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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Cuerda seca ceramic tiles: explorations of resist formulas in various firing ranges

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Cuerda seca ceramic tiles: explorations of resist formulas in various firing ranges

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CUERDA SECA CERAMIC TILES:
EXPLORATIONS OF RESIST FORMULAS IN VARIOUS FIRING RANGES

by

Carla Aubin Sotelo

A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF HISTORIC PRESERVATION

May 2012

Copyright 2012 Carla Aubin Sotelo
ii
Abstract

In the 1920s and 1930s, residential and commercial buildings built in the popular
Spanish and Moorish inspired designs throughout California were decorated with
interior and exterior installations of cuerda seca art tiles. Decades later,
replacement of damaged fabric, such as parts of tile schemes, forms a large part
of the conservation and preservation ethic. How can preservation transpire if, in
preservation, documenting details of aspects such as building conditions,
materials, maintenance, etcetera are crucial and information about the materials,
such as the cuerda seca resist formulations are unavailable?

The goal of this thesis was replication of the cuerda seca resist using various
proprietary formulas, commercially available and mixed based on historic
information and empirical research to discover suitable black line resist formulas.
Various oils (linseed oil and olive oil), oxides (black iron oxide and manganese
dioxide), and fluxes, (lithium carbonate, soda ash, and borax) were tested with
appropriate clay bodies and glazes for three firing ranges: cone 06, cone 5 and
cone10. In all of the firing ranges tested, successful formulations were found and
would be suitable for conservators to use to preserve the cuerda seca art tiles
that already exist and for artists to use in order to preserve the cuerda seca
tradition.

iii
Table of Contents

Abstract ii
List of Figures iv
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Chapter 2: History of California Tile Companies that Manufactured
Cuerda Seca 5
Chapter 3: Methodology 33
Chapter 4: Results of Low Fire (cone 06) Tests 35
Chapter 5: Results of High Fire (cone 10) Tests 51
Chapter 6: Results of Mid Fire (cone 5) Tests 61
Chapter 7: Conclusions & Summary 74
Chapter 8: Suggestions for Future Work Studies 76
Bibliography 78
Appendices
Appendix A: Resist Formulations A – F 80
Appendix B: Glossary of Ceramics Terms 81
Appendix C: California Manufacturers of Cuerda Seca Tiles,
Years of Operation and Eventual Outcome 82
Appendix D: Illustration Notes/Bibliography 83

iv
List of Figures

Figure 1: Example of American Encaustic Tile 7
Figure 2: Examples of Catalina Tiles 9
Figure 3: Examples of Claycraft Potteries Tiles 11
Figure 4: Example of Gladding, McBean Tile Mural 14
Figure 5: Tile Mural in Los Angeles Union Station 15
Figure 6: Example of Kraftile 17
Figure 7: Examples of L.A. Pressed Brick Tiles 19
Figure 8: Persian Rug Floor Tile Mural, Adamson House 23
Figure 9: Serra Retreat Persian Rug Tiles 23
Figure 10: Tile Mural in Los Angeles City Hall 24
Figure 11: Example of S & S Tile 27
Figure 12: Examples of Taylor Tiles 29
Figure 13: Examples of Tropico Tiles 32
Figure 14: Low Fire Test 1 - Underglaze Pencils 35
Figure 15: Low Fire Test 1 - Underglaze Pencils & Clear Glaze 36
Figure 16: Low Fire Test 2 - Underglaze Crayons & Clear Glaze 37
Figure 17: Glaze Color and Product Number in Order of Glazes on
Low Fire Test Tiles Using the Aftosa Wax Resist &
Formula A – Formula E 38
Figure 18: Resist Formulas A – F 39
Figure 19: Resist Formula in an Applicator Bottle with a Needle Tip 39
v
Figure 20: Resist Formula Being Applied to Bisque Tile 40
Figure 21: Tile Ready for Glaze Application 40
Figure 22: Syringe Tools for Glaze Application 41
Figure 23: Applying Glaze 41
Figure 24: Low Fire Test 3 - Aftosa Wax Resist 43
Figure 25: Low Fire Test 4 - Aftosa Wax Resist & Clear Glaze 43
Figure 26: Low Fire Test 5 - Formula "A" Resist - Black Iron,
Linseed Oil & Lithium Carbonate 45
Figure 27: Low Fire Test 6 - Formula "B” Resist - Black Iron,
Olive Oil & Lithium Carbonate 46
Figure 28: Low Fire Test 7 - Formula "C" Resist – Mangenese
Dioxide, Linseed Oil & Soda Ash 47
Figure 29: Low Fire Test 8 - Formula "D" Resist – Manganese
Dioxide, Olive Oil & Soda Ash 48
Figure 30: Low Fire Test 9 - Formula "E" Resist – Mangenese
Dioxide, Linseed Oil & Borax 49
Figure 31: Low Fire Test 10 - Formula "F" Resist – Mangenese
Dioxide, Olive Oil & Borax 50
Figure 32: High Fire Test 1 - Amaco Underglaze Pencils 52
Figure 33: High Fire Test 2 – Amaco Underglaze Crayons 53
Figure 34: High Fire Test 3 - Duncan Underglaze 54
Figure 35: High Fire Test 3 - Mayco Underglaze 55
Figure 36: Glaze Color in Order of Glazes on High Fire Test Tiles
Using the Aftosa Wax Resist, Formula A, and Formula E 56

vi
Figure 37: Glaze Color and Product Number in Order of Glazes
on High Fire Test Tile with Aftosa Wax Resist and
Clear Glaze 56

Figure 38: High Fire Test 4 - Aftosa Wax Resist 57
Figure 39: High Fire Test 5 - Aftosa Wax Resist & Clear Glaze 58
Figure 40: High Fire Test 6 - Formula "A" Resist – Black Iron,
Linseed Oil & Lithium Carbonate 59
Figure 41: High Fire Test 7 - Formula "B" Resist – Black Iron,
Olive Oil & Lithium Carbonate 60
Figure 42: Glazes on First Mid Fire Test Tiles using the
Formulas A – E 61
Figure 43: Mid Fire Test 1 - Formula "A" Resist - Black Iron,
Olive Oil & Lithium Carbonate 63
Figure 44: Mid Fire Test 2 - Formula "B" Resist - Black Iron,
Olive Oil & Lithium Carbonate 65
Figure 45: Mid Fire Test 3 - Formula "C" Resist - Manganese
Dioxide, Linseed Oil, and Soda Ash 67
Figure 46: Mid Fire Test 4 - Formula "D" Resist -Manganese
Dioxide, Linseed Oil, and Soda Ash 69
Figure 47: Mid Fire Test 5 - Formula "E" Resist - Manganese
Dioxide, Linseed Oil, and Borax 71
Figure 48: Mid Fire Test 5 - Formula "F” Resist - Manganese
Dioxide, Olive Oil, and Borax 73
1
Chapter 1 – Introduction

Cuerda seca once was a very popular technique for decorating tiles and pottery.
The literal translation of cuerda seca is dry cord, but it is often referred to as a dry
line resist. The technique involves making a dark line, usually black or brown,
created with oxides (for colorants) and oil or wax (for resist) that both divides the
glaze colors and outlines them. Depending on the maker, the lines can be flat or
raised. The glazes can be flat as well, but often during the firing, they well up or
bead in a raised way that has a texture very similar to water droplets. The name
comes from way the designs were originally created by dipping cords or strings
into wax with oxide, applying them directly onto the tile surface for the outlines,
and then filling the spaces with glazes. The string or cord kept the glazes
separate and also burned off during the firing, leaving the black line.
1
The
cuerda seca tiles are abundant in Islamic regions in the Middle East, Central
Asia, Spain, and Morocco and were produced as early as the fourteenth
century.
2
In Spain and Morocco, it was common to use grease or animal fat in
place of oil as the resist, which resulted in a line with a distinctly bubbled and
charred texture.
3

1
Linda Moore, “Tile With Style; Linda Shields of Prunedale has perfected the art

2
Venetia Porter, Islamic Tiles (Northampton: Interlink Publishing Group, Inc.,
1995), 18-22.
3
Ronald L. Rindge, Thomas W. Doyle, Toni Doyle, Charlotte H. Laubach,
Frederick C. May, Judge John J. Merrick, and John F. Rindge, Ceramic Art of the
2

In the 1920s and 1930s, there were dozens of manufacturers of architectural clay
products, including ornamental tiles for both interior and exterior applications in
residential and commercial buildings located all over California. Many of the
manufacturers offered cuerda seca tiles, which were well suited for the Spanish
and Moorish inspired architecture that was popular in California at the time. With
the many tile factories emerging due to the abundance of high quality clays and
other materials for ceramic production being mined throughout the state, the tiles
became readily available and countless buildings were decorated with them.
During the Depression Era, building construction operations practically ceased,
and as a result, almost all of the architectural clay products manufacturers
closed. Now, the cuerda seca technique is becoming a lost art because the few
who know the resist formula are keeping it to themselves mostly in order to profit
by packaging and selling their proprietary formulas or their cuerda seca tiles.
4

There is a need to continue the traditions of the handmade tile industry, and
preserve the knowledge, since so many tile installations have already been lost
due to demolition and renovation and countless buildings with art tiles intact have
damaged or missing pieces and are in need of whole or partial replacements. If

Malibu Potteries 1926 – 1932, (Malibu: The Malibu Lagoon Museum, 1988), 31-
32.

