correlate
with recruitment. Of the principals, 96.7 % indicated that their previous experience in education
was an important factor in being recruited to their current position as principal. Ninety percent of
principals indicated that their level of understanding of district initiatives and goals was an
important factor in being recruited as a principal; 97% indicated that having instructional leader-
ship experience was an important factor in being recruited into their position. In surveyed
districts, the political power of the district supported recruitment, with 87% of principals indi-
cating that the reputation of the school district was an important factor in applying for the princi-
pal position.
Research Question 3
Retention of principals was bolstered through a variety of means by both candidates and
districts. Results from this study pointed to four themes from the qualitative interview partici-
pants that were confirmed through qualitative surveys. The first theme was that retention
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 95
increased when principals had a mentor, whether self-selected or assigned, to support them in
their initial years in the position. Secondly, relationships with directors, assistant superinten-
dents, and the superintendent supported principals in retaining the position. Third, district
superiors indicated that a principal’s engagement in professional associations and professional
networking increased their retention. Finally, compensation and benefits provided by the district
increased retention for principals, particularly in well-resourced districts.
Survey data regarding retention in the principal position confirmed the emergent themes
found in interviews. Eighty-four percent of principals indicated that having a mentor or mentors
provided them with processes or strategies that currently support their success in retaining their
position as principals. Ninety percent indicated that their relationship with directors, assistant
superintendents, and the superintendent supported their success in retaining their position as
principals. While mentoring and positive relationships within the district were prominent themes
for retention, a secondary theme was compensation. Sixty-one percent of principals indicated
that their compensation determined their desire to retain a position as a principals. Fifty-six
percent of immediate supervisors of principals found that compensation promoted retention,
while 90% of human resources personnel and 70% superintendents responded affirmatively to
these survey questions. A district’s compensation package is a factor in recruitment, though
other factors had a higher effect.
Limitations
A number of limitations impacted the breadth of the study and its generalizability. The
study utilized parallel concurrent data collection, whereby all data were collected during the same
period of time. The study was conducted over a 4-month period, a relatively brief period of time.
A multiyear study may provide a more comprehensive representation of the experiences of
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 96
principals. By design, this study explored southern California public school principals rather
than providing a nationwide view of impacts on the principalship. While the majority of qualita-
tive interviews revealed common emerging themes, not all participants had the same conclusions
regarding the preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals. Finally, the qualitative and
quantitative instrumentation presented a limitation in that themes revealed in the semistructured
qualitative interviews did not correlate with the quantitative survey data in all instances.
Implications
This study contributes to the body of scholarly work regarding the preparation, recruit-
ment, and retention of K-12 principals. The results and recommendations of the study provide
input for districts and preparation programs to better support principals and to provide longevity
in the position. Study of the themes contained in this study and the impact on preservice prepara-
tion for aspiring principals contributes to principal efforts for retention. Themes revealed that
through this research included the role of mentoring for both preservice and acting principals; the
necessity of a network for the purpose of preparation, recruitment, and retention; and the role of
relationship building for school administrators.
Guidance from principal mentors and informal networks provided direction to principals
as they prepared for the position. Research interviews showed a high level of praise for mentors
to inspire candidates to become principals and to develop the skills necessary for the position.
Mentors serve not only to guide principal candidates in how they perform their jobs but also to
provide motivation for them to seek promotions and professional growth. The experience of the
mentor and this individual’s political savvy provide aspiring principals with the guidance to
pursue their own promotion opportunities. Moreover, mentoring from veteran administrators
promotes the development of school leaders as part of the recruitment process.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 97
Networking plays a primary role in the recruitment of candidates and their retention. The
reputation of candidates and their previous experience, particularly their performance and rela-
tionships, are factors for recruitment. Districts consider the reputation of candidates carefully
before inviting them to be a part of a district administration team. Performance in the classroom
as teachers in addition to leadership experiences provide insight into a candidate’s viability. The
reputation of candidates and previous experience, particularly their performance and relation-
ships, are factors for recruitment. Districts consider the reputation of candidates carefully before
inviting them to be a part of a district administration team. Performance in the classroom as
teachers in addition to leadership experiences provide insight into a candidates viability. Once
principals have attained their position, the continuous building of their network aids in retention.
Immediate supervisors of principals attested in interviews to the benefit of having open commu-
nication with their principals and the principals’ ability to network in a district. The existence of
a strong network strongly correlates with principal recruitment, retention, and job satisfaction and
success.
Relationship building supports principals in their efforts to prepare for their positions,
particularly through tapping, being recruited into administrative roles, and retaining their posi-
tions. Promotion within the district through tapping was cited in nearly all the interviews of
principals, immediate supervisors of principals, human resources personnel, and superintendents.
This strategy refers to a process for seeking out potential school leaders based on performance in
teacher–leader roles and fostering their leadership development. Respondents noted that this
process took place often during a teacher’s teaching tenure and that most often, a trusted princi-
pal was the leader who tapped the aspiring principal. The position of principals is noted in the
literature to be stressful, overwhelming, and daunting at times. In their interviews, principals
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 98
expressed that informal networks among principals and networks with district personnel were
key techniques to combat these pressures. Relationships provide principals with a network of
support as they navigate the complexities of school leadership.
Recommendations for Future Study
Based on the themes of this study, the researcher identified the following research recom-
mendations:
1. Future research regarding preparation could include a case study exploring district
practices to increase job-based training prior to transitioning into the school administrator role.
Qualitative interviews, artifacts, observations, and strategic implementation of leadership
programs could inform districts of specific strategies to promote principal preparation.
2. Future research regarding university preparation programs could include a study of
the success of specific programs and implementation of evaluative methods to promote appropri-
ate preparation for school administration with a balance of theory and practice. Qualitative
interviews, observations, and a review of data could inform universities regarding methods to
better prepare principal candidates.
3. Future research in recruitment could include case studies regarding strategies to seek
the most qualified candidates, with an emphasis on the complexity of the position. Further
research in the creation of pipelines for leadership development supports the findings of this
study. Qualitative interviews and review of recruitment procedures supported this ongoing
research need.
4. Future research regarding retention of principals could include a case study of district
coaching and mentoring programs. Topics of qualitative research might include support from the
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 99
district in facilitating coaching and mentoring for principals, the resiliency of principals, the
creation of strong networks of peers, and collaboration among administrators.
Conclusion
The K-12 principal position is complex and demanding, with increased accountability.
Twenty-first century principals are charged with serving as facilitators of learning, building
managers, personnel officers, and being the lead learners of the school (Kavanaugh, 2005).
This was a study of principal preparation, recruitment, and retention. Themes were drawn from
the qualitative data and confirmed through qualitative data to answer the three research questions
based on principal preparation, recruitment, and retention. The researcher took efforts to ensure
that the data were collected ethically and that the themes were derived scientifically. Specific
strategies were found to correlate with successful preparation, recruitment, and retention,
grounded in building positive relationships, effective networks of support, and cultivating a
reputation of professionalism and a passion for education. This study has informed the reader on
strategies for successful principal preparation, recruitment, and retention.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 100
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Appendix A
RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS’ INVITATION E-MAIL
Dear _______________ [stakeholder group role],
I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern
California and a _______________ [role] in the _______________ Unified School District. I
would like to invite you to participate in a research study that will investigate the preparation,
recruitment, and retention of public school principals.
You are asked to participate only if you are currently employed as a [role] in a public school
district. If you agree to participate, you will be asked to complete a survey; the estimated time for
completion is approximately 20 minutes. The University of Southern California’s Institutional
Review Board has approved this research study (IRB #APP-19-00787).
Your participation is completely voluntary. If you decide to participate after reading this email,
you can access the survey via the following link: _______________
I value your input and hope that you will consider participating in this study. Please email me at
_______________ if you have any questions. Thank you in advance for your time.
Sincerely,
USC Doctoral Candidate Researcher
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 112
Appendix B
INFORMED CONSENT
Date: _______________
Dear _______________,
My name is _______________ , and I am a doctoral student at the USC Rossier School of Edu-
cation. I am conducting a research study under the guidance and direction of Dr. Michael F.
Escalante. The purpose of my mixed-methods study is to examine the preparation, recruitment,
and retention of public school principals in southern California. I will interview and survey
superintendents, human resources directors/assistant superintendents, immediate supervisors of
principals, and principals.
You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that will shed light on the
preparation, recruitment, and retention of public school principals in southern California. The
results of this study will inform multiple stakeholders, including aspiring principals, superinten-
dents, and school boards. It is my hope that this study will serve as a valuable resource.
Your participation is voluntary, and you have the right to withdraw at any time. The information
collected will be kept confidential and anonymous by the researcher and members of the disserta-
tion committee. Data will be presented in a manner that will ensure that no individual or district
can be identified.
If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you may contact
me at _______________ or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern California.
Thank you, in advance, for your time and assistance.
Sincerely,
_______________, Researcher [_______________@usc.edu]
(xxx) xxx-xxxx
Dr. Michael F. Escalante, Dissertation Chair, mescalante@usc.edu
(818) 802-4769
( ) I have read this form and have been given the opportunity to ask questions. I consent to my
participation in the research described above.
Participant’s Signature: __________________________________________________________
Participant’s Printed Name: _______________________________________________________
Date: __________________
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 113
Appendix C
PRINCIPAL SURVEY
The purpose of this qualitative study is to examine the preparation, recruitment, and retention of
California K-12 public school principals. While the most significant direct influence on student
achievement is the teacher, the second most critical influence is the principal (Fullan, 2014). It is
important to identify the preparation and supports that principals must have in order to meet the
challenges and complexities of the principalship, as well as the recruitment strategies and reten-
tion efforts that public school districts must use to find and retain quality personnel in the prin-
cipalship. The goal of this brief, 15-minute survey is to quantify your perceptions on principal
preparation, recruitment, and retention. Your participation in this survey is anonymous. Thank
you for your participation.
Personal Background
1. Gender
Q Male
Q Female
2. Ethnicity (check all that apply)
Q Asia
Q Black
Q Latina/o
Q Native American
Q Pacific Islander
Q White
Q Multiple
Q Other
Q Decline to state
3. Age range:
Q < 30
Q 30-40
Q 41-50
Q 51-60
Q 61+
4. Highest university degree earned:
Q Ed.D.
Q Ph.D.
Q Master’s
Q Bachelor’s
Q Other (please specify) ___________________________________________
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 114
5. What university do you identify with professionally?

6. How many years in the education profession?
Q 1-10
Q 11-20
Q 21-30
Q 30 or more
7. How many years as a principal?
Q 2 years or less
Q 3-5
Q 6-10
Q 11-15
Q 16 or more
8. Did you come from within your current district or outside your current district?
Q Within
Q Outside
9. What type of administrative preparation program did you participate in?
Q University
Q Nonuniversity, please specify: ____________________________________
10. Past experiences (check all that apply):
School site positions:
Q Elementary school teacher
Q Middle school teacher
Q High school teacher
Q Counselor (any level)
Q College/university instructor
Q Teacher on Special Assignment (TOSA)
Q Other ______________________
School site administrator positions:
Q Elementary School Assistant Principal
Q Middle School Assistant Principal
Q High School Assistant Principal
Q Elementary Principal
Q Middle School Principal
Q High School Principal
Q Dean of Students
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 115
District-level positions:
Q Coordinator
Q Specialist
Q Director of Curriculum and Instruction
Q Director of Research and Planning
Q Director of Human Resources
Q Director of Student Support Services
Q Director: Other _________________________________
Experiences other than education:
Q Please specify: ________________________________________
11. Salary Range (approximate):
Q Less than $100,000
Q $100,001-110,000
Q $110,001-120,000
Q $120,001-130,000
Q $130,001-140,000
Q $140,001-150,000
Q $150,001-160,000
Q $160,001-170,000
Q More than $170,001
12. Type of school district:
Q Urban
Q Urban/suburban
Q Suburban
Q Rural
13. District student enrollment:
Q Less than 5,000
Q 5,001-10,000
Q 10,001-20,000
Q 20,001-30,000
Q 30,001-40,000
Q 40,001-50,000
Q 50,001-60,000
Q 60,001-70,000
Q More than 70,000
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 116
Based on your perception of the preparation of principals, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal preparation:
Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps that you took prior to
taking on your first principal position.
PREPARATION