4
Linda Moore, “Tile With Style; Linda Shields of Prunedale has perfected the art
of handcrafting colorful cuerda seca,” Monterey County Herald (June, 2007).
3
a building is listed in the National Register of Historic Places, certain features,
finishes, or fabric of the building, which can include art tiles, are “individually and
collectively important in defining the historic character of the buildings.”
5
They
are protected and they must be maintained according to the Secretary of Interior
Standards. In the United States, replacement of damaged fabric, such as parts
of tile schemes, forms a large part of the conservation ethic. Usually, small-scale
tile manufacturers or studio ceramicists must experiment with materials and
glazes, since they do not know the techniques and materials that were originally
used. In fact, the company H. & R. Johnsons of Stoke on Trent in Great Britain
was employed to replace 20 percent of the floor tiles in the Capitol Building in
Washington D.C., because there was no American company willing or able to
carry out the project.
6

Preservation principles dictate that original material should not be replaced if only
a minor repair is necessary, however, if a part of a scheme has been damaged
beyond repair or is missing, it is acceptable to replace it with material that
matches the original size, color, form, and texture, without being confused with
the original. Therefore, it is vital to have the information to maintain detailed

5
Kay D. Weeks and Anne E. Grimmer, The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards
for the Treatment of Historic Properties with Guidelines for Preserving &,
Rehabilitating, Restoring & Reconstructing Historic Buildings (Washington, D. C.:
U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service, 1995), 22.

6
Lesley Durbin, Architectural Tiles Conservation and Restoration (Amsterdam:
Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann, 2005), 93.
4
records of alterations and so that original and replacement tiles can be discerned
from one another.
7

When important cuerda seca formulation components are kept secret,
preservationists are limited to using proprietary products with mystery
ingredients. The information should be made available in an open source way so
people can contribute formulas, techniques, experiences, and results. The goal
of this thesis was an attempt to discover, replicate, and reveal some results, for
cuerda seca formulas that are suitable in various firing ranges and yield various
textures for artists and conservators to use. It is possible to replicate the
unknown proprietary materials and methods used to produce the black line resist
in early 20th Century American cuerda seca art tile using commercially available
materials and standard glazing techniques.

7
Ibid, 89.
5
Chapter 2 – History of California Tile Companies that Manufactured Cuerda Seca

This chapter briefly explores the history of the cuerda seca tile makers in
California. Although, in addition to tile manufacturing plants, there were many
artists and schools producing cuerda seca tiles, and cuerda seca tiles were also
produced outside California and outside the United States, I have restricted this
section to producers of cuerda seca tiles that were companies with ceramics
manufacturing facilities in California.

American Encaustic Tiling Company, Vernon, 1919 – 1933

The American Encaustic Tiling Company, founded in 1875 in Zanesville, Ohio,
was already successfully established. When founder Frederick H. Hall
purchased West Coast Tile in Vernon in 1919, which had only been in business
for five years, he began operations of his new west coast factory with
approximately 60 employees. They originally used white clay mined from San
Diego County and continued to mark it with the same “Kaospar” trade name that
had been previously used by West Coast. In 1926, they purchased Proutyline
Products who had developed and patented very high quality clay by combining
white clay from Lincoln, California with talc mined from Death Valley that carried
the trade name “Hermosa Tile.” American Encaustic continued to use both the
patented formula and the Hermosa mark. Before the stock market crash of 1929,
6
American Encaustic was the largest tile manufacturer in the world with plants in
Vernon and Hermosa Beach, California, Zanesville, Ohio, and Maurer, New
Jersey.
8
When they acquired both West Coast Tile they retained the general
manager, Frank A Philo, and when they purchased the Proutyline Products
Company plant in Hermosa Beach, Theodore Prouty served as local manager
and the Hermosa Beach factory building was increased to ten times its original
size. By 1930, the west coast factories employed 400 workers and the three
American Encaustic Tiling Co. plants manufactured one quarter of the tile that
was being produced in the United States.
9
The stock market crash and
depression caused sales to plummet, which eventually resulted in the 1933 sale
of the west coast plants to the company’s chief competitor, Gladding, McBean &
Company,
10
and the Zanesville factory closed in 1935.
11

8
Luisa Ranieri-Perez, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Acme to
Handcraft, ed. Joseph A. Taylor (Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 2003), 22.

9
Norman Karlson, American Art Tile 1876 – 1941 (New York: Rizzoli
International Publications, Inc., 1998), 168.

10
Ranieri-Perez, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Acme to Handcraft,
ed. Joseph A. Taylor, 22.

11
Karlson, American Art Tile 1876 – 1941, 168.

7

Figure 1 - Example of American Encaustic Tile

8
Catalina Pottery, Avalon, 1927 – 1937

William Wrigley, Jr., and his son, Philip wanted to develop tourism on their
family’s island, Catalina, by attempting to idealize early California. They built a
factory near Avalon at Pebbly Beach that produced mostly cuerda seca tiles,
although they also made bricks, relief tiles, ceramic art and tableware. The
factory opened in April of 1927, and by June of 1927, five workers using electric
powered automated equipment were making 60,000 bricks and 16,000 to 30,000
tiles daily. Between 1931 and 1932, the art and tableware were outselling the
tiles by producing 5,000 to 6,000 pieces per week in 1931 and increasing to
10,000 to 50,000 pieces per week in 1932. Although they originally used the
native clays of the island for the tiles and the pottery, it was too weak for the
pottery so stronger clay had to be shipped in from the mainland for that use. In
the Pebbly Beach factory, there was a machine shop that made frames and
tables of wrought iron especially for the tiles, which no other tile manufacturing
company did. Gladding, McBean & Company purchased Catalina Pottery in
1937 and ceased production of all of the designs.
12
The Pebbly Beach factory
made tiles, bricks, pavers and roof tiles. Wrigley only wanted to use the island
clays, and it wasn’t until his death in 1932 that very expensive white clay from
Lincoln, California was used. Many buildings in Avalon including the airport and

12
Steven R. Soukup, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Acme to
Handcraft, ed. Joseph A. Taylor (Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 2003), 123-
124.

9
along Crescent Avenue feature Catalina tiles. In the 1930s, the name of the
company was changed to Catalina Clay Products, and by 1934, the wares,
including tableware, were being sold in stores all over the country through their
Los Angeles showroom at 618 N. Main Street.
13

13
Norman Karlson, American Art Tile 1876 – 1941 (New York: Rizzoli
International Publications, Inc., 1998), 188-189.

Figure 2 - Examples of Catalina Tiles
10
Claycraft Potteries, Los Angeles, 1921 – 1939

The success of Claycraft is most often attributed to General Superintendent Fred
H. Robertson, clay and glaze expert, formerly of Los Angeles Pressed Brick
Company,
14
and Assistant Superintendent George B. Robertson, his son.
15
The
tile factory and showroom was established at 3101 San Fernando Road in 1921
to produce tiles featuring beautiful scenes of California land and seascapes,
architecture, flora, fauna, and people and they opened another showroom in
Portland, Oregon in 1928. Claycraft tiles were also promoted through other
showrooms, and the tiles can be found all over the country. With 25 employees
using both hand pressing and a power driven press, they were capable of
producing over 900 tiles per hour.
16
In 1934, after nine years, Fred and George
Robertson left Claycraft to establish Robertson Pottery in 1934 to focus their

14
Joseph A. Taylor, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Acme to
Handcraft, (Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 2003), 149-150.

15
Norman Karlson, American Art Tile 1876 – 1941 (New York: Rizzoli
International Publications, Inc., 1998), 173-175.

16
Taylor, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Acme to Handcraft, 149-
150.

11
attentions primarily on pottery.
17
Claycraft’s production slowed during the
Depression and the business finally closed in 1939.
18

17
Norman Karlson, American Art Tile 1876 – 1941, (New York: Rizzoli
International Publications, Inc., 1998), 173-175.
.

18
Joseph A. Taylor, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Acme to
Handcraft, (Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 2003), 149-150.
Figure 3
-‐
Examples of Claycraft Potteries Tiles
12
Gladding, McBean & Company, Glendale, 1875 – present

The Gladding, McBean partnership began northeast of Sacramento with the
discovery of a clay bed during road construction in Placer County. Company
founders Charles Gladding and Peter McBean built their company in Lincoln
using the clay to manufacture sewer pipe and other architectural elements,
including tile fireplace surrounds.
19
By 1884, an office and showroom building
was constructed in San Francisco and ten years later one of the founders,
Charles Gladding passed away, and Peter McBean became the company
president.
20
When in 1923, the son of one of the founders, Atholl McBean,
became the company president, they began expanding by a series of mergers
and acquisitions that resulted in expanded sales, production, and knowledge.
21

When they purchased Tropico Potteries in 1923, and merged with Los Angeles
Pressed Brick Company in 1926, who both produced tiles, Gladding, McBean &
Co., became “the largest producer of terra cotta in California.”
22
They continued
to use the Tropico name at the Tropico plant until 1937 where they produced art

19
Steven R. Soukup, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Acme to
Handcraft, ed. Joseph A. Taylor (Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 2003), 187-
190.