Statement
Strongly
Agree
(4)
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not Applicable
(N/A)
1. University programs provided training
and experience that are important in
preparing me for my position as a prin-
cipal.
2. My prior work experience was more im-
portant than my university training expe-
rience in preparing me for my position as
a principal.
3. Holding an advanced degree (e.g., Ed.D.
or Ph.D.) was important in preparing me
for my position as a principal.
4. Nonuniversity training programs (such
as the ACSA Principal Academy) were
important in preparing me for my posi-
tion as a principal.
5. Holding certification and/or licensure
from organizations (such as USC or
ACSA) was important in preparing me
for my position as a principal.
6. Having mentors was instrumental in pre-
paring me for my position as a principal.
7. A professional network of support (such
as CALSA, NASSP, NAESP, ACSA, or
through a university) was important in
preparing me for my position as a princi-
pal.
8. Informal networks of support (such as
professional colleagues) were important
in preparing me for my position as a
principal.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 117
9. Networks with university professors
were important in preparing me for my
position as a principal.
10. Planning my career was important in
preparing me for my position as a princi-
pal.
11. My university training program provided
intentional supports or resources to pre-
pare me for my position as a principal.
12. Having experience as a teacher leader
was a crucial element in preparing me
for my position as a principal.
13. Having experience as an assistant princi-
pal was a crucial element in preparing
me for my position as a principal.
Based on your perception of the recruitment of principals, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal recruitment:
Recruitment is defined as the strategies and steps you took prior to taking
on your first principal position.
RECRUITMENT