20
Norman Karlson, American Art Tile 1876 – 1941 (New York: Rizzoli
International Publications, Inc., 1998), 179-182.

21
Soukup, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Acme to Handcraft, ed.
Joseph A. Taylor, 187-190.

22
Karlson, American Art Tile 1876 – 1941, 179-182.

13
tile murals and employed approximately 85 workers.
23
In 1933, they purchased
the American Encaustic Tiling Company with its plants in Hermosa Beach and in
Vernon, along with the patents and trademark for the proprietary Hermosa Tile
formula. Gladding, McBean continued to produce the Hermosa Tiles and
marking them either “Hermosa Tile,” “Gladding McBean & Co.” or both.
24
In
1937, they purchased Catalina Pottery, closed the Pebbly Beach factory, and
discontinued production of the Catalina tiles. Although they also closed the
American Encaustic Tiling Company plant in Vernon and most of the Hermosa
Beach plant, they continued to manufacture the Hermosa tiles in Glendale, and
they were “the largest producer of tile in the west.”
25
They were responsible for
making most of the tiles in the 1939 Los Angeles Union Station.
26
In 1962, they
merged with the Lock Joint Pipe Company and eventually formed Interpace
Corporation and dropped the Gladding, McBean name, altogether,
27
even though
the Glendale plant remained open, producing “Franciscan” dinnerware. In 1976,

23
Steven R. Soukup, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Acme to
Handcraft, ed. Joseph A. Taylor (Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 2003), 187-
190.

24
Ibid.

25
Norman Karlson, American Art Tile 1876 – 1941 (New York: Rizzoli
International Publications, Inc., 1998), 179-182.

26
Los Angeles Conservancy Home page, accessed September 19, 2011,
http://www.laconservancy.org/kids/union_kids_inside.pdf.

27
Soukup, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Acme to Handcraft, ed.
Joseph A. Taylor, 187-190.

14
Pacific Coast Building products purchased the original Lincoln plant and restored
the Gladding, McBean name.
28
They are still operational in Lincoln, producing
clay sewer pipe, roof tile, floor tile, chimney caps, decorative architectural
elements, and pottery.
29

28
Norman Karlson, American Art Tile 1876 – 1941 (New York: Rizzoli
International Publications, Inc., 1998), 179-182.

29
Gladding McBean Home page, accessed December 5, 2011,
http://www.gladdingmcbean.com/.

Figure 4 - Example of Gladding, McBean Tile Mural
15

Figure 5 - Tile Mural in Los Angeles Union Station
16
Kraftile Company, Niles, 1926 – 1997

In 1925, as a business sideline, the Kraft Family food company, owners of the
Kraft Cheese Company and the K&L Box and Lumber Company (Kraft & Leash)
which made the wooden crates to transport the cheese, decided to use their
sawdust scraps leftover from manufacturing the wooden crates to fuel the firings
for roofing tiles, so they built the factory right next door to the crate factory. By
1926, Clay Meyers from California Art Tile Company joined the company as the
president and plant superintendent. The designs of the 1931 catalog are very
similar to those produced by the Malibu Potteries. However, by employing their
special trimming and single-firing technique, which was referred to as the “Kraftile
Monolithic Method” they produced the most uniform tiles in the industry.
30

Production of tile continued until at least 1937, and the company also continued
to produce hollow glazed bricks.
31
For brick manufacturing, they mined the red
clay right from the property from a 35-foot deep trench, ground it finely and mixed
in barium carbonate, water, and grog. In addition to the tile, brick, and glazed
brick, they also manufactured glazed structural wall and partition units, pavers,

30
Steven R. Soukup, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Hispano–
Moresque to Woolenius, ed. Joseph A. Taylor (Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd.,
2004), 23-24.

31
Norman Karlson, American Art Tile 1876 – 1941 (New York: Rizzoli
International Publications, Inc., 1998), 152-153.

17
and glazed swimming pool overflow gutters.
32
From 1975 to 1997, under James
Kraft, the seventh and last president of the company, manufacturing consisted of
mostly quarry tile. The plant lasted until 1997, when it closed and the site was
used for building a housing development.
33

32
“California Bricks Kraftile Company,“ accessed April 24, 2011,
http://calbricks.netfirms.com/brick.kraftileco.html.

33
Steven R. Soukup, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Hispano–
Moresque to Woolenius, ed. Joseph A. Taylor (Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd.,
2004), 23-24.

Figure 6 - Example of Kraftile
18
Los Angeles Pressed Brick Company, Los Angeles, 1887 – 1926

The Los Angeles Pressed Brick Company (LAPB) was founded by Charles Henry
Frost in 1887. Frost had run a successful brick factory in Chicago, and when he
moved to Los Angeles, he immediately opened his company in Alhambra to
produce bricks, architectural terra cotta, and hollow clay tile. In 1904, the
company began manufacture of roofing tiles, mantels, and hearth tiles. By 1906,
a second factory opened in Santa Monica, and by 1907, the company was
producing decorative tiles. Between 1910 and 1911, a third factory opened in the
San Francisco bay area. Although “the company’s main thrust of business was
brick” and roof tiles, they participated with art tiles in the Clay Products
Exposition in Chicago in 1913 and the Panama-Pacific International Exposition in
San Francisco in 1915.
34
When the fourth factory opened in Alberhill, California,
the company “became the largest works of its kind in the world” and, “won
several awards for its tile … first prize at the Alaska-Yukon Exposition in Seattle
in 1910, a gold medal at the Lewis and Clark Exposition in Portland Oregon in
1905, a silver medal at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis in 1904,

34
Lynn Downey, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Hispano–Moresque
to Woolenius, ed. Joseph A. Taylor (Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 2004), 35-
38.

19
and first prize in the California State Fairs of 1903, 1907, and 1909.” They
merged with Gladding McBean & Company in 1926.
35

35
Norman Karlson, American Art Tile 1876 – 1941 (New York: Rizzoli
International Publications, Inc., 1998), 154-155.
Figure 7 - Examples of L.A. Pressed Brick Tiles

20
Malibu Potteries, Malibu, 1926 – 1932

When the Rindge family discovered large deposits of red and buff clays on their
vast Malibu ranch property, May Knight Rindge persuaded Glaze Master Rufus
Keeler, of California Clay Products Company, to supervise construction of the
Malibu Potteries Factory, hire workers, and work there as plant supervisor.
36
By
“1925, a brick plant was in operation on the ranch; utilizing the local clays, it
produced the brick used to construct the tile plant.”
37
Keeler employed as a
designer, William Handley, who was also from California Clay Products
Company, and it was he who created the Persian Rug floor tile (see figure 8) at
the Adamson House, built on thirteen acres of the Malibu estate for the Rindge’s
daughter, Rhoda and her husband Merritt Huntley Adamson. The Spanish-
Moorish Colonial Revival style house, designed by architect Stiles O. Clements,
is richly adorned with tiles “custom designed by Malibu Potteries” inside and
out.
38
Probably the most impressive installation in the house is the 6’ 8” X 20’ 4’’

36
Christi Walden, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Hispano–
Moresque to Woolenius, ed. Joseph A. Taylor (Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd.,
2004), 43-46.

37
Ronald L. Rindge, Romaine S. Andaloro, Thomas W. Doyle, Toni Doyle,
Charlotte H. Laubach, Judge John J. Merrick, John F. Rindge, and Joseph A.
Taylor, More About Malibu Potteries 1926 – 1932, (Malibu: The Malibu Lagoon
Museum, 1997), 14.

38
Ronald L. Rindge, Thomas W. Doyle, Toni Doyle, Charlotte H. Laubach,
Frederick C. May, Judge John J. Merrick, and John F. Rindge, Ceramic Art of the
Malibu Potteries 1926 – 1932, (Malibu: The Malibu Lagoon Museum, 1988), 94.

21
Persian “rug” which consists of 674 cuerda seca tiles.
39
Another Persian “rug”
was one of the last installations created at the factory was designed by Inez
Johnson Van Hake for a new mansion that was being built on the property for
May Knight Rindge (see Figure 9).
40
Mrs. Rindge passed away before the
mansion was completed and in 1942 was sold to the Franciscan Order and
became known as Serra Retreat.
41

Malibu Potteries products, which included chimney caps, towel hooks, book-
ends, ashtrays, and various types of pottery, were available through showrooms
around the country and at the company’s own showroom, located in Los Angeles
at 119 N. Larchmont Boulevard.
42
Some of the most significant installations of
Malibu Potteries cuerda seca tiles can be found in the Los Angeles City Hall and
the Adamson House.
43
During the Depression, the plant closed for only a few
months, and was able to open and operate again. But in 1931, a fire that started
in the clay room burned for seven hours, destroying the factory, along with tiles,

39
Ibid, 100.

40
Ibid, 50.

41
Ibid, 111.

42
Christi Walden, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Hispano–
Moresque to Woolenius, ed. Joseph A. Taylor (Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd.,
2004), 43-46.

43
Norman Karlson, American Art Tile 1876 – 1941 (New York: Rizzoli
International Publications, Inc., 1998), 183-184.

22
photographs, documents and records. With the continuing Depression, demand
for tiles was very low and Mrs. Rindge decided to close the company.
44
Although
many of the meticulous records kept by Keeler were destroyed in the fire, the
processes were well documented and many records survive in the care of the
Malibu Lagoon Museum. The factory was equipped with three kilns and the tiles
were produced with two firings. The first firing was to 2300 degrees Fahrenheit
and took four days to fire and two days to cool. For cuerda seca tiles, the resist
formula design, which was a manganese and mineral oil paste was applied to the
tiles by screen-printing. Experienced operators could silk-screen “a design every
six seconds.”
45
After drying, the glazes were applied by hand using a “rubber
bulb syringe… filled with a glaze...[and applied] with a back and forth sweeping
motion. Frequent agitation of the syringe was necessary to maintain an even
flow… [and] brushes were sometimes used.”
46
The second firing, also known as
the glaze firing, was to 1900 degrees Fahrenheit, and took approximately forty
hours.
47

44
Christi Walden, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Hispano–
Moresque to Woolenius, ed. Joseph A. Taylor (Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd.,
2004), 43-46.

45
Ronald L. Rindge, Thomas W. Doyle, Toni Doyle, Charlotte H. Laubach,
Frederick C. May, Judge John J. Merrick, and John F. Rindge, Ceramic Art of the
Malibu Potteries 1926 – 1932, (Malibu: The Malibu Lagoon Museum, 1988), 31-
32.

46
Ibid, 33.

47
Ibid, 34.

23

Figure 9 - Serra Retreat
Persian Rug Being Laid Out in
the Factory After the 1931 Fire
Measures 13’ X 59’
Figure 8 - Persian Rug
Floor Tile Mural
Adamson House
Measures 6’ 8” X 20’ 4’’
24
Figure 10 - Tile Mural
Los Angeles City Hall
25
Solon and Schemmel, S & S, Solon and Larkin, Larkin Tile, Stonelight Tile, San
Jose, 1920 – present

Before his education at Oxford, Albert Solon apprenticed at a china factory where
his grandfather was the art director and his father was the head designer. In
1908, at twenty-one years old, Albert moved to California, where he worked for
four different ceramics companies before teaching ceramics and physics at the
Cathedral Oaks art school, and later at the Normal School in San Jose, now San
Jose State University.
48
When he partnered with businessman Frank Schemmel
in 1920, they formed Solon and Schemmel, or S & S Tile Company and when
Schemmel retired in 1936, Solon partnered with Paul Larkin, a ceramic engineer
who had worked for several California pottery companies, and renamed the
company Solon and Larkin. While they had a sales representative in Los
Angeles, and made tiles for the Loews, State, and Orpheum Theatres there, they
remained a fairly local manufacturer, making tiles mostly for Bay Area
installations including: The Golden Gate Park Steinhart Aquarium, San Jose
Normal School, and tiles for Hearst’s kitchen at San Simeon.
49
Most likely it is
because the company was kept small, that it was able to survive through the

48
Ibid, 105.

49
Norman Karlson, American Art Tile 1876 – 1941 (New York: Rizzoli
International Publications, Inc., 1998), 142-143.

26
Depression.
50
When Solon decided to retire shortly after World II, he sold all his
tile seconds that he had in storage for only a penny apiece and “thousands of
customers waited in line to purchase them.”
51
Larkin continued operation of the
company under the name Larkin Tile Company until the demand for his
decorative tiles declined and his company suffered financial hardships. In 1956,
he met Ross Chichester, Paul Chamberlain, and David Kasavan, who offered to
lease his plant and pay his company debts. In exchange, they wanted Larkin to
teach them the tile trade, to which he agreed. When he retired a year later, the
company was again renamed Stonelight Tile, and is still in operation today with a
new owner, David Anson.
52
In addition to other tile products, they still
manufacture cuerda seca which they glaze fire to around 2,050 to 2,100 degrees
Fahrenheit.
53

50
Riley Doty, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Hispano–Moresque to
Woolenius, ed. Joseph A. Taylor (Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 2004), 106.

51
Norman Karlson, American Art Tile 1876 – 1941 (New York: Rizzoli
International Publications, Inc., 1998), 144.

52
“About Stonelight Tile The History of Stonelight Tile,” Stonelight Tile Home
page, accessed January 5, 2012, http://www.stonelighttile.com/about.html.

53
David Anson, e-mail message, December 13, 2011.
27

Figure 11 – Example of S & S Tile
28
Taylor Tilery, Santa Monica, 1930 – 1941

Founded as a subsidiary of the Santa Monica Brick Company by Frank Taylor, a
Midwesterner with clay experience, and Eric Douglas, an Englishman with capital
to invest, built their factory around 1920 in Santa Monica on a ten-acre parcel at
1741 Cloverdale Boulevard. They manufactured bricks and tiles under the
names Santa Monica Brick Company, Santa Monica Tiles, and Monaco.
54
By
1927, they were producing 75,000 bricks per day, but they couldn’t make them
fast enough to supply the demand that included bricks for the buildings at USC.
They were also producing roofing tile, clay wall vents, tile, and pottery. In 1930,
Eric Douglas ceased his association with the company, and Frank Taylor
renamed the company Taylor Tilery.
55
By 1938, the company had approximately
fifteen employees, including Bill Handley a designer from Malibu Potteries and
Simon Rodia, who constructed the Watts Towers.
56

54
Norman Karlson, American Art Tile 1876 – 1941 (New York: Rizzoli
International Publications, Inc., 1998), 176.

55
Steven R. Soukup, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Hispano–
Moresque to Woolenius, ed. Joseph A. Taylor (Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd.,
2004), 139-141.

56
Karlson, American Art Tile 1876 – 1941, 176.

29

Figure 12 - Examples of Taylor Tiles
30
Tropico Potteries, Glendale, 1921 – 1923

Tropico Potteries in the city of Tropico, which is now Glendale, was located at
2901 Tropico Ave., which is now Los Feliz Boulevard. Because of the clay
mining expertise of their president and the mineral deposits they owned in
Corona and Lake Elsinore, in Riverside County, and mineral deposits in San
Bernardino County, the company primarily manufactured architectural terra cotta
and sewer pipe.
57
Tile manufacturing began as the Pacific Art Tile Company on
the site in 1900 and its first product, ornamental tiles, were the first manufactured
west of Indianapolis. The general manager, Joseph Kirkham, was an expert
ceramicist trained with Josiah Wedgewood in one of the Wedgewood factories in
England, and was “reputed one of the most expert ceramicists of the United
States.”
58
He would blend different local clays together that were thought to be
as good as or better than clay found anywhere in order to “create the best
result.”
59
The brick department was headed by K. R. Bradley, who, in 1919, was
The Tropico plant site was chosen was because “within a radius of 125 miles of

57
Steven R. Soukup, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Hispano–
Moresque to Woolenius, ed. Joseph A. Taylor (Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd.,
2004), 171-174.

58
"Art Tile Industry Reborn at Tropico: Corner-stone of New Factory Laid With
Ceremony," Los Angeles Times (July 25, 1902): A5, Proquest.

59
"New Art Tile Products," Los Angeles Times (December, 1900): I11, Proquest.

31
Tropico 565 different varieties of clay suitable for the manufacture of art tiles for
exterior and interior decorations, have been discovered. The close proximity of
such valuable clay deposits will greatly facilitate the cheap transportation to the
factory.”
60
The factory had its own sidetrack leading directly the Southern Pacific
and Santa Fe Railroad lines “thus reducing the cost of the raw material to a
minimum.”
61

In 1921, Benjamin Marshall Wotkyns purchased the company and his partners,
investment bankers Stephens & Company who took control of the factory,
renamed it Tropico Potteries, Inc., and converted all the operations from steam to
electricity, thus doubling the production capacity. In 1923, Gladding Mc Bean &
Company acquired the company and the factory and they continued to
manufacture the tiles under the Tropico name.
62

60
"Art Tile Industry Reborn at Tropico: Corner-stone of New Factory Laid With
Ceremony," Los Angeles Times (July 25, 1902): A5, Proquest.

61
"New Art Tile Products," Los Angeles Times (December, 1900): I11, Proquest.
62
Steven R. Soukup, California Tile The Golden Era 1910 – 1940 Hispano–
Moresque to Woolenius, ed. Joseph A. Taylor (Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd.,
2004), 171-174.