Statement
Strongly
Agree
(4)
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not Applicable
(N/A)
14. As an aspiring principal, district
resources and programs were important
in being recruited into my current posi-
tion as a principal.
15. My university principal preparation pro-
gram was an important factor in being
recruited into my current position as a
principal.
16. My nonuniversity principal preparation
program was an important factor in be-
ing recruited into my current position as
a principal.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 118
17. The nonmonetary incentives offered by
my district were important factors in ap-
plying for the principal position in my
district.
18. The salary and benefits offered by my
district were important factors in apply-
ing for the principal position in my dis-
trict.
19. My previous experience in education
was an important factor in being
recruited into my current position as a
principal.
20. My previous experience outside of edu-
cation was an important factor in being
recruited into my current position as a
principal.
21. The reputation of my school district was
an important factor in applying for the
principal position in my district.
22. My level of understanding of district
initiatives and goals was an important
factor in being recruited into my current
position as a principal.
23. As an in-district candidate, networking
with district personnel was an important
factor in being recruited into my current
position as a principal.
24. As an out-of-district candidate, network-
ing with district personnel was an impor-
tant factor in being recruited in my cur-
rent position as a principal.
25. Having a mentor was an important factor
in being recruited in my current position
as a principal.
26. Being an employee of my school district
was an important factor in being
recruited into my current position as a
principal.
27. My participation in professional organi-
zations was an important factor in being
recruited into my current position as a
principal.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 119
28. Holding an advanced degree (e.g., Ed.D.
or Ph.D.) was an important factor in be-
ing recruited into my current position as
a principal.
29. Having instructional leadership experi-
ence was an important factor in being
recruited into my position as a principal.
Based on your perception of the retention of principals, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal retention:
Retention is process/strategy that you used to maintain your current
principal position.
RETENTION

Statement
Strongly
Agree
(4)
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not Applicable
(N/A)
30. My university training program provided
me with processes/strategies that cur-
rently support my success in retaining
my position as a principal.
31. Professional networks (e.g., NAESP,
NASSP, ACSA, university networks)
provided me with processes/strategies
that currently support my success in re-
taining my position as a principal.
32. Having a mentor(s) provided me with
processes/strategies that currently sup-
port my success in retaining my position
as a principal.
33. My relationship with directors, assistant
superintendents, and my superintendent
supports my success in retaining my po-
sition as a principal.
34. My compensation determines my desire
to retain my position as a principal.
35. Having a formal, written strategic plan
supports my success in retaining my po-
sition as a principal.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 120
36. Pressures from accountability measures
affect my desire to retain my position as
a principal.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 121
Appendix D
HUMAN RESOURCE ADMINISTRATOR SURVEY
Based on your perception of the preparation of principals, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal preparation:
Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps that principals took prior to
taking on their first principal position.
PREPARATION

Statement
Strongly
Agree
(4)
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not Applicable
(N/A)
1. University programs provided training
and experience that are important in pre-
paring principals for their positions.
2. Prior work experience was more impor-
tant than university training experience
in preparing principals for their current
positions.
3. Holding an advanced degree (e.g., Ed.D.
or Ph.D.) was important in preparing
principals for their current positions.
4. Nonuniversity training programs (such
as the ACSA Principal Academy) were
important in principals for their current
positions.
5. Holding certification and/or licensure
from organizations (such as USC or
ACSA) was important in preparing prin-
cipals for their current positions.
6. Having a mentor was important in pre-
paring my principals for their current
positions.
7. A professional network of support (e.g.,
NASSP, ACSA, or through a university)
was important in preparing my principals
for their current positions.
8. Informal networks (e.g., professional
colleagues) were important in preparing
principals for their current positions.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 122
9. Having experience as a teacher leader
was crucial for preparing principals for
their current positions.
10. Having experience as an assistant prin-
cipal was crucial for preparing principals
for their current positions.
Based on your perception of the recruitment of principals, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal recruitment:
Recruitment is defined as the strategies and steps that principals took prior to taking
on their first principal position.
RECRUITMENT

Statement
Strongly
Agree
(4)
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not Applicable
(N/A)
11. District resources and recruitment
strategies help candidates to get
recruited into principal positions in my
district.
12. University principal preparation pro-
grams help candidates to get recruited
into principal positions in my district.
13. Nontraditional principal preparation pro-
grams help candidates to get recruited
into principal positions in my district.
14. The nonmonetary incentives offered by
my district are important factors in can-
didates applying for principal positions
in my district.
15. The salary and benefits offered are im-
portant factors in candidates applying for
principal positions in my district.
16. Candidates’ previous experience in edu-
cation is an important factor in recruiting
for principal positions in my district.
17. Candidates’ previous experience outside
of education is an important factor in
recruiting for principal positions in my
district.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 123
18. The reputation of my school district is an
important factor in candidates applying
for principal positions in my district.
19. Candidates’ level of level of understand-
ing of district initiatives and goals was
an important factor in being recruited
into principal positions in my district.
20. Networking with district personnel helps
candidates to get recruited into principal
positions in my district.
21. Having a mentor helps candidates to get
recruited into principal positions in my
district.
22. Being an employee of my school district
helps candidates to get recruited into
principal positions in my district.
23. Candidates’ participation in professional
organizations helps candidates to get
recruited into principal positions in my
district.
24. Holding an advanced degree (e.g., Ed.D.
or Ph.D.) helps candidates to get re-
cruited into principal positions in my
district.
25. Having instructional leadership experi-
ence is an important factor in recruiting
for principal positions in my district.
26. My district is experiencing a shortage of
quality candidates for the principal posi-
tion.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 124
Based on your perception of the retention of principals, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal retention:
Retention is the process/strategy used by principals to maintain their current
principal position.
RETENTION