32

Figure 13 - Examples of Tropico Tiles

33
Chapter 3 – Methodology

Through experimentation, the purpose of this thesis was the replication of the
historic cuerda seca technique used in ceramics. Using tiles as a medium, the
goal was to replicate the cuerda seca resist in high, medium, and low fire clays
using various proprietary formulas, commercially available and mixed.

In addition to employing commercially available products, tests were conducted
using empirical research to find suitable black line resist formulas with oils,
oxides, and flux combined with appropriate clay bodies and glazes for three firing
ranges: cone 06, cone 5 and cone10. (See Appendix A for exact formulations of
formulas A – F)

The low fire and the high fire groups of tests were conducted concurrently and
the mid fire group of tests were conducted the following semester. For the low
fire tests, cone 06 (1830° F) Koblitz clay, a white earthenware talc clay body, was
used in honor of committee member and Professor Karen Koblitz, head of
ceramics in the University of Southern California Roski School of Fine Arts. For
the high fire tests, cone 10 (2381° F) Soldate clay, a beige high fire stoneware
clay body was used in honor of Professor Joe Soldate, Art Department Chair at
California State University, Los Angeles, during my time studying and teaching
there. For the mid fire tests, cone 5 (2185° F) SB clay, a red mid-range firing
34
clay body, was suggested to me by Amy Green, tile conservator and professional
peer of Karen Koblitz, during a brief telephone conversation in Fall 2011 while
she was working on one of the tile murals at the Adamson House in Malibu (see
Chapter 2, Malibu Potteries section for more information on the Adamson
House).
63

Since the resist entails resisting glaze and preventing it from crossing the line,
glazes needed to be tested in conjunction with the line. The glazes employed
throughout the tests were stock glazes from the University of Southern California
Roski School of Fine Arts ceramics studio.

63
Amy Green, telephone conversation, Fall 2010.
35
Chapter 4 - Results of Low Fire (cone 06) Tests

The first two tests conducted were done using underglaze products in
conjunction with a clear gloss glaze, attempting to simulate the cuerda seca
aesthetic without the involved process of applying the resist formula, waiting for it
to dry, then applying glaze. The hope was that, if applied thickly enough, the
underglaze would well up or puddle enough to appear as if it were cuerda seca.
In the first test, “Amaco” brand underglaze pencils were employed. Because
they are used exactly like pencils, drawing clean, straight lines was possible with
the black pencil, then the rectangles were filled in with yellow, pink and brown.
However, a very thick application is not possible since the product reaches a
point of saturation where is not possible to apply more. After firing, it looked like
colored pencil (see Figure 14) and after application of the clear gloss glaze and
firing the test again, it looked like colored pencil (see Figure 15). The result did
not resemble cuerda seca.

Figure 14 - Low Fire Test 1 -
Underglaze Pencils

36

For the second underglaze test, “Amaco” brand underglaze crayons were used,
in the hope that it could be applied thicker than the underglaze pencils. Bits from
each crayon were shaved and mixed with water to create a thick liquid and
applied using a brush. This method allowed the underglaze to be applied much
thicker than with the pencils and it was much easier to apply. But the end result
still had a flat texture and although looked much better than the underglaze
pencil tests, they did not resemble cuerda seca (see Figure 16). Therefore, the
conclusion of all of the underglaze tests is that they do not replicate the cuerda
seca in low fire.

Figure 15 - Low Fire Test 1 -
Underglaze Pencils & Clear Glaze

37

The remainder of the low fire tests employed my six formulations of cuerda seca
resists in combination with eight Laguna Clay Company glazes. The glazes used
for the remainder of the low fire tests were pre-mixed glazes from Laguna Clay
Company, City of Industry, California. For informational purposes, the glaze
colors and Laguna Clay Company stock numbers are provided (see Figure 17).
Each resist formula was applied using a plastic squeeze bottle with a small
needle tip to draw the black outlines of rectangles and allowed to dry for at least
twenty-four hours (see Figure 20, 21). Then the glazes were applied in the
rectangles using small plastic plungers or syringes and a small brush to push it to
the edges (see Figure 22, 23).

Figure 16 - Low Fire Test 2 -
Underglaze Crayons & Clear
Glaze
38
Figure 17 - Glaze Color and Product Number in Order of Glazes on Low Fire
Test Tiles using the “Aftosa” Brand Wax Resist & Formula A - Formula E:

Sage
EM-1134

Silver Grey
EM-1148

Grape
EM-1162

Dutch Blue
EM-1014

Teal Satin
EM-1141

Cobalt Satin
EM-1138

Alabaster White
EM-1002

Black Patent
EM-1007

39

Figure 18 - Resist Formulas A - F
Figure 19 - Resist Formula in an Applicator Bottle
with a Needle Tip
40

Figure 20 - Resist Formula
Being Applied to Bisque Tile
Figure 21 - Tile Ready for
Glaze Application
41

Figure 22 - Syringe Tools for Glaze
Application
Figure 23 - Applying Glaze
42
The next low fire tests were done using “Aftosa” brand wax resist, a commercially
available proprietary cuerda seca resist formula. The product instructions state
that the finished line produced is grey rather than black (see Figure 24), and that
if a black line is desired, an application of clear glaze and an additional firing
turns the line black (see Figure 25). The product performed well. It comes in its
own squeeze bottle and is easy to apply. It effectively kept the glazes separate
during the firing and caused the desired puddling effect with the glazes. The line
was grey and solid but it was not raised. It also adhered very well. Aesthetically,
it was not the desired color or texture so a clear glaze was applied on the tile and
it was fired again in order to achieve the black line. Because of this, two issues
arose. Firstly, the additional firing is very wasteful in regards to energy
consumption. Secondly, applying another layer of clear glaze on top of glazes
that are already glossy or satin is redundant. In the case of this test tile, two of
the glazes had a satin texture and the other six glazes were glossy. So, when
the clear glaze was applied, it rendered the satin glazes glossy (see Figure 25).
43

Figure 24 - Low Fire Test 3 - “Aftosa” Brand Wax Resist

Figure 25 - Low Fire Test 4 - “Aftosa” Brand Wax Resist & Clear Glaze

44
Formula A is a mixture consisting of ten parts black iron oxide as the colorant,
with ten parts linseed oil as the resist vehicle, and three parts lithium carbonate
as a flux. The flux is used to help cause the oxides, which are mined minerals
that have been finely ground, to melt and become fluid in the firing. This starting
point formulation was based on references to historic resist formulations
mentioned already and also based on references to the inclusion of “fundente”
(which is Spanish for flux) or “sal” (which is Spanish for salt, and has been
historically used as a fluxing agent in ceramics).
64
Since salt is corrosive and
damaging to kilns, its use is forbidden in most universities, including the
University of Southern California, other fluxes with wide firing temperature ranges
were chosen.

Regarding application, due to the large size of the iron granules, the Formula A
solution was slightly difficult to squeeze through the needle tip. The solution did
keep the glazes separate during the firing, and also caused the pleasing effect of
welling up or puddling of the glazes. The black line was solid and raised after the
firing, but rubbed off easily and completely. Since the goal of this project is to
have the black line remain, this test was unsuccessful (see Figure 26).

64
Elena Sosa Suárez, “La cerámica de ‘Cuerda Seca’ del antiguo convento de
San Francisco de Asís de las Palmas de Gran Canaria.” Cuadernos de
Prehistoria y Arqueología Universidad Autónoma de Madrid 33 (2007): 159.
accessed October 1, 2010,
http://www.uam.es/otros/cupauam/pdf/cupauam33/3308.pdf.
45

Figure 26 - Low Fire Test 5 - Formula "A" Resist -
Black Iron, Linseed Oil & Lithium Carbonate
46
Formula B was exactly the same as Formula A, except that olive oil was used
instead of linseed oil. The application was exactly the same and the results were
exactly the same. The large granules of iron were difficult to squeeze through the
needle tip, the solution effectively kept the glazes separate during the firing, and
the same puddling effect occurred with the glazes. The black line was solid and
raised after the firing, but rubbed off easily and completely. Changing the oil
from linseed to olive made no difference and like the first test, this test was
unsuccessful (see Figure 27).

Figure 27 - Low Fire Test 6 - Formula "B” Resist -
Black Iron, Olive Oil & Lithium Carbonate

47
Formula C is a mixture of ten parts manganese dioxide as the colorant, ten parts
linseed oil as the resist vehicle, and three parts of soda ash as a flux. The
application was much easier than with the iron formulas since the manganese
was finer and flowed easier through the needle tip, but it made a thick formula
that tended to clog the needle tip and a brush was needed to help create the
black line. The solution effectively kept the glazes separate during the firing,
caused the puddling effect with the glazes, and the black line was solid and
raised. The black line was much smoother to the touch than the iron formula
tests, and although it adhered better than the iron, the black color did transfer
onto the skin when rubbed, but did not come off completely. Since the black line
result was unstable, this test was unsuccessful (see Figure 28).