Statement
Strongly
Agree
(4)
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not Applicable
(N/A)
27. University training programs provide
principals with skills/strategies that sup-
port their success in retaining their cur-
rent positions.
28. Professional networks (such as NAESP,
NASSP, ACSA, university networks)
provide principals with processes/strate-
gies that support their success in retain-
ing their current positions.
29. Having mentor(s) provides principals
with processes/strategies that support
their success in retaining their current
positions.
30. The relationships that principals have
with directors, assistant superintendents,
and the superintendent support their suc-
cess in retaining their current positions.
31. Principals’ compensation determines
their desire to continue in their current
positions.
32. Having a formal, written strategic plan
supports principals’ success in retaining
their current positions.
33. Pressures from accountability measures
affect principals’ desires to retain their
current position.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 125
Appendix E
IMMEDIATE SUPERVISOR OF PRINCIPAL SURVEY
Based on your perception of the preparation of principals, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal preparation:
Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps that principals took prior to
taking on their first principal position.
PREPARATION

Statement
Strongly
Agree
(4)
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not Applicable
(N/A)
1. University programs provided training
and experience that were important in
preparing principals for their positions.
2. Prior work experience was more impor-
tant than university training experience
in preparing principals for their current
positions.
3. Holding an advanced degree (e.g., Ed.D.
or Ph.D.) was important in preparing
principals for their current positions.
4. Nonuniversity training programs (e.g.,
the ACSA Principal Academy) were im-
portant in preparing principals for their
current positions.
5. Holding certification and/or licensure
from organizations (such as USC or
ACSA) was important in preparing prin-
cipals for their current positions.
6. Having a mentor was important in pre-
paring my principals for their current
positions.
7. A professional network of support (e.g.,
NASSP, ACSA, or through a university)
was important in preparing principals for
their current positions.
8. Informal networks (e.g., professional
colleagues) were important in preparing
principals for their current positions.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 126
9. Having experience as a teacher leader
was crucial for preparing principals for
their current positions.
10. Having experience as an assistant prin-
cipal was crucial for preparing principals
for their current positions.
Based on your perception of the recruitment of principals, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal recruitment:
Recruitment is defined as the strategies and steps that principals took prior to taking
on their first principal position.
RECRUITMENT

Statement
Strongly
Agree
(4)
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not Applicable
(N/A)
11. District resources and recruitment strate-
gies help candidates to get recruited into
principal positions in my district.
12. University principal preparation pro-
grams help candidates to get recruited
into principal positions in my district.
13. Nontraditional principal preparation pro-
grams help candidates to get recruited
into principal positions in my district.
14. The nonmonetary incentives offered by
my district are important factors in can-
didates applying for principal positions
in my district.
15. The salary and benefits offered are im-
portant factors in candidates applying for
principal positions in my district.
16. Candidates’ previous experience in edu-
cation is an important factor in recruiting
for principal positions in my district.
17. Candidates’ previous experience outside
of education is an important factor in
recruiting for principal positions in my
district.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 127
18. The reputation of my school district is an
important factor in candidates applying
for principal positions in my district.
19. A candidate’s level of level of under-
standing of district initiatives and goals
were important factors in being recruited
into principal positions in my district.
20. Networking with district personnel helps
candidates to get recruited into principal
positions in my district.
21. Having a mentor helps candidates to get
recruited into principal positions in my
district.
22. Being an employee of my school district
helps candidates to get recruited into
principal positions in my district.
23. Candidates’ participation in professional
organizations helps candidates to get
recruited into principal positions in my
district.
24. Holding an advanced degree (e.g., Ed.D.
or Ph.D.) helps candidates to get
recruited into principal positions in my
district.
25. Having instructional leadership experi-
ence is an important factor in recruiting
for principal positions in my district.
26. My district is experiencing a shortage of
quality candidates for the principal posi-
tion.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 128
Based on your perception of the retention of principals, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal retention:
Retention is the process/strategy used by principals to maintain their current
principal position.
RETENTION

Statement
Strongly
Agree
(4)
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not Applicable
(N/A)
27. University training programs provide
principals with skills/strategies that sup-
port their success in retaining their cur-
rent positions.
28. Professional networks (such as NAESP,
NASSP, ACSA, university networks)
provide principals with processes/strate-
gies that support their success in retain-
ing their current positions.
29. Having mentor(s) provides principals
with processes/strategies that support
their success in retaining their current
positions.
30. The relationships that principals have
with directors, assistant superintendents,
and the superintendent support their suc-
cess in retaining their current positions.
31. Principals’ compensation determines
their desire to continue in their current
positions.
32. Having a formal, written strategic plan
supports principals’ success in retaining
their current positions.
33. Pressures from accountability measures
affect principals’ desires to retain their
current position.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 129
Appendix F
SUPERINTENDENT SURVEY
Based on your perception of the preparation of principals, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal preparation:
Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps that principals took prior to
taking on their first principal position.
PREPARATION