Figure 28 - Low Fire Test 7 - Formula "C" Resist -
Manganese Dioxide, Linseed Oil & Soda Ash

48
Formula D is exactly the same as Formula C, except that olive oil was used
instead of linseed oil. The application was better because the olive oil formula
flowed much easier through the needle tip. The solution effectively kept the
glazes separate during the firing, caused the puddling effect with the glazes, and
the black line was solid and raised. It adhered better than Formula A, B, and C,
but the black color transferred onto the skin when rubbed, though not coming off
completely, and not as much as Formula C. The black line was unstable;
therefore, this test was unsuccessful (see Figure 29).

Figure 29 - Low Fire Test 8 - Formula "D" Resist -
Manganese Dioxide, Olive Oil & Soda Ash

49
Formula E is a mixture of ten parts of manganese dioxide as the colorant, ten
parts linseed oil as the resist vehicle, and three parts of borax as a flux. The
application was very good because the formula flowed easily through the needle
tip. The solution effectively kept the glazes separate during the firing, caused the
puddling effect with the glazes, and the black line was solid and raised. It
adhered better than Formula A, B, C, D, and F, and the black color did not rub
off. This test was successful (see Figure 30).

Figure 30 - Low Fire Test 9 - Formula "E" Resist -
Manganese Dioxide, Linseed Oil & Borax
50
Formula F is was exactly the same as Formula E, except that olive oil was used
instead of linseed oil. The application was a little difficult because the thick
formula clogged the needle tip applicator and a brush had to be used to help
create the line. The solution effectively kept the glazes separate during the firing,
caused the puddling effect with the glazes, the black line was solid but it was flat,
probably due to the application with the assistance of the brush. It adhered as
well as Formula C and D, but the black color transferred onto the skin when
rubbed, though not coming off completely, and not as much as Formula C or D.
Since the black line was unstable, this test was unsuccessful (see Figure 31).

Figure 31 - Low Fire Test 10 - Formula "F" Resist -
Manganese Dioxide, Olive Oil & Borax
51
Chapter 5 – Results of High Fire (cone 10) Tests

Although the underglaze tests were unsuccessful in the low fire tests, they
needed to be re-tested in the high fire environment due to the fact that when
underglazes are fired to cone 10, they turn into glazes. It is because the purest
formulation of clay is alumina and silica, with more alumina than silica, and the
purest formulation of glaze is silica and alumina, with more silica than alumina.
Underglazes are merely clay with flux and oxides for colorant added and then
fired at low temperatures causing them to fuse onto the low fire clay body. But in
any clay body that is fired beyond its normal intended range, most of the alumina
eventually burns off, and transforms into silica and alumina, or glaze. So in that
way, the underglazes, when high fired, turn into glazes.
65

The first high fire tests conducted were done using the same “Amaco” brand
underglaze pencils as in the first low fire test (see Figure 12), again, attempting
to simulate the cuerda seca aesthetic without the involved process of applying
the resist formula, waiting for it to dry, then applying glaze. The hope was that, if
applied thickly enough, the underglaze would well up or puddle enough to appear
as if it were cuerda seca As with the low fire tests, no matter how thick the
application, the product reaches a point of saturation and it is not possible to
apply more. After firing, it looked like colored pencil, although the black line was

65
James Chappell, Potters Complete Book of Clay and Glazes, rev. ed. (New
York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1991)
52
much more solid and dark than in the low fire tests. But the overall result was
that it looked like pencil, the underglaze did not turn into glaze, and the aesthetic
did not resemble cuerda seca. Therefore, this test was unsuccessful (see Figure
32).

For the second underglaze test, the same “Amaco” brand underglaze crayons
were used as in the second low fire test (see Figure 16), hoping to be able to
apply it thick enough to simulate the raised line and glaze puddling in cuerda
seca. Bits were shaved from each crayon and mixed with water, creating a thick
liquid that was applied with a brush. Thicker application than with the pencils
was possible and it was much easier to apply. The end result had a flat texture
Figure 32 - High Fire Test 1 -
“Amaco” Underglaze Pencils
53
and looked much better than both the low fire and the high fire underglaze pencil
tests and also better than the low fire underglaze crayon test, since some of the
underglaze crayon colors began to turn into glaze and began to puddle a tiny bit.
This did resemble cuerda seca enough for this test to be successful if a flat
texture line is desired (see Figure 33).

The next two tests were done using liquid underglazes of two different
commercial brands, “Duncan” brand, and “Mayco” brand to compare the results.
Because they were in liquid form, a thick application with a brush was easily
achieved. Although the end result still had a flat texture, it looked much better
than the high fire underglaze crayon test, since some of the underglazes began
Figure 33 - High Fire Test 2 -
“Amaco” Underglaze Crayons
54
to turn into glaze and began to puddle more than with the underglaze crayons.
With the “Duncan” brand underglaze, the black lines remained flat and dull (see
Figure 34), but with the “Mayco” brand underglazes, the lines had a more defined
and raised texture (see Figure 35). Therefore, the “Duncan” brand underglaze
test achieved a successful flat line and the “Mayco” brand underglaze achieved a
successful raised line.

Figure 34 - High Fire Test 3 -
“Duncan” Brand Underglaze
55

The remainder of the high fire tests employed “Aftosa” brand Wax Resist product,
Formula A, and Formula B, in combination with eight to ten cone 10 glazes from
glaze formulations in the University of Southern California Roski School of Fine
Arts ceramics studio mixed by the lab assistants (see Figures 36 and 37). As
with the low fire tests, each resist formula was applied using a plastic squeeze
bottle to draw the black outlines of rectangles and allowed it to dry for at least
twenty-four hours. The glazes were applied in the rectangles with plastic
squeeze bottles and a small brush to push it to the edges.

Figure 35 - High Fire Test 3 -
“Mayco” Brand Underglaze

56
Figure 36 - Glaze Color in Order of Glazes on High Fire Test Tiles using the
“Aftosa” Brand Wax Resist, Formula A, and Formula E:

Tenmoku

Toshiko

Chun White

Winokur Yellow

Shino

Oxblood

Chun Blue

Oribe Green

Figure 37 - Glaze Color and Product Number in Order of Glazes on High Fire
Test Tile with “Aftosa” Brand Wax Resist and Clear Glaze:

Rutile Pink

Celadon

Iron Blue

Clear

No Glaze

Clear Glaze applied
on Aftosa Wax resist

No Glaze

No Glaze

57
The “Aftosa” Wax Resist test was done on two tiles using the same “Aftosa” Wax
resist product, a commercially available proprietary cuerda seca resist formula,
as used in the low fire tests 3 and 4. When fired to cone 10, the line was
significantly darker than in cone 06, and still without a raised texture. It did
effectively keep the glazes separate and also caused the desired welling up
effect of the glazes (see Figure 38). On a second test tile, clear glaze was
applied in two of the spaces and on the cuerda seca line in the last space to
determine if the line would darken or otherwise improve in appearance. The
black line did get a little bit darker, but with the clear glaze on top, the
appearance of the glazes being kept separate by the line and also the puddling
effect of the glazes were completely lost (see Figure 39).

Figure 38 - High Fire Test 4 -
“Aftosa” Brand Wax Resist
58

Formula A, the same mixture used in the low fire test 5, consisting of ten parts
black iron oxide as the colorant, with ten parts linseed oil as the resist vehicle,
and three parts lithium carbonate as a flux, was employed again in the high fire
tests. Although this formula was unsuccessful in the low fire tests due to
complete rubbing off of the black line, in the high fire tests, the solution kept the
glazes separate during the firing, caused the effect of the glazes welling up or
puddling, the black line was solid and raised after the firing, and did not rub off.
This test was successful (see Figure 40).

Figure 39 - High Fire Test 5 -
“Aftosa” Brand Wax Resist &
Clear Glaze

59

The same Formula B mixture used in the low fire test 6, consisting of ten parts
black iron oxide as the colorant, ten parts olive oil as the resist vehicle, and three
parts lithium carbonate as a flux, was employed again in the final high fire test.
Unsuccessful in the low fire tests due to complete rubbing off of the black line, in
the high fire tests, the solution kept the glazes separate during the firing, caused
the effect of the glazes welling up or puddling, and the black line was solid and
raised after the firing, and remained intact. This test was successful (see Figure
41).
Figure 40 - High Fire Test 6 -
Formula "A" Resist – Black
Iron, Linseed Oil & Lithium
Carbonate
60

Figure 41 - High Fire Test 7 -
Formula "B" Resist – Black
Iron, Olive Oil & Lithium
Carbonate

61
Chapter 6 – Results of Mid Fire (cone 5) Tests

Due to the fact that the results of all the tests with commercially available
underglaze products and the Aftosa wax resist products yielded unsatisfactory
results in the low fire range and the high fire range, it can be assumed that the
results would be unsatisfactory in the cone 5 range as well. Therefore, for the
mid fire tests, only the Formulas “A” through “F” were used. Each test was
conducted on a series of two tiles using the Versa 5 line of cone 5 glazes from
Laguna Clay Company. The benefit of this line of glazes is that they are
designed so that the colors can be mixed just like paint (see Figure 42).

Figure 42 - Glazes on First Mid Fire Test Tiles using the Formulas A - E:

White

Yellow

Navy Blue

Red

Violet

Orange
62

Figure 42 (continued) - Glazes on Second Mid Fire Test Tiles using the Formulas
A - E:

Green

Blue Violet

Yellow Orange

Yellow Green

Red Violet

Blue Green

Formula A, the same mixture used in the low fire test 5 and the high fire test 6,
consisting of ten parts black iron oxide as the colorant, with ten parts linseed oil
as the resist vehicle, and three parts lithium carbonate as a flux, was employed
again in the mid fire tests. This formula was unsuccessful in the low fire tests
due to complete rubbing off of the black line, and it was successful in the high fire
tests. In the mid fire tests, the solution kept the glazes separate during the firing,
caused the effect of the glazes welling up or puddling, the black line was solid
and raised after the firing, but like in the low fire tests, it rubbed off easily. Since
the goal of this project is to have the black line remain, this test was unsuccessful
(see Figure 43).
63

Figure 43 - Mid Fire Test 1 - Formula "A" Resist -
Black Iron, Olive Oil & Lithium Carbonate

64
Formula B, the same mixture used in the low fire test 6 and the high fire test 7,
consisting of ten parts black iron oxide as the colorant, with ten parts olive oil as
the resist vehicle, and three parts lithium carbonate as a flux, was employed
again in the mid fire tests. This formula was unsuccessful in the low fire tests
due to complete rubbing off of the black line, and it was successful in the high fire
tests. In the mid fire tests, the solution kept the glazes separate during the firing,
caused the effect of the glazes welling up or puddling, the black line was solid
and raised after the firing, but like in the low fire tests, it rubbed off easily. Since
the goal of this project is to have the black line remain, this test was unsuccessful
(see Figure 44).

65

Figure 44 - Mid Fire Test 2 - Formula "B" Resist -
Black Iron, Olive Oil & Lithium Carbonate

66
Formula C, the same mixture used in the low fire test 7, consisting of ten parts
manganese dioxide as the colorant, with ten parts linseed oil as the resist
vehicle, and three parts soda ash as a flux, was employed again in the mid fire
tests. This formula was unsuccessful in the low fire tests due to the slight
rubbing off of the black line. In the mid fire tests, the solution kept the glazes
separate during the firing, caused the effect of the glazes welling up or puddling,
the black line was solid and raised after the firing, although it began to turn
slightly silver, but unlike in the low fire tests, it did not rub off, therefore, this test
was successful (see Figure 45).

67

Figure 45 - Mid Fire Test 3 - Formula "C" Resist -
Manganese Dioxide, Linseed Oil, and Soda Ash
68
Formula D, the same mixture used in the low fire test 8, consisting of ten parts
manganese dioxide as the colorant, with ten parts olive oil as the resist vehicle,
and three parts soda ash as a flux, was employed again in the mid fire tests.
This formula was unsuccessful in the low fire tests due to the slight rubbing off of
the black line. In the mid fire tests, the solution kept the glazes separate during
the firing, caused the effect of the glazes welling up or puddling, the black line
was solid and raised after the firing, although it began to turn slightly silver, but
unlike in the low fire tests, it did not rub off, therefore, this test was successful
(see Figure 46).

69

Figure 46 - Mid Fire Test 4 - Formula "D" Resist -
Manganese Dioxide, Linseed Oil, and Soda Ash

70
Formula E, the same mixture used in the low fire test 9, a mixture of ten parts of
manganese dioxide as the colorant, ten parts linseed oil as the resist vehicle, and
three parts borax as a flux, was employed again in the mid fire tests. This
formula was unsuccessful in the low fire tests due to the slight rubbing off of the
black line. The solution effectively kept the glazes separate during the firing,
caused the puddling effect with the glazes, and the black line was solid and
raised, although it appeared silvery in direct light. It adhered better than Formula
A, B, C, and D, and the black color did not rub off. This test was successful (see
Figure 47).

71

Figure 47 - Mid Fire Test 5 - Formula "E" Resist -
Manganese Dioxide, Linseed Oil, and Borax
Manganese Dioxide, Linseed Oil, and Soda Ash

72
Formula F, the same mixture used in the low fire test 10, a mixture of ten parts of
manganese dioxide as the colorant, ten parts olive oil as the resist vehicle, and
three parts borax as a flux, was employed again in the mid fire tests. This
formula was unsuccessful in the low fire tests due to the slight rubbing off of the
black line. The solution effectively kept the glazes separate during the firing,
caused the puddling effect with the glazes, and the black line was solid and
raised, although it appeared silvery in direct light. Like Formula F, it adhered
better than Formula A, B, C, and D, and the black color did not rub off. This test
was successful (see Figure 48).

73

Figure 48 - Mid Fire Test 5 - Formula "F” Resist -
Manganese Dioxide, Olive Oil, and Borax

74
Chapter 7 - Conclusions & Summary

In the low fire tests, only the Formula E, with manganese dioxide, linseed oil, and
borax, was truly successful. The application was very good because the formula
flowed easily through the needle tip. The solution effectively kept the glazes
separate during the firing, caused the puddling effect with the glazes, and the
black line was solid and raised. It adhered better than Formula A, B, C, D, and F,
and the black color did not rub off.

In the high fire tests, the “Duncan” brand and the “Mayco” brand underglazes
yielded good lines with dark black color. The “Duncan” brand underglaze
resulted in a flat line and the “Mayco” brand underglaze line had a raised texture.
Note that these underglazes products do not contain oils, waxes, fats or grease
that would prevent a glaze from crossing it or covering and obscuring it
completely. They were tested with underglazes acting as glazes, not actual
glazes. The “Aftosa” brand wax resist product yielded good results, but the
Formula A and Formula B tests with black iron oxide, oils and lithium carbonate
yielded the best test results so far. The quality of the black line was smooth with
a raised texture, the formulations both kept the glazes separate, caused the
puddling of the glaze, and had excellent adherence. Since there was no
discernable difference between Formula A and Formula B on the high fire tests,
75
the oils are interchangeable at this firing range and either can be used depending
on factors such as availability or price.

In the mid fire tests, all of the tests with manganese dioxide were successful.
Formula E and Formula F, both with borax as the flux, adhered the best, and,
therefore, were the most successful.

76
Chapter 8 - Suggestions for Future Work Studies

This thesis was intended as a starting point for rediscovering and sharing cuerda
seca resist formulations. For the purpose of this paper, focus was on the black
lines, although other colors were often achieved using many different oxides,
alone or mixed together. Some examples include: red iron oxide, which results
in browns, nickel oxide, for a gray-brown, ilmenite, for a tan, or iron chromate for
gray. Artists may wish to create other colors by using oxides such as cobalt for
blue, and copper or chrome for green, brown, or red.
66

Several of the tests were unsuccessful, mostly due to the instability of the line.
This likely occurred because the oxides did not reach temperatures high enough
to melt and properly fuse to the tile. Other tests should be conducted using
different fluxes in the formulations in order to lower the melting point of the
oxides.

Only three different clay bodies were tested, one white one in the low fire tests,
one tan one in the high fire tests, and one red one in the mid range tests. Most
clay manufacturers have dozens of clay bodies available in many firing ranges,
colors and textures, especially since firing the formulations in different

66
James Chappell, Potters Complete Book of Clay and Glazes, rev. ed. (New
York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1991), 408-409.
77
temperature ranges greatly affects the melting and adhering of the cuerda seca
line.

Since the Formula A and the Formula B were successful in the high fire tests, the
Formula C, D, E, and F were not tested. These should be tested.

Lastly, some of the commercially available underglaze products yielded some
good line results. However, if they were used in conjunction with regular glazes,
the underglaze line would not keep the glazes separate since the underglaze
formulation contains no resist. Tests should be conducted with the addition of oil
to the underglaze to attempt to form a true cuerda seca resist line.
78
Bibliography

"Art Tile Industry Reborn at Tropico: Corner-stone of New Factory Laid With
Ceremony." Los Angeles Times (July 25, 1902): A5, Proquest.

"Building News." The American Architect and Architecture 115 (January to
June 1919): 112, Proquest.

Durbin, Lesley. Architectural Tiles Conservation and Restoration. Oxford:
Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann, 2005.

Chappell, James. The Potters Complete Book of Clay and Glazes, rev. ed. New
York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1991.

Karlson, Norman. American Art Tile 1876 - 1941. New York: Rizzoli International
Publications, Inc., 1998.

Moore, Linda. "Tile With Style; Linda Shields of Prunedale has perfected the art
of handcrafting colorful cuerda seca." Monterey County Herald (June 19,
2007), Proquest.