Statement
Strongly
Agree
(4)
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not Applicable
(N/A)
1. University programs provided training
and experience that are important in pre-
paring principals for their positions.
2. Prior work experience was more impor-
tant than university training experience
in preparing principals for their current
positions.
3. Holding an advanced degree (e.g., Ed.D.
or Ph.D.) was important in preparing
principals for their current positions.
4. Nonuniversity training programs (e.g.,
the ACSA Principal Academy) were im-
portant in preparing principal for their
current positions.
5. Holding certification and/or licensure
from organizations (such as USC or
ACSA) was important in preparing prin-
cipals for their current positions.
6. Having a mentor was important in pre-
paring my principals for their current
positions.
7. A professional network of support (e.g.,
NASSP, ACSA, or through a university)
was important in preparing my principals
for their current positions.
8. Informal networks (e.g., professional
colleagues) were important in preparing
principals for their current positions.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 130
9. Having experience as a teacher leader
was crucial for preparing principals for
their current positions.
10. Having experience as an assistant prin-
cipal was crucial for preparing principals
for their current positions.
Based on your perception of the recruitment of principals, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal recruitment:
Recruitment is defined as the strategies and steps that principals took prior to taking
on their first principal position.
RECRUITMENT

Statement
Strongly
Agree
(4)
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not Applicable
(N/A)
11. District resources and recruitment
strategies help candidates to get
recruited into principal positions in my
district.
12. University principal preparation
programs help candidates to get recruited
into principal positions in my district.
13. Nontraditional principal preparation pro-
grams help candidates to get recruited
into principal positions in my district.
14. The nonmonetary incentives offered by
my district are important factors in can-
didates applying for principal positions
in my district.
15. The salary and benefits offered are im-
portant factors in candidates applying for
principal positions in my district.
16. Candidates’ previous experience in edu-
cation is an important factor in recruiting
for principal positions in my district.
17. Candidates’ previous experience outside
of education is an important factor in re-
cruiting for principal positions in my
district.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 131
18. The reputation of my school district is an
important factor in candidates applying
for principal positions in my district.
19. Candidates’ level of level of understand-
ing of district initiatives and goals is an
important factor in being recruited into
principal positions in my district.
20. Networking with district personnel helps
candidates to get recruited into principal
positions in my district.
21. Having a mentor helps candidates to get
recruited into principal positions in my
district.
22. Being an employee of my school district
helps candidates to get recruited into
principal positions in my district.
23. Candidates’ participation in professional
organizations helps candidates to get
recruited into principal positions in my
district.
24. Holding an advanced degree (e.g., Ed.D.
or Ph.D.) helps candidates to get
recruited into principal positions in my
district.
25. Having instructional leadership experi-
ence is an important factor in recruiting
for principal positions in my district.
26. My district is experiencing a shortage of
quality candidates for the principal posi-
tion.
Based on your perception of the retention of principals, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for principal retention:
Retention is the process/strategy used by principals to maintain their current
principal position.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 132
RETENTION