"New Art Tile Products." The Los Angeles Times (December 1, 1900), Proquest.

Porter, Venetia. Islamic Tiles. Northampton: Interlink Publishing Group, Inc.,
1995.

Rindge, Ronald L., Doyle, Thomas W., Doyle, Toni, Laubach, Charlotte H., May,
Frederick C., Merrick, Judge John J., and Rindge, John F. Ceramic Art of
the Malibu Potteries 1926 – 1932. Malibu: The Malibu Lagoon Museum,
1988.

Rindge, Ronald L., Romaine S. Andaloro, Thomas W. Doyle, Toni Doyle,
Charlotte H. Laubach, Judge John J. Merrick, John F. Rindge, and Joseph
A. Taylor. More About Malibu Potteries 1926 - 1932. Edited by Mary
Landroth. Malibu: The Malibu Lagoon Museum, 1997.

Suárez, Elena S. “La cerámica de ‘Cuerda Seca’ del antiguo convento de San
Francisco de Asís de las Palmas de Gran Canaria.” Cuadernos de
Prehistoria y Arqueología Universidad Autónoma de Madrid 33 (2007):
159. Accessed October 1, 2010,
http://www.uam.es/otros/cupauam/pdf/cupauam33/3308.pdf, Proquest.
79
Taylor, Joseph A., ed. California Tile The Golden Era 1910 - 1940 Acme to
Handcraft. Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 2003.

Taylor, Joseph A., ed. California Tile The Golden Era 1920 - 1940 Hispano-
Moresque to Woolenius. Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 2004.

Weeks, Kay D. and Grimmer, Anne E. The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards
for the Treatment of Historic Properties with Guidelines for Preserving &,
Rehabilitating, Restoring Reconstructing Historic Buildings. Washington,
D. C.: U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service,1995.

80
Appendix A – Resist Formulations A - F

FORMULATION
NAME
OXIDE FOR
BLACK LINE
OIL FOR RESIST FLUX
Formula A 10 Parts Black
Iron Oxide
10 Parts Linseed
Oil
3 Parts Lithium
Carbonate
Formula B 10 Parts Black
Iron Oxide
10 Parts Olive Oil 3 Parts Lithium
Carbonate
Formula C 10 Parts
Manganese
Dioxide
10 Parts Linseed
Oil
3 Parts Soda Ash
Formula D 10 Parts
Manganese
Dioxide
10 Parts Olive Oil 3 Parts Soda Ash
Formula E 10 Parts
Manganese
Dioxide
10 Parts Linseed
Oil
3 Parts Borax
Formula F 10 Parts
Manganese
Dioxide
10 Parts Olive Oil 3 Parts Borax

81
Appendix B – Glossary of Ceramics Terms

Cones - “Devices made of blends of ceramic materials that melt and deform at
specific temperatures; used to measure the heat-work inside a kiln”
67

cone 06 - (1830° F)
68

cone 5 - (2185° F)
69

cone 10 - (2381° F)
70

Grog - “A clay body additive that provides both strength and texture to the
ware”
71
and also reduces “drying and firing shrinkage”
72

Flux - “A substance that melts and causes other substances to become fluid”
73

67
James Chappell, Potters Complete Book of Clay and Glazes, rev. ed. (New
York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1991), 413.

68
Ibid, 410.

69
Ibid.

70
Ibid.

71
Ibid, 414.

72
Ibid, 399.

73
Ibid, 414.
82
Appendix C – California Manufacturers of Cuerda Seca Tiles, Years of
Operation, and Eventual Outcome

Company Name Years of Operation Outcome
American Encaustic 1919 - 1933 Purchased by Gladding,
McBean & Company in
1933
Catalina Pottery 1927 – 1937 Purchased by Gladding,
McBean & Company in
1937
Claycraft Potteries

1921 – 1939 Closed in 1939
Gladding, McBean &
Company
1875 – present Currently produce clay
sewer pipe, roof tile, floor
tile, chimney caps,
decorative architectural
elements, and pottery
Kraftile Company 1926 – 1997 Closed in 1997
Los Angeles Pressed
Brick Company

1887 – 1926 Merged with Gladding
McBean & Company in
1926
Malibu Potteries 1926 – 1932 Closed in 1932
Solon and Schemmel,
S & S, Solon and Larkin,
Larkin Tile, Stonelight
Tile
1920 – present Currently in operation as
Stonelight Tile
manufacturing clay
products, including
cuerda seca tiles
Taylor Tilery 1930 – 1941 Closed in 1941
Tropico Potteries 1921 – 1923 Acquired by Gladding
Mc Bean & Company in
1923

83
Appendix D - Illustration Notes/Bibliography

Figure 1. Note. From The Faucher Collection,
http://tiles.fauchersite.com/views/TileDetails.php?tile_number=136.

Figure 2. Note. From Taylor, Joseph A., ed. California Tile The Golden Era
1910 - 1940 Acme to Handcraft. Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 2003,
135.

Figure 3. Note. Ibid, 154.

Figure 4. Note. Ibid, 204.

Figure 5. Note. Photo by Carla Sotelo.

Figure 6. Note. http://www.tileheritage.org/Kraftile-inside-rt.jpg.

Figure 7. Note. From Taylor, Joseph A., ed. California Tile The Golden Era
1920 - 1940 Hispano-Moresque to Woolenius. Atglen: Schiffer Publishing
Ltd., 2004, 40.

Figure 8. Note. From Rindge, Ronald L., Doyle, Thomas W., Doyle, Toni,
Laubach, Charlotte H., May, Frederick C., Merrick, Judge John J., and
Rindge, John F. Ceramic Art of the Malibu Potteries 1926 – 1932. Malibu:
The Malibu Lagoon Museum, 1988, 100.

Figure 9. Note. Ibid, 51.

Figure 10. Note. Photo by Carla Sotelo.

Figure 11. Note. From Taylor, Joseph A., ed. California Tile The Golden Era
1920 - 1940 Hispano-Moresque to Woolenius. Atglen: Schiffer Publishing
Ltd., 2004. 129.

Figure 12. Note. Ibid, 167, 168.

Figure 13. Note. Ibid, 176.

Figure 14. Note. Photo by Carla Sotelo.

Figure 15. Note. Ibid.

84
Figure 16. Note. Ibid.

Figure 17. Note. Laguna Clay Company low fire glazes are from
http://www.lagunaclay.com/.

Figure 18. Note. Photo by Carla Sotelo.

Figure 19. Note. Photo by Orlando L. Sotelo.

Figure 20. Note. Ibid.

Figure 21. Note. Ibid.

Figure 22. Note. Photo by Carla Sotelo.

Figure 23. Note. Photo by Orlando L. Sotelo.

Figure 24. Note. Photo by Carla Sotelo.

Figure 25. Note. Ibid.

Figure 26. Note. Ibid.

Figure 27. Note. Ibid.

Figure 28. Note. Ibid.

Figure 29. Note. Ibid.

Figure 30. Note. Ibid.

Figure 31. Note. Ibid.

Figure 32. Note. Ibid.

Figure 33. Note. Ibid.

Figure 34. Note. Ibid.

Figure 35. Note. Ibid.

85
Figure 36. Note. The glaze formulations used in these tests were from the
University of Southern California Roski School of Fine Arts ceramics
studio mixed by the lab assistants. Many are common glazes and the
recipes can be found online.

Figure 37. Note. Ibid.

Figure 38. Note. Photo by Carla Sotelo.

Figure 39. Note. Ibid.

Figure 40. Note. Ibid.

Figure 41. Note. Ibid.

Figure 42. Note. The Versa 5 glazes are from Laguna Clay Company,
http://www.lagunaclay.com/.

Figure 43. Note. Photo by Carla Sotelo.

Figure 44. Note. Ibid.

Figure 45. Note. Ibid.

Figure 46. Note. Ibid.

Figure 47. Note. Ibid.

Figure 48. Note. Ibid.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract In the 1920s and 1930s, residential and commercial buildings built in the popular Spanish and Moorish inspired designs throughout California were decorated with interior and exterior installations of cuerda seca art tiles. Decades later, replacement of damaged fabric, such as parts of tile schemes, forms a large part of the conservation and preservation ethic. How can preservation transpire if, in preservation, documenting details of aspects such as building conditions, materials, maintenance, etcetera are crucial and information about the materials, such as the cuerda seca resist formulations are unavailable? ❧ The goal of this thesis was replication of the cuerda seca resist using various proprietary formulas, commercially available and mixed based on historic information and empirical research to discover suitable black line resist formulas. Various oils (linseed oil and olive oil), oxides (black iron oxide and manganese dioxide), and fluxes, (lithium carbonate, soda ash, and borax) were tested with appropriate clay bodies and glazes for three firing ranges: cone 06, cone 5 and cone10. In all of the firing ranges tested, successful formulations were found and would be suitable for conservators to use to preserve the cuerda seca art tiles that already exist and for artists to use in order to preserve the cuerda seca tradition.

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