Statement
Strongly
Agree
(4)
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Don’t Know
or
Not Applicable
(N/A)
27. University training programs provide
principals with skills/strategies that sup-
port their success in retaining their cur-
rent positions.
28. Professional networks (such as NAESP,
NASSP, ACSA, university networks)
provide principals with processes/strate-
gies that support their success in retain-
ing their current positions.
29. Having mentor(s) provides principals
with processes/strategies that support
their success in retaining their current
positions.
30. The relationships that principals have
with directors, assistant superintendents,
and the superintendent support their suc-
cess in retaining their current positions.
31. Principals’ compensation determines
their desire to continue in their current
positions.
32. Having a formal, written strategic plan
supports principals’ success in retaining
their current positions.
33. Pressures from accountability measures
affect principals’ desires to retain their
current position.
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 133
Appendix G
PRINCIPAL INTERVIEW GUIDE
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Info:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction
Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. The purpose of this study is to understand
the preparation, recruitment, and retention of K-12 principals in California public schools.
Your participation in this study is voluntary. The information that you provide today will be kept
confidential, but the data collected will be used for our study. Any identifiable information will
be removed from our study to maintain your confidentiality. You can stop at any time or choose
not to answer a question that you are not comfortable with. Our interview should take about 45
minutes of your time. I would like to record our conversation, in addition to taking notes, so that I
can ensure that I accurately represent your responses. This audio recording will not be shared
with anyone. Are you comfortable with me recording our conversation today?
Your reflection and experiences will be used to help understand how K-12 principals in Cali-
fornia public schools are prepared, recruited and retained. Let’s get started.
Preparation
1. What type of training program (e.g. principal’s academy, university program, etc.) did you
attend that prepared you for the principalship?
1a. Which training was most effective? Why?
2. Describe your career path to the principalship.
2a. Which professional experiences leading up to becoming a principal were the most
beneficial? Why?
3. Which professional relationships helped you prepare for the principal position?
3a. Why were they important in your preparation?
4. When did you know that you wanted to be a principal?
4a. What proactive steps did you take to get a position?
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 134
Recruitment
5. How did your training program prepare you for the principal recruitment process?
6. What prior experiences did you have that made you the most desirable candidate for princi-
pal?
6a. Is there an experience that you lacked that might have helped you while being
recruited?
7. What qualities or characteristics made you a qualified principal candidate?
8. Did you strategically use professional relationships, such as mentoring or networking, to
attain your position? If so, how?
9. What attracted you to the principalship in your district?
Retention
10. What skills/strategies does a principal need to be successful?
10a. What does your district do to support the development of those skills/strategies?
10b. How does ongoing training support your retention?
11. What professional relationships support your retention?
11a. Is the relationship formal or informal?
11b. Is it assigned or self-selected?
11c. What strategies do you use with your supervisors to support your retention as a
principal?
12. What factors impact your decision to stay in the principalship?
12a. What factors, if any, would influence you leaving the position?
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 135
Appendix H
HUMAN RESOURCES ADMINISTRATOR INTERVIEW GUIDE
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Info:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction
Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. The purpose of this study is to understand
the preparation, recruitment, and retention of K-12 principals in California public schools.
Your participation in this study is voluntary. The information that you provide today will be kept
confidential, but the data collected will be used for our study. Any identifiable information will
be removed from our study to maintain your confidentiality. You can stop at any time or choose
not to answer a question that you are not comfortable with. Our interview should take about 45
minutes of your time. I would like to record our conversation, in addition to taking notes, so that
I can ensure that I accurately represent your responses. This audio recording will not be shared
with anyone. Are you comfortable with me recording our conversation today?
Your reflection and experiences will be used to help understand how K-12 principals in Cali-
fornia public schools are prepared, recruited and retained. Let’s get started.
Preparation
1. What type of training program did your principals attend to prepare them for the principal-
ship?
1a. Where did they receive the most effective training? Why?
2. Describe your principals’ career paths to the principalship.
2a. Which professional experiences leading up to the principalship were the most
beneficial to your principals? Why?
3. Which professional relationships helped your principals to prepare for their position?
3a. Why were they important?
4. What proactive steps did your principals take to get their positions?
Recruitment
5. How did principal training programs prepare your principals for the recruitment process?
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 136
6. What prior experiences did your principals have that made them the most desirable candidate
to be hired?
6a. Are there any experiences they lacked that would have helped them be recruited?
7. What qualities or characteristics do you seek in a principal candidate?
8. How have your principals used professional relationships, such as mentoring or networking,
to attain their positions?
9. What strategies do you use to attract principal candidates to your district?
Retention
10. What skills/strategies does a principal need to be successful?
10a. What does your district do to support the development of those skills/strategies?
11. What professional relationships support the retention of principals?
11a. Are these relationships formal or informal?
11b. Are they assigned or self-selected?
12. What factors have impacted the ongoing retention of your principals?
12a. What factors, if any, influence principals leaving the position?
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 137
Appendix I
IMMEDIATE SUPERVISOR OF PRINCIPAL INTERVIEW GUIDE
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Info:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction
Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. The purpose of this study is to understand
the preparation, recruitment, and retention of K-12 principals in California public schools.
Your participation in this study is voluntary. The information that you provide today will be kept
confidential, but the data collected will be used for our study. Any identifiable information will
be removed from our study to maintain your confidentiality. You can stop at any time or choose
not to answer a question that you are not comfortable with. Our interview should take about 45
minutes of your time. I would like to record our conversation, in addition to taking notes, so that
I can ensure that I accurately represent your responses. This audio recording will not be shared
with anyone. Are you comfortable with me recording our conversation today?
Your reflection and experiences will be used to help understand how K-12 principals in Cali-
fornia public schools are prepared, recruited and retained. Let’s get started.
Preparation
1. What type of training program did your principals attend to prepare them for the principal-
ship?
1a. Where did they receive the most effective training? Why?
2. Describe your principals’ career paths to the principalship.
2a. Which professional experiences leading up to the principalship were the most
beneficial to your principals? Why?
3. Which professional relationships helped your principals to prepare for their position?
3a. Why were they important?
4. What proactive steps did your principals take to get their positions?

Recruitment
5. How did principal training programs prepare your principals for the recruitment process?
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 138
6. What prior experiences did your principals have that made them the most desirable candi-
dates to be hired?
6a. Are there any experiences they lacked that would have helped them be recruited?
7. What qualities or characteristics do you seek in a principal candidate?
8. How have your principals used professional relationships, such as mentoring or networking,
to attain their positions?
9. What strategies do you use to attract principal candidates to your district?
Retention
10. What skills/strategies does a principal need to be successful?
10a. What does your district do to support the development of those skills/strategies?
11. What professional relationships support the retention of principals?
11a. Are these relationships formal or informal?
11b. Are they assigned or self-selected?
12. What factors have impacted the ongoing retention of your principals?
12a. What factors, if any, influence principals leaving the position?
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 139
Appendix J
SUPERINTENDENT INTERVIEW GUIDE
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Info:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction
Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. The purpose of this study is to understand
the preparation, recruitment, and retention of K-12 principals in California public schools.
Your participation in this study is voluntary. The information that you provide today will be kept
confidential, but the data collected will be used for our study. Any identifiable information will
be removed from our study to maintain your confidentiality. You can stop at any time or choose
not to answer a question that you are not comfortable with. Our interview should take about 45
minutes of your time. I would like to record our conversation, in addition to taking notes, so that
I can ensure that I accurately represent your responses. This audio recording will not be shared
with anyone. Are you comfortable with me recording our conversation today?
Your reflection and experiences will be used to help understand how K-12 principals in Cali-
fornia public schools are prepared, recruited and retained. Let’s get started.
Preparation
1. What type of training program did your principals attend to prepare them for the principal-
ship?
1a.Where did they receive the most effective training? Why?
2. Describe your principals’ career paths to the principalship.
2a. Which professional experiences leading up to the principalship were the most
beneficial to your principals? Why?
3. Which professional relationships help your principals prepare for their position?
3a. Why were they important?
4. What proactive steps did your principals take to get their positions?

Recruitment
5. How did principal training programs prepare your principals for the recruitment process?
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 140
6. What prior experiences did your principals have that made them the most desirable candi-
dates to be hired?
6a. Are there any experiences they lacked that would have helped them be recruited?
7. What qualities or characteristics do you seek in a principal candidate?
8. How have your principals used professional relationships, such as mentoring or networking,
to attain their positions?
9. What strategies do you use to attract principal candidates to your district?
Retention
10. What skills/strategies does a principal need to be successful?
10a. What does your district do to support the development of those skills/strategies?
11. What professional relationships support the retention of principals?
11a. Are these relationships formal or informal?
11b. Are they assigned or self-selected?
12. What factors have impacted the ongoing retention of your principals?
12a. What factors, if any, influence principals leaving the position?
K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT PRINCIPALS 141
Appendix K
QUESTION ALIGNMENT MATRIX
Instrument
RQ1
What preparation pro-
grams and experiences
enhance a potential prin-
cipal’s skills to manage
the complexities of the
principalship?
RQ2
What are the recruitment
strategies of districts to
help identify and select
principal candidates?
RQ3
What are the successful
strategies used by dis-
tricts to support the re-
tention of principals?
Principal Survey 1–13 14–29 30–36
Principal Interview
Guide
1–4 5–9 10–12
Human Resources
Administrator
Survey
1–10 11–26 27–33
Human Resources
Administrator In-
terview Guide
1–4 5–9 10–12
Immediate Super-
visor Survey
1–10 11–26 27–33
Immediate Super-
visor Interview
Guide
1–4 5–9 10–12
Superintendent
Survey
1–10 11–26 27–33
Superintendent
Interview Guide
1–4 5–9 10–12

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The K-12 public school principalship is a vital position in the education of children. The principal is charged with maintain a positive school environment, ensuring the educational and behavioral needs of students are met, overseeing and managing program and staff, and all building operations and oversight. This qualitative study examines the preparation, recruitment, and retention of K-12 public school principals and factors that contribute to longevity in the principal position. The experiences and perspectives of the participants, comprised of six principals, three superintendents, two immediate supervisors of principals, and four human resource officers contributed to the understanding of three research questions. A quantitative survey confirmed the common themes which emerged in this study, employing a large sample size of nearly 200 respondents. The researcher questions in this study sought to understand factors that support principal retention and success during principal preparation, recruitment, and retention. Three themes supporting principal preparation are the deliberate actions of teacher leaders to seek administrative experiences, their participation in leadership development opportunities, and mentorship from principals as the above skills were developed. Recruitment was aided by networking of candidates, development of internal candidates, and the reputation of the hiring school district. Retention of principals is grounded in a strong foundation of relationships and support within the school district, along with mentoring. The themes of this study have implications for aspiring and current principals, as well as school districts and preparation programs. Future research could include a focus on job-imbedded training, enhancing university training programs, developing strategies to recruit principals, and effective coaching and mentoring programs for principals.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Blackman, Elizabeth Ann Rabel (author)

Core Title Developing longevity in the K-12 principal position: strategies for preparation, recruitment, and retention

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/15/2020

Defense Date 01/16/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag coaching, leadership development,K-12,mentoring,OAI-PMH Harvest,preparation,principals,Public school,recruitment,retention

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael (committee chair), Cash, David (committee member), Crosby, Owen (committee member), Doll, Michele (committee member)

Creator Email bethrabel@yahoo.com,eblackman@tustin.k12.ca.us

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-310441

Unique identifier UC11666066

Identifier etd-BlackmanEl-8524.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-310441 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BlackmanEl-8524.pdf

Dmrecord 310441

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Blackman, Elizabeth Ann Rabel

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA