University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conditions of belonging: life, historical preservation and tourism development in the making of Pelourinho-Maciel, Salvador da Bahia, 1965-1985

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Conditions of belonging: life, historical preservation and tourism development in the making of Pelourinho-Maciel, Salvador da Bahia, 1965-1985

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Content ! ! ! ! CONDITIONS(OF(BELONGING:( ( LIFE,(HISTORICAL(PRESERVATION(AND(TOURISM(DEVELOPMENT(IN(THE(MAKING(OF(( ( PELOURINHO8 MACIEL,(SALVADOR(DA(BAHIA,(BRAZIL,(19658 1985( ! ! ! by! ! Micaela!Alicia!Smith! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! A!Dissertation!Presented!to!the! FACULTY!OF!THE!USC!GRADUATE!SCHOOL! UNIVERSITY!OF!SOUTHERN!CALIFORNIA! In!Partial!Fulfillment!of!the! Requirements!for!the!Degree! DOCTOR!OF!PHILOSOPHY! (AMERICAN!STUDIES!AND!ETHNICITY)! ! August!2012! ! ! Copyright!2012!! ! ! ! ! Micaela!Alicia!Smith ! Conditions(of(Belonging:(Life,(Historical(Preservation(and(Tourism( Development(in(the(Making(of(Pelourinho?Maciel,(Salvador(da(Bahia,(1965? 1985( ( Copyright!©!2012,!Some!Rights!Reserved!(see!Appendix!A)! Micaela!Alicia!Smith! ! ii! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! This!dissertation!is!dedicated!to!my!parents,! José!and!Sandra!Smith! ! And!is!written!in!loving!memory!of! Elaine!Joy!de!la!Cruz! (1978Y2003)! ! ! Three!dreamers!making!the!impossible!possible.! ! ! ! ! ! ! iii( ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS! ! ! It!brings!me!great!joy!to!have!the!opportunity!to!write!the!names!of!those! who!have!made!certain!I!complete!this!project!with!grace!and!laughter!along!the! way.!! ! From!its!first!drafts!to!its!final!form,!this!project!is!most!concretely!a!product! of!my!work!with!my!advisor!Ruthie!Gilmore.!!Ruthie!taught!me!what!it!means!to!be!a! generous!scholar.!!Her!commitment!and!critical!feedback!were!fundamental!to!the! entire!project.!!I!am!also!fortunate!to!have!the!insight!of!my!committee!members! Macarena!GómezYBarris,!George!Sánchez!and!David!Lloyd.!!I!am!grateful!for!Maca’s! incisive!knowledge!and!for!making!sure!I!stayed!off!the!ropes.!Since!Day!One,! George!has!been!an!intellectual!guiding!light!and!mentor.!!I!also!benefitted!from! David’s!brilliant!analysis!and!support.!MaríaYElena!Martínez!and!Lanita!Jacobs!each! gave!me!the!love!and!support!I!needed!to!finish.!!!! I!was!fortunate!at!the!University!of!Southern!California!to!be!a!part!of!an! incredible!cohort!who!shared!with!me!their!passion!and!strategies!for!crafting! research.!I!would!like!to!especially!thank!Araceli!Esparza,!Jesús!Hernandez,!Nisha! Kunte,! Sionne! Neely,! Imani! Johnson,! and! Perla! Guerrero! for! teaching! me! the! possibilities!and!responsibilities!that!come!with!what!we!know.!I!also!learned!much! from!being!in!the!company!of!Gretel!Veras,!Wendy!Cheng,!Laura!Fugikawa,!and!Cam! Vu.!With!her!insistent!encouragement,!my!secret!committee!member!Mrs.!Sandra! Hopwood,!ensured!I!finish.!!Sonia!Rodriguez,!Kitty!Lai,!and!Jujuana!Preston!make! ! ! ! ! ! iv( ASE! an! incredible! space! of! collaboration! and! friendship! and! I! thank! them! for! everything!they!do.! !The!thinking,!writing,!and!reading!for!this!project!have!taken!me!to!places!I! never!imagined!living!and!now!am!fortunate!enough!to!call!home.!Para!minha! familia!do!Bomfim,!I!am!blessed!to!have!the!support!of!Mãe!Damiana!Carmosena!do! Espíritu!Santo,!Jaciara,!Jani,!and!Jeanne!Espíritu!Santo!who!took!care!of!me!like!a! daughter!and!sister.!!In!Johannesburg,!I!am!grateful!for!lifeYlong!friends!Megan! Jones,! Joanna! Wright,! Madhumita! Lahiri,! Ruth! McFarlane,! Michael! Yarborough,! Michelle!Nelson,!Lesley!Cowling,!Tayo!Jolaosho,!and!Sean!Cele.!I!consider!my!two!coY Fellows,!Cristina!Cielo!and!Chaka!Uzondu,!a!brother!and!sister!and!thank!them!for! always!sharing!their!love!and!believing!in!my!work.! Support!for!my!graduate!work!and!research!is!also!indebted!to!the!Irvine! Foundation,!the!Department!of!American!Studies!and!Ethnicity!and!the!Provost’s! Office!at!the!University!of!Southern!California.!Funding!from!the!Mellon!Foundation! was!essential!to!the!writing!of!the!dissertation!and!supported!my!18Ymonths!at!the! University!of!the!Witwatersrand!(Wits),!Johannesburg,!South!Africa.!!!The!critical! debates!and!dialogues!that!took!place!during!the!Johannesburg!Workshop!in!Theory! and!Criticism!(JWTC)!as!well!as!the!continued!discussions!throughout!time!as!a! participant! in! the! Sawyer! Seminar! Series! (SSS)! tremendously! sharpened! my! thinking!and!writing.!!I!am!especially!grateful!to!the!JWTC!and!SSS!organizers!and! scholars,!Kelly!Gillespie,!Julia!Hornberger,!LeighYAnn!Naidoo,!and!Achille!Mbembe.!! Special!thanks!go!to!Julia!Hornberger!for!her!support!and!feedback!on!multiple! ! ! ! ! ! v( drafts!of!the!dissertation.!!The!Wits!Institute!of!Social!and!Economic!Research!staff,! Josephine!Mashaba,!Adila!Deshmuck!and!Najibha!Deshmuck,!made!everyday!at!the! office!an!enjoyable!one.!! And! then! there! are! my! dissertation! angels.! ! A! most! recent! example! of! Macarena!GómezYBarris’!generous!spirit!came!in!the!form!of!keys!to!her!office,! which!allowed!for!all!forms!of!dissertation!magic!to!happen!during!the!last!few! months.!!The!task!of!using!archival!material!across!three!continents!was!no!small! feat! and! could! not! have! been! successful! without! the! assistance! of! Josephine! Mashaba!and!Chaka!Uzondu.!!Josephine!spent!hours!scanning!and!emailing!a!good! portion! of! my! archival! material.! Chaka! Uzondu! saved! me! from! a! potentially! cataclysmic! crisis! and! undertook! the! task! of! shipping! my! archival! material;! a! massive!box!that!by!some!small!miracle!arrived!five!months!later.!I!thank!Sara!and! Geoff!Georgi!for!their!combined!editing!expertise!and!to!Cam!Vu!for!sharing!long! weekend!hours!in!an!environment!that!would!have!otherwise!been!drab!and!sterile.!! Many!thanks!to!James!Johnston!for!his!French!translations!as!well!as!to!Lia!Flávia! Santanna! dos! Santos! for! her! assistance! with! Portuguese! translations.! UNESCO! Archivist,!Adele!Torrance,!crafted!answers!that!led!me!to!important!new!paths!of! inquiry.! ! I! am! grateful! for! the! assistance! of! Sheila! Ventura! Antas! de! Oliveira,! archivist! extraordinaire,! at! the! Instituto! Patrimônio! Artistico! Cultural! (IPAC)! Biblioteca!Manuel!Querino.! ! Cam!Vu’s!love!exceeds!description!and!I!am!the!luckiest!girl!in!the!world!to! have!her!in!my!life.!!!Minha!irmã,!Lia!Flávia!Santanna!dos!Santos,!te!adoro!com!todo! ! ! ! ! ! vi( meu!coração.!I!thank!Bruce!Spring!for!being!my!lifesaver.!Peter!Cabeza’s!friendly! banter!on!long!runs!trained!me!well!to!finish!this!other!marathon.!!Robert!Eap’s! sharp! wit! and! friendship! make! any! day! a! good! day.! ! I! thank! Saehee! Kim! for! travelling!half!the!globe!and!making!me!see!this!world!from!up!high.!Beth!Henshaw! continues!to!inspire!the!best!in!me.!!And!to!Jerry!Gonzalez,!stay!classy!my!friend.!! ! My!undergraduate!years!were!foundational!to!my!thinking!and!research! trajectory.!I!am!incredibly!fortunate!to!have!been!in!the!company!of!dear!friends!in! this!life!in!the!struggle!at!the!Cross!Cultural!Center!at!the!University!of!California,! San!Diego.!!To!the!Freedom!Writers:!Joy!de!la!Cruz,!Denise!Pacheco,!Arash!Haile,! Vejea!Jennings,!Jay!Perez,!Rene!Gube,!Christine!Lucero!and!Dianne!Que,!you!inspired! a!generation.!!I!would!also!like!to!thank!Jennifer!Dabu,!Fatima!Padojino,!Charlene! and!Blu!Quoalexenze,!Ernesto!Martinez,!and!May!Fu!for!sharing!their!passion!along! the!way.!!My!mentor,!George!Lipsitz,!taught!me!how!to!ask!the!right!questions,!to! listen!hard,!and!to!remember!the!urgency!of!our!task!at!hand.!!David!Pellow’s! mentorship!provided!my!first!opportunity!to!engage!research!as!an!activistYscholar.! Edwina!Welch’s!creativity!and!commitment!to!our!family!is,!quite!simply,!stunning.!! To!Eugene!LeoYDraine!Mahmoud,!thank!you.! ! To!my!family,!I!owe!the!greatest!thanks.!I!thank!my!extended!family!for! supporting! me! throughout! my! time! in! graduate! school.! I! especially! thank! my! grandparents! Eva! Strohauer,! Judy! Smith,! and! Stan! and! Letha! Stokes,! for! their! constant!affection.!!My!brother!and!sisterYinYlaw,!Carlos!and!Veronica!Sandoval! Smith,!have!given!me!advice!on!life!that!I!appreciate!with!love.!!I!am!especially! ! ! ! ! ! vii( proud!to!be!Tía!for!my!nephews,!José!Francisco!and!Emanuel.!!They!teach!me!how! important!it!is!to!wonder!at!this!world!and!be!fascinated!with!trains.! I!promised!to!finish!this!dissertation!for!Elaine!Joy!de!la!Cruz.!!Not!only!was! Joy!a!phenomenal!activist!and!poet,!she!was!my!dearest!sisterYfriend.!!One!of!my! favorite!poems!of!hers!describes!what!it!means!to!“be!at!the!beat.”!In!life!and!in! death,!Joy!continues!to!teach!me!the!simplest!lessons!are!often!the!hardest!to!learn.! It!should!come!as!no!surprise!my!father!and!mother,!José!and!Sandra!Smith,! are!teachers!in!their!own!right.!I!learned!through!their!example!what!it!means!to! believe!all!persons!deserve!to!live!a!life!with!dignity.!Together,!they!supported!me! every!step!of!the!way!and!in!every!way!imaginable.!!Anything!worth!reading!in!the! following! pages! is! a! reflection! of! my! parents.! ! And! for! that,! I! dedicate! this! dissertation!to!them.! ! ! ! ! ! viii( TABLE!OF!CONTENTS! ! Dedication! ii! Acknowledgements! iiiYvii! ! Historical!Timeline! ixYx! List!of!Figures! xiYxii! ! List!of!Abbreviations! xiiiYxv! Abstract! xviYxix! Chapter!One:!!!!!!!!!!!Introduction! 1! Chapter!Two:!!!!!!!!!!Heritage,!Tourism,!and!the!Remaking!of!the!! !27! !!!!!!!!!PelourinhoYMaciel!Historical!District! ! Chapter!Three:!!!!!!!!A!“Festering!Ulcer”!in!the!Heart!of!Bahia:!Moral!! 69! !!!!!!!!!!Panics!against!Prostitution,!Transvestite!! !!!!!!!!!!Thievery!and!the!Politics!of!the!Newspaper!! !!!!!!!!!!Press,!1968Y1985! Chapter!Four:!!!!!!!!!!!Sociological!Studies!and!Foundation!Reports! 109! !!!!!!!!!!on!the!Maciel!Poor! Chapter!Five:!!!!!!!!!!!!To!Save!the!Heart!and!Soul!of!Bahia:!The!! 150! !!!!!!!!!!!Celebration!of!Mestiçagem!and!the!Mulata!in!the!! !!!!!!!!!!!Visual!and!Imaginary!PelourinhoYMaciel! ! Chapter!Six:! !!!!!!!!!!!Conclusion! 177! References! ! 187! Appendix!A! ! 203! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ix( HISTORICAL*TIMELINE! ! YEAR( ACTION/INITIATIVES( INSTITUTION( 1937! Creation!of!the!Service!for! National!Historic!and! Artistic!Patrimony;! recognition!of!monuments! SPHAN! 1957! Strategic!conservation!and! protection!of!works! SPHAN! 1965Y1985! Brazilian!Military! Dictatorship! ! ! 1967! Creation!of!FPACBa!(IPAC).! Promotion!for!the! conservation!of!artistic!and! cultural!patrimony!of!Bahia! Bahia!State!! (Governor!Luiz!Viana! Filho)! 1971! First!stage!of!the! Development!Plan!for!the! Restoration!of!Pelourinho! IPACYSEPLAN/PR! 1972! Maciel!Community! Development!Plan! (Plano&de&Desenvolvimento& da&Comunidade&do&Maciel)! IPAC,!PMS,!UFBA! 1976Y1979! Restoration!of!buildings! and!provision!of!public!and! private!services! IPAC! 1977Y1979! Strategic!Plan!for! Pelourinho!(PLANDIP)! (Plano&Diretor&do& Pelourinho5Maciel)! CONDER,!IPAC! 1978! Proposal!for!the! Valorization!of!the!Salvador! Historic!City!Center!(Centro& Histórico)! (Proposta&de&Valorização&do& Centro&Histórico&de& Salvador)! CONDER! 1981Y1985! Integrative!Municipal! Administration!Project! (CAMI)!(Projeto&Centro& Administrativo&Municipal& Integrado&)! OCEPLAN/PMS! ! ! ! ! ! x( HISTORICAL*TIMELINE*(CONT’D)! ! ! SOURCE:!Bomfim!(2010)!and!modified!by!author! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! YEAR( ACTION/INTITIATIVES( INSTITUTION( 1981Y1982! Residential!Restoration! Program!for!the!Historic! City!Center!(Pelourinho)! (Projeto&de&Recuperação& Habitacional&do&Centro& Histórico)! IPAC,!URBIS,!COHAB,!BNH! 1983! Creation!of!the!Office!for! License!Inspection! (Escritório&Técnico&de& Licenças&e&Fiscalização)! IPAC,!PMS,!SPHAN,!FNPM! 1986! Creation!of!the!Gregório! de!Matos!Foundation! (FGM)! Creation!of!the!Special! Program!for!the! Restoration!of!Historic! Sites!of!Salvador! PMS! 1986! National!Congress!on!the! Restoration!and! Revitalization!of!Historic! Centers! MinC,!MDU! 1987! Creation!of!the!Historic! Pelourinho!Park! FGMYPMS! 1991Y2011! Recuperation!of!the! Historic!Center!Program! (Programa&de& Recuperação&do&Centro& Histórico)! IPACYCONDER! ! ! ! ! ! xi( LIST%OF%FIGURES! ! Figure!1:!! “The!Abassador!Peña!Marinho!with!Foundation!Directors…”!! 52! Figure!2:! “!A!prostituição!é!um!dos!grandes!problemas!sociais…”! 53! ! Figure!3:!! “Duas!filhasYdeYsanto!recolhem!donativos…”! 55! Figure!4:!! “Man!selling!baskets…”! 56! Figure!5:!! “O!Pelourinho!visto!de!‘O!Tempo’…”! 57! Figure!6:!! “Largo!do!Pelourinho…”! 58! Figure!7:!! “Typical!mansions!on!Pelourinho!Plaza…”! 59! Figure!8:!! Maciel!Neighborhood! 74! Figure!9:!! A!suadouro&“victim”! 90! ! Figure!10:! Caricature!of!the!suadouro&victim! 90! Figure!11:! Caricature!of!the!suadouro&victim! 90! Figure!12:! A!suadouro&“perpetrator”!(Andorinha)! 93! Figure!13:!! A!suadouro&“perpetrator”!(Cláudio)! 93! Figure!14:! A!suadouro&“perpetrator”!(Simone)! 93! Figure!15:! “!‘Elas’!eram!éles…”! 95! Figure!16:!! A!sign!on!the!door! 117! Figure!17:! “Prostitutes!and!families!live!in!the!same!mansion…”! 118! ! Figure!18:!! “The!world!of!Maciel!is!small!and!poor…”! 119! Figure!19:! “The!resident!of!Maciel!is!one!of!the!most!poor…”! 120! Figure!20:!! “Alley!of!Piss…”! 121! ! Figure!21:!! “Childhood!VIII…”! 122! ! Figure!22:!! “Military!Vehicles…”! 123! ! ! ! ! ! xii( LIST%OF%FIGURES!(CONT’D)! ! Figure!23:!! “In!the!very!moment!of!a!fight…”! 124! Figure!24:!! (Rio!Branco!1985,!40)! 175! Figure!25:!! (Rio!Branco!1984,!41)! 175! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! xiii( LIST!OF!ABBREVIATIONS! ! ! BNH! ! ! ! ! Banco&Nacional&da&Habitação& & & & & & National!Housing!Bank! ! CEBRAP!!!! ! ! ! Centro&Brasileiro&de&Análise&e&Planejamento&& & & & & & Brazilian!Center!for!Analysis!and!Planning! ! CASEB!!!!! Companhia&de&Armazéns&e&Silos&da&Bahia!! Bahia!Company!of!Food!and!Grains! ! CPE&&&& & & & & Comissão&de&Planejamento&Econômico!! ! ! ! ! ! Economic!Planning!Commission! CONDEB!&& & & & Conselho&de&Desenvolvimento&Econômico&da&Bahia& !! COELBA!!!!! Companhia&Hidroelétrica&da&Bahia! Bahia!Hydroelectric!Company! ! COMBRATUR!!&& Comissão&Brasileira&de&Turismo&&! Brazilian!Tourism!Commission! ! Cr$!!!! ! ! ! ! Cruzeiro! currency!of!Brazil! !! ! ! ! ! NCr/Ncr$!(1967Y1970)!! !! ! ! ! ! Cr$!(1970Y1986)! ! CONDER! Companhia&de&Desenvolvimento&do&Estado&da& Bahia& ! State!of!Bahia!Development!Company! ! DPHAN!! Departamento&Patrimônio&Histórico&Artístico& Nacional!! ! PDMC!! Plano&de&Desenvolvimento&da&Comunidade&do& Maciel&& Development!Plan!for!the!Maciel!Community& ! ECLA!!!! United!Nations!Economic!Commission!for!Latin! America!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! xiv( LIST!OF!ABBREVIATIONS!(CONT’D)! ! ! CONDER! Company!for!the!Development!of!the! Metropolitan!Salvador!Metropolitan!Region!! ! CPE! Comissão&de&Planejamento&Econômico! Commission!of!Economic!Planning!! ! ! EMBRATUR!!! Instituto&Brasileiro&de&Turismo!! Brazilian!Tourism!Board! ! FPACBa! Fundação&do&Patrimônio&Artístico&e&Cultural&da& Bahia! ICOM!!!! ! ! ! International!Council!of!Museums! ! ICOMOS!!! ! ! ! International!Council!on!Monuments!and!Sites!! ! IPAC!!!!! ! ! ! Instituto!do!Patrimônio!Artístico!e!Cultural!!! Bahia!Institute!of!Artistic!and!Cultural!Patrimony! ! IPHAN! Instituto&do&Patrimonio&Histórico&e&Artístico& Nacional! !! ! ! ! ! Historic!and!Artistic!National!Heritage!Institute! ! IUOTO!!!! International!Union!of!Official!Travel! Organizations!! ! OAS! ! ! ! ! Organization!of!American!States! ! OCEPLAN! ! ! ! Orgão&Municipal&de&Planejamento&do&Salvador! ! ! ! ! ! Salvador’s!Secretary!of!City!Planning!! ! PLANDEB!&& & & & Plano&de&Desenvolvimento&da&Bahia!!!!!! Plan!for!Bahia!Development! ! SENAC!! ! ! ! Serviço&Nacional&de&Aprendizagem&Comercial& & & & & & National!Service!of!Commercial!Business! ! SEPLAN! ! ! ! Secretaria&do&Planejamento&do&Estado&da&Bahia& ! ! ! ! ! State!of!Bahia!Secretary!of!State!Planning! ! ! ! ! ! ! xv( ! ! LIST!OF!ABBREVIATIONS!(CONT’D)! ! ! SPHAN! ! ! ! Serviço&do&Patrimônio&Histórico&e&Artístico& Nacional! ! SUDENE!!!&& Superintendência&para&o&Desenvolvimento&do& Nordeste!! Superintendency!for!the!Development!of!the! Northeast! ! SUTURSA! ! ! !!! Superintendência&de&Turismo&da&Bahia! Superintendcy!of!Bahia!Tourism! ! TEBASA!!!! ! ! ! Companhia&Telefônica&Autofinanciada!!! SelfYfinanced!Telephone!Company! ! UFBa!!!!! ! ! ! Universidade!Federal!da!Bahia! ! ! ! ! ! Federal!University!of!Bahia! ! URBIS!! ! ! & Habitação&e&Urbanizaçäo&da&Bahia&Geral! ! ! ! ! ! Company!for!Urbanization!and!Housing!for!Bahia!! ! UNESCO! United!Nations!Educational,!Scientific!and! Cultural!Organization! ! UNDP! United!Nations!Development!Program! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! xvi( ABSTRACT! ! Conditions!of!Belonging:!Life,!Historical!Preservation!and!! Tourism!Development!in!the!Making!of!PelourinhoYMaciel,!! Salvador!da!Bahia,!Brazil,!1965Y1985! ! By! ! Micaela!Alicia!Smith! Doctor!of!Philosophy!in!American!Studies!and!Ethnicity! University!of!Southern!California! Professor!Ruth!Wilson!Gilmore,!Chair! ( ! Conditions&of&Belonging!focuses!on!the!development!of!PelourinhoYMaciel! from!1965Y1985.!It!argues!that!the!making!of!PelourinhoYMaciel,!and!the!particular! rationale! market! development! discourse! produced! by! the! city,! state,! and! international!elite,!relied!on!the!symbolic!presence!of!the!longtime!residents!in!the! beginning! just! as! much! as! it! required! their! structured! absence! in! the! end.! PelourinhoYMaciel!is!the!colonial!center!of!the!old!city!of!Salvador!da!Bahia,! Brazil,!and!consists!of!the!largest!and!most!important!collection!of!baroque!and! rococo!architecture!in!the!Americas.!!As!the!oldest!Brazilian!city,!and!one!that!for! two!hundred!and!fourteen!years!was!the!seat!of!the!Portuguese!empire!(1549Y 1763),!PelourinhoYMaciel!is!synonymous!with!times!of!colonial!splendor!and!the! labor!of!enslaved!Africans.!!The!campaign!to!restore!PelourinhoYMaciel!for!tourism! development!began!in!earnest!during!the!late!1960s,!as!local!urban!developers!and! state! managers! began! the! extensive! process! of! petitioning! the! United! Nations! ! ! ! ! ! xvii( Educational,! Science,! and! Cultural! Organization! (UNESCO)! to! make! PelourinhoY Maciel!an!UNESCO!World!Heritage!Site.!Yet! setting!the!conditions!and!priorities!for! how! PelourinhoYMaciel! should! be! restored! was! no! easy! task.! ! While! UNESCO! recommendations! mandated! that! the! original! community! benefit! from! tourism! development,!the!military!regime!(1964Y1985)!had!radically!different!ideas!of!how! economic!development!should!proceed.!!During!the!regime,!absolute!security!and! development!was!enforced—meaning!absence!of!conflict!and!economic!growth!at! any!cost.!!Economic!growth!was!maintained!through!an!orientation!toward!profit! rather! than! welfare.! ! As! a! result,! the! highly! censored! press! contested! these! recommendations!by!describing!UNESCO!officials!as!foreigners!intervening!with!no! sense!of!the!local!issues.!!The!“local!issues,”!decried!the!critics,!were!the!increasing! numbers! of! Black! prostitutes! and! thieves! living! within! the! abandoned! colonial! mansions.!!Yet!as!many!sociological!surveys!contested,!prostitution!was!already!in! decline,!based!on!a!policy!of!residents!moving!out!“of!their!own!accord”.!!! Since!the!1930s,!PelourinhoYMaciel!had!become!isolated!and!abandoned!by! the!local!state!as!the!elite!continued!to!move!out!of!the!colonial!neighborhood!in! search!of!housing!with!more!modern!amenities.!!A!growing!number!of!poor!AfroY Brazilians! took! up! residence! as! the! neighborhood! proceeded! to! decline,! subdividing!the!colonial!mansions!into!small!partitioned!rooms.!!Local!residents! worked!in!the!city!center!as!well!as!in!the!nearby!areas!as!shoemakers,!bookY binders,!laundry!washers,!street!vendors,!domestics,!laundresses,!seamstresses,!hair! stylists!(Espinheira!1971,!57).!!!Thirteen!percent!of!the!Maciel!population!had!lived! ! ! ! ! ! xviii( in!the!area!for!more!than!twenty!years!and!in!the!same!building.!27.5%!in!the!same! category!had!lived!there!for!eight!to!twenty!years!(Espinheira!1988,!9).!These! numbers!demonstrate!the!sense!of!permanency!residents!felt!living!in!their!homes! and!of!the!duration!of!their!relationship!as!renters!to!their!landlords.!Throughout! the!1970s,!a!debate!ensued!among!journalists,!UNESCO!officials!and!sociologists!as! to!whether,!and!if!so,!how,!living!and!working!conditions!should!be!improved!for!the! local!poor!as!a!result!of!the!restoration!process.! The!history!of!PelourinhoYMaciel!as!a!history!of!the!neighborhood’s!longY time!residents!provides!us!a!rich!site!to!explore!the!ideology!of!development!as!its! practices! and! logics! were! being! imagined! and! implemented! across! and! within! multiple! scales! throughout! the! 1970s.! ! The! constantly! shifting! relationships! between! local,! state,! and! international! technicians! demonstrates! that! the! development!of!PelourinhoYMaciel!was!a!multiscalar!project!with!a!particular!focus! on!fixing!one!place:!to!make!a!colonial!“living!museum”!and!produce!both!the! material!and!symbolic!narratives!to!define!PelourinhoYMaciel!as!a!“living”!historical! monument!(Azevedo!1994;!Romo!2010).!!A!focus!on!the!residents,!and!how!they! were! described! and! discussed! in! the! debates! surrounding! their! status! as! valid! residents!of!PelourinhoYMaciel,!brings!to!the!fore!issues!of!race,!class,!gender,!and! sexuality!in!the!history!of!PelourinhoYMaciel’s!urban!renewal!and!state!development! strategies.!Yet!the!logic!of!development!in!the!making!of! PelourinhoYMaciel!does!not! follow! one! continuous! single! narrative.! ! Rather,! the! logic! of! development,! as! ! ! ! ! ! xix( employed!by!the!various!city,!state,!and!international!actors,!relied!on!multiple! narratives,!sometimes!overlapping!and!sometimes!contradictory.!!! ! ! ! ! ! 1( CHAPTER(ONE! INTRODUCTION! ! PelourinhoYMaciel!is#the#colonial#center#of#the#old#city#of#Salvador#da#Bahia,# Brazil,!and$consists$of$the$largest$and$most$important$collection$of$baroque$and$ rococo$architecture$in$the$Americas.$$As$the$oldest$Brazilian$city,"and"one!that$for$ two$hundred$and$fourteen$years$was$the$seat$of$the$Portuguese$empire$(1549Y 1763),'PelourinhoYMaciel!is#synonymous#with#times#of#colonial#splendor#and#the# labor&of&enslaved&Africans.&Focusing&on&PelourinhoYMaciel,"my"research!explores(the( racialized)politics)of)urban)development)by)tracing)how)international,)state,!and$ local%funding%transformed%a%poor%colonial'neighborhood'in'the'1970s'into#the#most# famous'site'AfroYBrazilian(culture(by(the(1990s.!! The$campaign$to$restore$PelourinhoYMaciel!for$tourism$development$began$ in#earnest#during#the#late#1960s,#as#local#urban#developers#and#state#managers# began&the$extensive$process$of$petitioning$the$United$Nations$Educational,$Science,! and$Cultural$Organization$(UNESCO)$to$make$PelourinhoYMaciel!an#UNESCO#World# Heritage(Site.(Yet(setting'the$conditions$and$priorities$for$how$PelourinhoYMaciel! should'be'restored!was$no$easy$task.$!While&UNESCO&recommendations&mandated& that$ the$ original$ community$ benefit$ from$ tourism$ development,$ the$ local$ elite$ contested(these(recommendations(within(the(press,(describing(UNESCO(officials(as( foreigners)intervening)with)no)sense)of!the$local$issues.$$The$“local$issues,”$decried! the$ critics,!were! the$ increasing$ numbers! of# Black# prostitutes# and# thieves# living# ! ! ! ! ! 2( within& the& abandoned& colonial& mansions.& & Yet& as& many& sociological& surveys& contested,)prostitution)was)already)in)decline,!based!on#a#policy#of#residents#moving# out$“of$their$own$accord”.$$As$a$result$of$the$elite$moving$out$of$PelourinhoYMaciel! since&the&1930s,!coupled(with(the(abandonment(by(the(state,(a(growing(number(of( poor$AfroYBrazilians)had)taken)up)residence,)subdividing)the#colonial#mansions#into# small%partitioned%rooms.%%Local%residents%worked%in%the%city%center%as%well%as%in%the% nearby& areas& as& shoemakers,& bookYbinders,) laundry) washers,) street) vendors,) domestics,* laundresses,# seamstresses,# hair# stylists# (Espinheira* 1971,!57)." " " The$ length'of'time'residents'had'lived'in'Maciel'is'also'important'to'note.''13%!of#the# Maciel'population'had'lived'in'the!area!for$more$than$twenty$years$and$in$the$same$ building.)27.5%)in)the)same)category)had)lived)there)for)eight)to)twenty)years" (Espinheira+ 1988,+ 9).+ These+ numbers+ demonstrate+ the+ sense+ of+ permanency+ residents( felt( living( in( their( homes( and( of( the( duration( of( their( relationship( as( renters& to& their& landlords.! Throughout( the( 1970s,( a! debate& ensued& among& journalists,,UNESCO,officials"and"sociologists"as"to"whether,"and"if"so,!how,%living%and% working( conditions( should( be( improved( for( the( local( poor( as( a( result( of( the( restoration)process.! The!history!of!PelourinhoYMaciel!as!a!history!of!the!neighborhood’s!longY time!residents!provides!us!a!rich!site!to!explore!the!ideology!of!development!as!its! practices! and! logics! were! being! imagined! and! implemented! across! and! within! multiple!scales!between!1968Y1985.!The!constantly!shifting!relationships!between! several!scales!including!city,!state,!national,!and!international!demonstrates!the! ! ! ! ! ! 3( development!of!PelourinhoYMaciel!as!a!multiscalar!project!fixing!place:!to!make!a! colonial!“living!museum”!and!produce!both!the!material!and!symbolic!narratives!to! define!PelourinhoYMaciel!as!a!“living”!historical!monument!(Azevedo!1994;!Romo! 2010).!!A!focus!on!the!residents,!and!how!they!were!described!and!discussed!in!the! debates!surrounding!their!status!as!valid!residents!of!PelourinhoYMaciel,!brings!to! the!fore!issues!of!race,!class,!gender,!and!sexuality!in!the!history!of!PelourinhoY Maciel’s! urban! renewal! and! state! development! strategies.! Yet! the! logic! of! development!in!the!making!of!PelourinhoYMaciel!does!not!follow!one!continuous! single!narrative.!!Rather,!the!logic!of!development,!as!employed!by!the!various!city,! state,!and!international!actors,!relied!on!multiple!narratives,!sometimes!overlapping! and!sometimes!contradictory.!!By!focusing!on!the!development!of!PelourinhoYMaciel! from!1965Y1985,!my!dissertation!argues!that!the!making!of!PelourinhoYMaciel,!and! the!particular!rationale!of!market!development!discourse!produced!by!the!city,! state,! and! international! elite,! relied! on! the! symbolic! presence! of! the! longtime! residents!in!the!beginning!just!as!much!as!it!required!their!structured!absence!in!the! end.! !Throughout!the!1960s!and!1970s,!the!state!of!Bahia!and!Salvador!da!Bahia! city!governments!embraced!many!of!UNESCO’s!major!recommendations,!such!as! ensuring! original! residents! benefit! from! restoration! and! tourism! development.!! Given! the! military! regime! (1964Y1985)! strictly! enforced! economic! profit! over! welfare,! what! remains! unique! about! this! embracement! of! UNESCO! recommendations!is!the!degree!to!which!local!urban!planners!and!social!scientists! ! ! ! ! ! 4( were!allowed!to!improve!the!welfare!of!the!original!residents.!!While!UNESCO! recommendations!were!highly!contested!within!the!regime’s!censored!press,!they! were!nonetheless!enforced!through!the!creation!of!the!Fundação&do&Patrimônio& Artístico&e&Cultural&da&Bahia&(FPACBa),!a!stateYsponsored!entity!built!as!result!of! UNESCO!recommendations!and!charged!with!implementing!tourism!development! strategies!for!the!district.! By! the! midY1980s,! however,! ensuring! welfare! for! the! poor! had! become! practically!obsolete!in!PelourinhoYMaciel!restoration!plans;!a!massive!number!of! Maciel!residents!had!moved!out!of!the!neighborhood.!!In!addition!to!the!police! crackdown!on!prostitution,!Maciel!residents!were!also!being!forced!out!of!their! homes!because!of!the!large!number!of!buildings!becoming!unsafe!as!a!result!of!their! state!of!ruin.!!In!1980,!approximately!1800!residents!lived!in!Maciel.!!!Yet,!when!one! looks!at!the!number!of!empty!buildings,!one!can!see!that!the!abandonment!of!the! area!was!very!much!related!to!state!of!physical!decay!of!the!colonial!mansions.!!Of! the!223!buildings!that!constituted!the!eight!streets!of!Maciel,!62!buildings!were!not! in! use,! 51! were! in! ruins,! and! 11! were! considered! vacant! lots.! ! The! simple! impossibility!of!being!unable!to!live!in!their!place!of!residence!forced!more!than!700! residents!to!move!out!of!Maciel!in!less!than!five!years!(Espinheira!1988,!5).!!! In! addition! to! residents! being! forced! out! of! their! homes! because! of! the! buildings!being!in!such!a!state!of!disrepair,!by!the!early!1990s!Maciel!residents!also! began!to!be!forcefully!removed!by!the!police!(Silva!and!Pinheiro!1997;!Augel!1998;! O.!Pinho!1998;!Nobre!2002;!Villanueva!and!Gallardo!2004;!Marchant!2005;!Rubino! ! ! ! ! ! 5( 2005;!Sampaio!2007;!Zanirato!2007;!Collins!2008).!!The!majority!of!research!that! examines!the!historical!development!of!PelourinhoYMaciel!focuses!on!the!ongoing! intensive!gentrification!efforts!that!effectively!expelled! thousands! of! poor! AfroY! Brazilian!residents!during!the!1990s.!!Yet!few!studies!have!undertaken!the!question! of! why! earlier! historical! preservation! strategies,! which! sought! to! provide! employment! opportunities! and! social! welfare! programs! for! the! poor,! were! so! radically! different.! My! six! months! of! fieldwork,! in! addition! to! research! in! the! archives!of!the!local!city,!Bahia!state,!and!UNESCO,!provide!my!preliminary!findings! for!answering!this!question.!!As!UNESCO!recommendations,!local!city!reports,!and! ethnographic! surveys! demonstrate,! strategies! for! the! development! of! the! PelourinhoYMaciel!tourism!industry!consistently!highlighted!the!preservation!of!the! neighborhood’s! poor! residents! as! an! integral! part! of! the! plan! for! the! physical! restoration! of! the! neighborhood.! ! ! My! dissertation! examines! why! tourism! development! for! PelourinhoYMaciel! prioritized! the! local! residents’! welfare! throughout!the!1970s!and!the!radical!potential!demonstrated!within!these!first! decades!of!Bahia’s!transition!from!postYindustrial!modernization.!! ! HISTORICAL*CONTEXT! During!the!late!1960s,!the!Brazilian!military!dictatorship!began!to!coordinate! a!national!project!for!conservation!of!colonial!landmarks!in!many!of!Brazil’s!historic! cities,!and!envisaged!heritage!conservation!as!a!means!to!increase!national!and! international!tourism!(O.!Pinho!1998;!Nobre!2002;!Sampaio!2007;!Bomfim!2010).! ! ! ! ! ! 6( The!Brazilian!government!sought!advice!from!UNESCO!to!assist!the!country!in! developing!guidelines!for!implementing!heritage!preservation!projects.!As!a!result,! Michel!Parent,!Senior!Inspector!of!Historic!Monuments!in!France,!toured!Brazilian! historical!sites!in!1966!and!1967.!!!Parent!devotes!a!significant!portion!of!his!final! report!to!Salvador!da!Bahia,!a!city!which!particularly!captured!his!attention.!!As!the! first!capital!of!the!Portuguese!colony,!he!classifies!Salvador,!and!specifically!its! colonial!city!center,!PelourinhoYMaciel,!as!the!“first!city!of!art”:!! Towards!the!end!of!the!18 th !century,![sic]!Salvador!was!a!city!of!art!similar!to! that!of!Toledo:!along!a!rugged!coastline,!one!hundred!churches!tower!its! plazas,!avenues,!and!serpentine!streets,!offer[ing]!visitors!a!continuous! change!in!elevation,!scenery...!(Parent!1968,!50)! ! Parent!warns!of!the!“continuing!destruction!of!the!most!precious!Brazilian! architecture,”!which!he!attributes!to!the!“slow!and!unrelenting!decay![of!buildings]”!! as!well!as!the!disfiguring!of!the!colonial!city!center!by!the!“horrendous”!modern! constructions;!that!is,!the!modern!architecture!of!!“suspicious!quality”:! Today,!what!continues!to!dominate!the!skyline!from!the!highest!points!of!the! old!city,!are!the!old!roman!tile!rooftops,!towers!and!façades!of!churches.!!But! a!group!of!thirty!or!so!hideous!concrete!buildings—part!of!the!projects! attributed!to!the!school!of!modern!architecture—already!threaten!to! disfigure!this!immense!complex![of!colonial!architecture].!!The!systematic! destruction!of!the!old!Salvador!has!already!begun.!!To!where!will!she!now! go?!(Parent!1968,!50)! ! This!initial!report!by!Michel!Parent!marks!the!beginning!of!a!complicated! relationship!between!UNESCO!and!the!Salvador!da!Bahia!government!as!the!latter! began!to!fulfill!the!UNESCO!recommendations!with!the!expectation!of!receiving! United! Nations! Development! Programme! (UNDP)! financial! assistance! once! the! ! ! ! ! ! 7( UNESCO!recommendations!had!been!put!in!place.!!!While!the!colonial!city!center! PelourinhoYMaciel! eventually! did! become! a! World! Heritage! Site! in! 1985,! the! seventeen! years! (1967Y1984)! prior! were! filled! with! competing! development! strategies. 1 !! ! These! strategies! differed! radically! over! both! what! form! historical! preservation!should!take,!and!how,!more!specifically,!PelourinhoYMaciel’s!original! residents! would! be! considered! an! integral! part! of! their! neighborhood’s! transformation. 2 !!! While! the! capital! city! and! Bahia! state! managers! originally! imagined! the! beautification!and!physical!restoration!of!the!colonial!buildings!for!the!purposes!of! developing!an!international!tourism!industry,!UNESCO!also!required,!as!stipulated! within!the!Venice!Charter!(1964)!that!any!UNESCO!declared!World!Heritage!Site! would!not!solely!be!concerned!with!the!restoration!of!the!historical!buildings,!but! also!improve!the!social!and!economic!conditions!of!the!lived!area!(ICOMOS!1964).! As!such,!Parent’s!distress!over!the!encroachment!of!modern!architecture!in!the! PelourinhoYMaciel! was! coupled! with! his! recommendations! to! ensure! that! the! original!residents!of!the!colonial!city!center!were!accounted!for!in!the!strategies!for! restoration!and!tourism!development.!!According!to!Parent,!the!restoration!of!the! center!of!Salvador!was!urgent!given!the!conditions!of!social!and!physical!decay!in! the!area.!!For!him,!it!was!necessary!to!restore!the!architectural!complex!while! ensuring!“the!best!preservation!possible!of!the!habitants,!avoiding!repressive!action! of!the!police!against!the!local!residents”!(Parent!1968,!52).!!To!this!end,!the!city! produced!the!first!socioeconomic!survey!of!the!colonial!city!center’s!residents!in! ! ! ! ! ! 8( 1969,!and!created!the!governmental!organization!Bahia!Foundation!of!Artistic!and! Cultural! Patrimony! (Fundação&Patrimonio&Artístico&Cultural&(FPAC)).! ! The! stateY funded! organization! FPAC! became! largely! recognized! as! the! public! entity! responsible! for! how! residents! would! be! incorporated! within! the! tourism! development!projects!of!the!PelourinhoYMaciel!area.!!! As!Parent!expresses!in!his!report,!Salvador!da!Bahia!became!a!potential! UNESCO!World!Heritage!Site!based!on!its!status!as!the!foundational!site!of!Brazilian! civilization,!the!colonial!architecture!representing!“the!first!city!of!art”.!!!Salvador! was!the!first!capital!of!colonial!Brazil!(1549Y1763),!and!operated!as!the!principal! port!and!as!the!administrative,!military,!and!economic!capital.!!For!this!reason,!the! history!of!Salvador!is!central!to!the!history!of!the!state!of!Bahia!and!the!national! identity! of! Brazil.! Yet! this! narrative! of! Salvador! as! the! foundation! of! Brazilian! civilization! reiterates! a! celebratory! narrative! of! Portuguese! colonialism,! which! elides!the!exploitation!on!which!the!wealth!of!the!Portuguese!empire!was!based.!! The! majority! of! wealth! accumulated! by! the! Bahian! elite! depended! on! the! exploitation!of!enslaved!labor!in!the!production!of!sugar!(S.!Schwartz!1985).!!Until! 1850,!Salvador!was!the!principal!port!of!entry!for!most!of!the!millions!of!Africans! caught!in!the!forced!migrations!of!the!slave!trade,!with!34%!staying!within!the!state! of!Bahia.!!During!the!colonial!era!(1549Y1888),!eleven!times!as!many!enslaved! persons! were! taken! to! Latin! America! as! to! the! United! States! (Telles! 2006,! 1).! Reflecting!this!history,!the!state!of!Bahia!today!has!the!largest!Black!population!in! Brazil.!!As!the!capital!city!of!Bahia,!Salvador!has!long!been!understood!as!the! ! ! ! ! ! 9( spiritual!and!cultural!capital!of!Brazil!and!imagined!as!the!“Black!Rome”!of!the! Americas. 3 !! Since!the!formal!abolition!of!slavery!in!1888,!Brazil!has!been!promoted!and! celebrated!as!a!country!of!mixedYrace!people.!Brazil!was!being!depicted!abroad!as!a! backward! nationYstate! and! a! primitive! country! based! on! a! majority! Black! and! indigenous!Indian!population.!!!Rather!than!follow!the!popular!ideology!of!scientific! racism!and!the!notion!that!miscegention!would!mongrelize!the!white!race,!Brazilian! white!intellectuals!and!politicians!crafted!an!alternative!racial!ideology—Brazil’s! “racial!democracy”—as!evidenced!in!their!mixedYrace!population.!!As!most!famously! depicted! by! sociologist! Gilberto! Freyre! in! the! early! 1930s! (1977),! the! elite! transformed!this!negative!identification!with!a!Black!and!indigenous!majority!into! an! asset! by! celebrating! the! racial! mixture! of! Brazil’s! three! civilizations—the! Portuguese,!African!and!Indigenous.!!Freyre!argued!that!racial!miscegenation!was! due!to!the!“superYcapacity”!of!the!white!colonial!elite!to!“mix!and!mingle”!(Marchant! 2005;!IsfahaniYHammond!2008;!Romo!2010).!!Once!severely!repressed!by!the!state,! AfroYBrazilian! cultural! syncretism,! including! the! religious! faith! Candomblé,! the! religious!festivals!such!as!Carnaval!and!Senhor&do&Bonfim,!music!and!dance!such!as! samba,! and! the! martial! art! capoiera,! has! become! sacred! to! the! making! and! marketing!of!Baianidade,!a!celebration!of!“Bahianess”!and!the!physical!embodiment! of!mestiçagem,!the!discourse!of!race!mixing!(Butler!1998a,!1998b;!O.!Pinho!1998;! Santos!1998;!Silva!1998,!2001;!Marchant!2005;!Silva!2007;!Romo!2010). 4 ! ! ! ! ! ! 10( While&earlier&city&and&state&campaigns&to&save&PelourinhoYMaciel! focused( solely&on&restoring&colonial&buildings&without&mentioning&the&poor,&after&1968%(and% the$first$visit$by$UNESCO$urban$planner$Michel$Parent),!saving!PelourinhoYMaciel! became& synonymous& with& saving& the$ poor$ and$ therefore$ included! the$ original$ residents( as( integral( to( the( PelourinhoYMaciel! restoration) process.) ) Rather) than) ignore'the'poor,'sociologists'and'social'workers'pushed'improvements+to!the$poor’s$ living&and&working&conditions.&&These!projects!ensured'state'and'city'managers'of' expected'international'financing,!in#addition#to#securing#the#approval#of#UNESCO#to# make%PelourinhoYMaciel!a"World"Heritage"Site.""As"a"result,"the$question)of)what)“to) do”$with$PelourinhoYMaciel’s#poor!became&pivotal&for&Bahia&state&and&Salvador&city& managers( in( the( reorganization( and# development# of# PelourinhoYMaciel." " By" answering)this)question,)local)city,!and$state$elite$justified$the$restoration$of$the$ PelourinhoYMaciel! colonial' landscape:' the' restoration' of' PelourinhoYMaciel," as" a" project(of(tourism(development,(would(in(turn(provide&employment&opportunities& for$the$urban$poor,.$! By# the# early# 1980s,# however,# both# the# Foundation# responsible# for# implementing)UNESCO)recommendations,!and!the$social$scientists$involved$in$the$ planning,!admitted'that'their'strategies'for'ensuring' that$the$poor$could$stay$in$ PelourinhoYMaciel! had$ failed.$ $ Based$ on$ declining$ numbers$ of$ original$ residents$ continuing( to( live( in( PelourinhoYMaciel," some" social" scientists" criticized" the" employment)strategies)adopted!to#bring#the#residents#into#the#local#labor#market.(! Some$critics$also$blamed$the$Foundation$for$forcing$the$residents$to$move$out$of$ ! ! ! ! ! 11( their&neighborhood&“of&their&own&accord”:&by&not&controlling&property&speculation,& the$Foundation$created'the'expectation'among!property'owners'that!the$Foundation$ would!buy$their$property,"thus"encouraging"the$further$abandonment$of$buildings."" Alarmist( journalism( describing( the( neighborhood( as( only( a( place( of# violence,# prostitution,! and$ thievery! fueled& further& policing'and'neighborhood'sweeps'and' made!an#already#precarious#situation#worse#for#residents.##Critics'also%noted%foreign% businesses' exploiting' PelourinhoYMaciel' by! extracting$ profits! and$ used$ abroad! rather&than!recirculating+those+profits+and$benefit!the!local%economy,"! In!order!to!understand!the!development!of!this!historic!neighborhood,!we! are!also!required!to!attend!to!its!material!and!ghostly!conditions!(Roach!1996;! Hartman!1997;!Gordon!1997).!As!a!way!to!begin,!it!is!useful!to!know!the!history!of! the!pillory!for!which!the!neighborhood!of!PelourinhoYMaciel!is!named.!!A!pillory!is!a! large!wooden!pole!from!which!prisoners!were!tied!and!castigated.!!The!pillory!in! Salvador(da(Bahia!was$primarily$used$as$an$instrument$of$torture$for$the$enslaved.$! During!the!second!half!of!the!16 th !century,!the!pillory!was!located!in!the!very!center! of!the!city,!the!plaza!of!the!Palace,!in!front!of!the!thirteen!windows!of!the!Casa&da& Camara&e&Cadeia,!the!symbol!of!autonomy!and!justice!of!the!city.!!Later,!in!1602,!the! pillory! was! relocated! to! the! Terreiro& de& Jesus,! much! closer! to! the! residential! neighborhood!of!the!sugar!barons!and!colonial!magistrates.!!However,!the!screams! from!the!tortures!bothered!the!religious!ceremonies!of!the!Catholic!priests!and!a! petition!was!submitted!to!King!Dom!João!V.!!In!1727!King!Dom!Jão!ordered!the! instrument!of!torture!to!the!Porta!de!São!Bento. 5 !!Eighty!years!later,!in!1807,!the! ! ! ! ! ! 12( pillory!was!placed!in!the!Largo!do!PelourinhoYMaciel,!where!it!stayed!for!almost! three! decades.! ! In! 1835,! the! pillory! was! removed! from! the! plaza! and! never! replaced. 6 ! The!placement!of!the!pillory!in!the!Largo!do!PelourinhoYMaciel!(1807Y1835)! coincides!with!one!of!the!largest!urban!insurrections!of!the!enslaved.!!As!historian! João!Jose!Reis!(1995)!details,!the!city!during!this!period!was!under!constant!threat! of!slave!uprisings,!as!well!as!freed!persons!protests,!which!culminated!in!the!Malê! revolt!of!1835,!the!most!significant!slave!rebellion!of!Brazil.!!The!Malê!revolt!was! influenced!by!the!Haitian!Revolution!(1791Y1804)!and!changed!the!course!of!slavery! in!Brazil!by!bringing!Portuguese!fears!of!African!insurgency!to!the!fore.!!As!João! Pandia!Calogeras!comments,!“The!Negroes!came!to!be!regarded!as!a!dangerous! element!in!the!population,!a!menace!to!the!lives!and!safety!of!their!masters”!(qtd.!in! Robinson!1983,!153).! As! the! history! of! the! pillory! demonstrates,! the! genocidal! and! diasporic! histories!of!Africa!and!the!Americas!are!intrinsic!to!the!making!and!living!of!place! (Roach! 1996;! Hartman! 1997;! McKittrick! 2006). 7 !! Their! invisible! presence! commands!attention!as!much!as!PelourinhoYMaciel’s!colonial!structures.!!Sociologist! Avery!Gordon!(1997)!offers!a!cultural!hypothesis!of!haunting!as!! a!shared!structure!of!feeling,!a!shared!possession,!a!specific!type!of!sociality.!I! might!even!suggest!that!haunting!is!the!most!general!instance!of!the! clamoring!return!of!the!reduced!to!a!delicate!social!experience!struggling,! even!unaware,!with!its!shadowy!but!exigent!presence.!Haunting!is!the! sociality!of!living!with!ghosts,!a!sociality!both!tangible!and!tactile!as!well!as! ephemeral!and!imaginary.!(Gordon!1997,!201)! ! ! ! ! ! ! 13( For!Gordon,!haunting!is!essential!to!revealing!a!new!way!of!knowing!our! social!world!so!that!we!can!change!it!(201).!!If!we!can!recognize!the!ghostly!flashes! surrounding!us,!Gordon!argues,!we!can!know!in!a!different!way!the!things!we! thought!we!knew.!!!Yet,! to!recognize!that!life!lived!otherwise,!those!ghostly!flashes,! David!Lloyd!(2005)!argues!we!must!also!remain!insistently!out!of!joint!with!the!time! in!which!the!dead!have!been!laid!to!rest:!! Only!in!remaining!out!of!joint!with!the!times!to!which!the!dead!are!lost!is! there!any!prospect!of!a!redress!that!would!not!be!concomitant!with!the! desire!to!lay!the!dead!to!rest.!!For!the!restlessness!of!the!dead!stems!from!the! lack!of!a!future!fit!for!them,!and!only!the!unfitting!can!address!the!ghosts!that! rise!like!vapors!through!the!disjointed!frame!of!the!present.!!The!paradox!of! redress!is!that!the!catastrophic!violence!of!history!can!be!righted!only!in! relinquishing!the!desire!to!set!it!right,!in!order!instead!to!make!room!for!the! specters!in!whose!restlessness!the!rhythms!of!another!mode!of!living!speak! to!us.!(Lloyd!2005,!153)! ! This!“remaining!out!of!joint”!is!particularly!useful!for!paying!attention!to!the! hauntings!of!PelourinhoYMaciel!as!a!dynamic!place!born!from!the!history!of!state! terror.! I! also! take! seriously! Macarena! GómezYBarris! (2008)! and! David! Lloyd’s! (2008)!insistence!that!we!investigate!the!central!role!of!memory!in!producing!a! present!absence!fundamental!to!a!different!mode!of!historicization.!!Rather!than! bemoan!a!failed!radical!development!strategy,!Conditions&of&Belonging&addresses!the! radical!potentialities!within!dependency!development!frameworks!and!how!these! larger!shifts!operated!within!the!lives!and!homes!of!PelourihoYMaciel!residents.!I! address! notions! of! the! ghostly! permeating! PelourinhoYMaciel! and! the! struggles! residents!waged!to!be!recognized!as!residents!who!would!remain!in!their!homes,! however!small!as!also!participating!in!this!reframing!of!development.!! ! ! ! ! ! 14( With!this!in!mind,!we!may!now!attend!to!the!various!phases!not!only!of! indifference!and!abandonment!of!PelourinhoYMaciel!during!the!early!20th!century,! but!also!(and!lastly)!of!reincorporation!and!restoration!beginning!in!the!1960s.!! ! SCHOLARLY!CONTEXT!AND$A$NOTE$ON$METHOD! Conditions&of&Belonging!is!a!project!produced!from!the!perspective!and!belief! that!when!we!are!attentive!to!our!historical!present!we!are!also!collectively!creating! and! practicing! another! truth:! a! social! truth! that! pushes! us! to! consider! new! conditions!of!possibility.!!An!historical!present!perhaps!is!the!most!appropriate!way! to!introduce!and!situate!Conditions&of&Belonging.!Ultimately,!this!project!is!inspired! by!complete!fascination!and!horror!with!the!productions!and!transformations!of! place!and!conditions!for!life.!!More!specifically,!I!define!place!here!as:!1)!a!material! and!conceptual!location!produced!through!disciplinary!practices/logics!of!exclusion,! and!2)!an!idea!that!locates!belonging!and!methods!of!resistance.!As!such,!Conditions& of&Belonging!is!also!necessarily!an!interdisciplinary!project!that!stretches!insights! from!theoretical!fields!attentive!to!placeYmaking!and!personhood.!!Together,!the! fields! of! political! geography,! materialist! historiography,! queer! studies,! Black! feminist!studies,!Latin!American,!and!cultural!studies!give!theoretical!weight!and! instruct!us!to!remain!everYattentive!to!the!ways!in!which!hierarchies!(of!knowledge,! difference,!and!life)!are!critical!categories!of!social!and!political!struggle.! The!recent!histories!of!PelourinhoYMaciel!demonstrate!how!local!expressions! of!economic!development!throughout!the!1970s!were!building!on!larger!regional! ! ! ! ! ! 15( development!strategies!that!prioritized!producing!economic!equality!between!Bahia! and!the!larger!national!concentration!of!wealth!in!the!CentralYSouth.!!The!crafting!of! regional!development!strategies!by!Bahian!development!practitioners,!including! principal!economist!and!politician!Rômula!Almeida,!expressed!their!desire!to!better! address!the!economic!disparity!and!much!longer!complex!history!of!exploitation,! conquest,! and! expansion! the! region’s! majority! AfroYBrazilian! population! had! experienced!(Almeida!1970,!1977;!Pinheiro!1999;!Spinola!2004;!Alban!2006).!Thus,! the!potential!for!creating!a!regional!tourist!economy!with!assistance!from!UNESCO! and!UNDP!beginning!in!the!late!1960s!can!be!seen!as!a!strategy!to!diversify!Bahian! economic! development! that! had! previously! concentrated! development! through! resource!extraction!and!the!producer!product!economy!of!the!1950s.!!Regional! tourism!was!beginning!to!be!understood!and!advocated!as!another!natural!yetYtoY beYdeveloped!resource!of!the!state.!! As! previously! mentioned,! the! development! of! PelourinhoYMaciel! vividly! expresses!the!politics!of!scale!(Smith!1992;!Marston!2000).!!Debates!over!different! development!frameworks!regarding!PelourinhoYMaciel!and!its!inhabitants!among! UNESCO! development! experts,! Bahian! economists,! city! technocrats,! newspaper! journalists,! and! sociologists! confirm! that! “place”! is! never! static,! but! rather! is! continuously!produced!and!negotiated.!!Theories!regarding!geographic!scale!allow! us!to!delve!more!deeply!into!the!processes!producing!place.!!!The!constraints!and! politics!of!development!as!a!multiscalar!project!are!demonstrated!when!analyzing! the!PelourinhoYMaciel!development!process!and!the!various!local,!regional,!and! ! ! ! ! ! 16( national! institutions! involved.! ! As! a! site! of! contestation! and! implementation,! Conditions&of&Belonging!also!relies!on!the!theoretical!literature!attendant!to!the! politics! of! scale! and! the! processes! that! produce! uneven! development! in! urban! locations!(Smith!1990;!Gilmore!2007). 8 !!! The!politics!of!scale,!in!the!production!of!place,!also!necessarily!involves!the! history!of!that!particular!place.!What!this!history!shows!is!that!life!is!contingent!on! the!particular!constructions!of!race,!gender,!sexuality,!and!personhood.!!!Walter! Benjamin!(1969)!provides!a!productive!way!of!understanding!history!as!a!method! to! apprehend! the! complexities! of! modern! power! reflected! in! the! injurious! and! dehumanizing! conditions! of! modern! life! (Gordon! 1997,! 194).! ! As! a! result! of! understanding!the!character!of!modern!power!itself,!we!also!become!aware!of!ways! to!harness!the!cognizance!of!it!to!work!out!a!specific!era!that,!in!the!process,! becomes!“the!entire!course!of!history.”!!This,!in!and!of!itself,!is!both!a!practice!of! theory!and!a!theory!of!practice:! Materialistic!historiography…is!based!on!a!constructive![as!opposed!to!an! additive]!principle.!!Thinking!involves!not!only!the!flow!of!thoughts!but!their! arrest!as!well.!!Where!thinking!suddenly!stops!in!a!configuration!pregnant! with!tensions,!it!gives!that!configuration!a!shock,!by!which!it!crystallizes!into! a!monad.!A!historical!materialist!approaches!a!historical!subject!only!where! he!encounters!it!as!a!monad.!!In!this!structure!he!recognizes…a!revolutionary! chance!in!the!fight!for!the!oppressed!past.!!He!takes!cognizance!of!it!in!order! to!blast!a!specific!era!out!of!the!homogeneous!course!of!history—blasting!a! specific!life!out!of!the!era!or!a!specific!work!out!of!the!lifework.!!As!a!result!of! this!method!the!lifework!is!preserved!in!this!work!and!at!the!same!time! canceled;!in!the!lifework,!the!era;!and!in!the!era,!the!entire!course!of!history.! (Benjamin!1969,!262Y63)!! ! ! ! ! ! ! 17( Stuart! Hall’s! (1986)! method! of! articulation! is! useful! to! interrogate! the! conditions! that! produced! PelourihoYMaciel’s! claim! for! tourism! development.!! Recognizing!tourism!development!as!an!articulation!foregrounds!“the!form!of!the! connection”! that! allow! two! (or! more)! distinct! elements! to! come! together! at! a! particular!historical!moment.!!Hall!(1986)!argues!that!what!is!understood!as!the! “unity”!or!common!logic!of!a!particular!discourse!is!instead!the!theoretical,!political! and!strategic!connections!(an!articulated!combination)!crafting!how!we!come!to! know!what!we!know!(53).!!Yet,!as!Slack!(1996)!reminds!us,!articulation!is!not!just!a! connection!“but!a!process!of!creating!connections”!(115).!And!rather!than!viewing! articulation! as! a! simple! oneYtoYone! correspondence,! Hall! (1980a)! identifies! articulation!as!a!“complexYstructure”:!! The!unity!formed!by!this!combination!or!articulation,!is!always,!necessarily,!a! 'complexYstructure':!a!structure!in!which!things!are!related,!as!much!through! their!differences!as!through!their!similarities.!!This!requires!that!the! mechanisms!which!connect!dissimilar!features!must!be!shownYYsince!no! 'necessary!correspondence'!or!expressive!homology!can!be!assumed!as! given.!!It!also!means—since!the!combination!is!a!structure!(an!articulated! combination)!and!not!a!random!associations—that!there!will!be!structured! relations!between!its!parts!(i.e.,!relations!of!dominance!and!subordination).!! (Hall!1980,!135)!! With! this! notion! of! articulation! in! mind,! we! can! understand! tourism! development!for!PelourinhoYMaciel!as!dependent!upon!the!historical!recognition!of! PelourinhoYMaciel!as!the!originary!site!of!Brazilian!civilization;!with!“civilization”! defined!firstly!by!Portuguese!colonization.!The!contradiction!that!emerges!then!is! how! to! unite! the! historical! neighborhood! as! predicated! upon! the! celebratory! narratives!of!PelourinhoYMaciel’s!colonial!past!while!poor!AfroYBrazilian!residents! ! ! ! ! ! 18( of! PelourinhoYMaciel! remain! the! living! legacy! of! the! enslaved. 9 !! Conditions& of& Belonging&can!thus!be!thought!of!as!an!exercise!in!and!of!articulation,!of!crafting! connections!and!thinking!relationally,!and!of!producing!a!“complexYstructure”!that! calls!attention!to!these!contradictions.! The!field!of!queer!studies!also!interrogates!notion!of!belonging,!and!reveals! belonging!as!a!technology!of!cultural,!social,!and!political!membership.!!!Yet!the! multiple! contingencies! that! structure! belonging,! particularly! in! relation! to! the! unevenness! of! spatial! and! racial! formations! that! shape! access! to! cultural! and! national! citizenship,! has! only! recently! informed! sexuality! studies! scholarship.!! Recent! scholarship,! including! discussions! of! homonormativity! and! homonationalism,!demonstrates!the!importance!of!understanding!belonging!as!a! social!and!political!performative!and!a!practice!only!made!possible!through!the! exclusion!of!certain!bodies!and!related!practices.!!It!is!in!the!process!of!exclusion! that! one! can! illustrate! the! contradictory! logics! of! national,! sexual,! and! racial! belonging! (Alexander! 1994;! Gopinath! 2005;! Puar! 2007;! Shah! 2011).! ! My! dissertation!seeks!to!examine!contingencies!of!belonging!in!relation!to!racial!and! sexual!disciplinary!processes.!!More!specifically,!it!examines!these!contingencies!of! belonging!for!the!longYtime!residents!of!PelourinhoYMaciel.!!Who!gets!to!determine! the! framework! for! belonging! and! what! are! the! consequences! for! seeing! life! in! conditional!terms?! One! way! of! thinking! about! the! relationships! and! sentiments! that! give! meaning!to!seeing&life!in!conditional!terms!is!to!focus!on!the!images!themselves!that! ! ! ! ! ! 19( were!produced!regarding!the!residents!of!PelourinhoYMaciel.!!Similar!to!Deborah! Poole’s!(1997)!examination!of!how!Andean!visual!images!accrued!value,!traversed! the!Atlantic!and!became!crucial!to!the!construction!of!a!European!modernity,!I!also! focus! on! the! images! surrounding! PelourinhoYMaciel! residents! to! insist! the! photographic! image! entered! as! visual! evidence! and! underwrote! the! statistical! methods,! moral! discourses,! and! regulatory! power! of! the! normalizing! state! in& transition.! ! We! must! recognize! the! international! symbol! of! the! UNESCO! World! Heritage! Site! as! also! signaling! international! First! World! recognition! of! Brazil’s! successful!transition!from!dictatorship!to!“fully!developed”!democratic!nationYstate! given!the!twentyYyear!period!(1965Y1985)!for!Salvador!da!Bahia!to!become!an! UNESCO!World!Heritage!Site!also!marks!the!transitional!period!before!Brazil!was! declared!a!democratic!country.!!Just!as!there!was!a!type!of!visual!experience!that! emerged!together!with!the!project!of!European!modernity!in!the!late!eighteenth!and! early!nineteenth!centuries,!I!argue!there!was!a!particular!type!of!visual!experience! that!also!emerged!together!within!the!project!of!modernization!and!the!construction! of!UNESCO!World!Heritage!Sites;!especially!with!regard!to!the!solicitation!produced! from!developing!countries.!Each!chapter!addresses!different!forms!of!visual!realism! regarding! PelourinhoYMaciel! in! order! to! explore! more! fully! how! images,! both! individually!and!collectively,!conformed!to!contemporary!understandings!of!racial! difference,!cultural!evolution,!and!celebratory!narratives!justifying!the!civilizing! mission!of!European!imperialism.! ! ! ! ! ! 20( I! used! a! wide! range! of! sources! to! explore! who! were! the! longYtime! PelourinhoYMaciel!residents!and!why!so!many!were!forced!to!leave!their!homes.!! Many! of! the! documents! gathered! included! institutional! reports! and! internal! correspondence! from! UNESCO! and! the! UNDP,! local! and! state! newspaper! press! articles,!and!the!sociological!reports!on!the!Maciel!community.!!I!also!analyzed!the! texts!of!Jorge!Amado!and!Miguel!Rio!Branco!to!see!the!other!worlds!where!Maciel! residents!appeared!and!why.!!What!I!was!constantly!searching!for!were!the!reports! and!ephemera!from!neighborhood!organizations!and!their!campaigns!to!remain!in! PelourinhoYMaciel.!!This!proved!almost!impossible!given!they!were!not!privileged!in! the!state!or!municipal!archives.!As!many!historians!have!discussed,!the!severity!of! history,!including!the!violence!of!the!whipping!post,!police!brutality,!joblessness,! mental! illness,! and! imprisonment,! requires! we! read! documents! privileging! the! nationYstate,!technocrats!and!elite,!differently.!!I!hope!this!project!produces!some!of! the!stories!and!events!that!shaped!Maciel!residents!lives!during!the!late!1960sYearly! 1980s!in!order!to!recognize!and!make!visible!that!which!has!only!been!written! about!in!their!absence.!Yet,!this!is!not! to!claim!Conditions&of&Belonging&as!a!purely! redemptive!project.!Rather,!Conditions&of&Belonging!is!written!based!on!the!premise! that!crafting!shared!knowledge!is!a!critical!process!and!an!active!political!practice.!! As!a!method!of!articulation,!this!project!is!both!a!theory!of!politics!and!a!politics!of! theory!materialized!by!asking!how!it!is!we!came!to!know!what!we!know!now!about! the!past!residents!and!place!of!PelourinhoYMaciel.! ! ! ! ! ! ! 21( STRUCTURE'OF'THE'DISSERTATION! As!a!project!of!strategic!connections,!Conditions&of&Belonging&can!be!thought! of,!at!its!broadest!level,!as!an!interrogation!of!the!conditions!and!circumstances! structuring!human!life.!!!Each!chapter!takes!this!interrogation!as!it!applies!to!the! past! residents! of! PelourinhoYMaciel! and! demonstrates! how! local! and! global! development!frameworks!are!mutually!constituted.!!Each!chapter!provides!an!inY depth!exploration!of!how!narratives!of!property!and!national!belonging!excluded! PelourinhoYMaciel!residents!and!forced!residents!to!occupy!and!experience!home!in! an!often!hostile!and!violent!environment.!!I!develop!this!argument!in!the!following! five!sections:! Chapter!Two,!“Heritage,!Tourism,!and!the!Remaking!of!the!PelourinhoYMaciel! Historical!District,!Salvador!da!Bahia,!Brazil,”!situates!PelourinhoYMaciel!tourism! development!within!the!broader!political!and!economic!shifts!shaping!the!Bahia! region!from!1965Y1985.!!One!of!the!main!questions,!Chapter!Two!seeks!to!answer!is:! What!kinds!of!development!strategies!were!described!and!implemented!by!the! various! city,! state! and! international! managers! and! how! did! they! differ! and/or! overlap?!!Specifically,!it!argues!tourism!development!began!to!be!seen!as!a!viable! strategy!by!state!managers!after!Bahia’s!industrialization!during!the!early!1960s! failed!to!provide!the!financial!gains!the!state!predicted.!!Yet,!just!as!Bahia!state!and! city!managers!were!introducing!large!schemes!for!tourism!development,!changes!in! UNDP!funding!concurrently!(1968Y1971)!shifted!decisionYmaking!from!a!country! blockYgrant!to!country!projects!being!funded!on!an!individual!basis.!!I!argue!changes! ! ! ! ! ! 22( in!UNDP!funding!structures!corresponded!with!state!and!city!managers!frustration! and! disappointment! in! not! receiving! expected! UNDP! funds! in! addition! to! precipitating!a!shift!to!private!lending!and!investments!to!finance!PelourinhoYMaciel! restoration.! It!is!within!this!political!and!economic!context!provided!in!Chapter!Two!that! we!turn!to!the!local!debates!informing!PelourinhoYMaciel!historical!restoration!and! tourism! development! during! the! 1970s.! ! I! ask:! What! were! the! conditions! and! alliances!produced!and!maintained!in!order!to!assert!narratives!of!the!state!and! their!economic!strategies!implemented!on!behalf!of!the!poor!as!truth?!How!did!the! regime’s!highly!censored!local!press!assert!challenges!to!these!narratives!of!the!city! and!state!and!what!were!the!consequences!(Chapter!Three)?!!Specifically,!Chapter! Three!analyzes!the!role!of!the!newspaper!press!in!crafting!public!opinion!about! Maciel’s!residents,!a!small!enclave!within!the!larger!Pelourinho!district!that!was! legally!sanctioned!as!the!“prostitution!zone”!since!the!1930s.!!By!the!1970s,!Maciel! residents!were!employed!in!a!variety!of!informal!jobs,!and!worked!as!bookbinders,! cobblers,! street! vendors,! laundry! washers,! prostitutes! and! domestics.! ! Yet! the! newspaper! press! consistently! described! residents! only! as! prostitutes,! thieves,! “fairies,”!and!drug!addicts;!the!illegitimate,!illicit,!and!immoral.!While!this!was!by!no! means!the!first!instance!of!the!press!generalizing!Maciel!residents!as!such,!I!argue! this!historical!context!set!the!tone!for!how!UNESCO!recommendations!would!be! heard!by!the!local!public.!!!When!French!urban!planner!and!UNESCO!representative! Michel! Parent! visited! PelourinhoYMaciel! in! 1968,! he! stated! clearly! the! original! ! ! ! ! ! 23( residents!should!not&be!removed!from!the!historical!site.!The!press!immediately! rejected!Parent’s!recommendations!as!ridiculous!and!characterized!Parent!as!an! ignorant!foreigner!with!no!sense!of!the!local!issues.!A!decade!long!debate!ensued!as! to!whether,!and!if!so!how,!poor!AfroYBrazilian!residents!should!remain.!!In!denying! the!right!of!Black!residents!to!stay,!the!press!made!explicitly!clear!the!claims!for! PelourinhoYMaciel!development!and!instantaneously!declared!those!who!had!built! Salvador!da!Bahia!over!the!course!of!three!centuries!unworthy!of!remaining!in!their! city.! Just!as!the!newspaper!press!played!a!key!role!in!defining!public!opinion!for! how! PelourinhoYMaciel! should! be! restored,! local! sociologists! also! entered! the! debate!determining!how!the!original!PelourinhoYMaciel!residents!would!participate! in!the!neighborhood’s!transformation.!!In!addition,!social!scientists!provided!the! local!census!data!and!interviews!with!residents!required!for!UNESCO!and!other! stateYfunded! local! agencies! responsible! for! PelourinhoYMaciel! restoration! and! tourism! initiatives;! the! principal! being! the! Bahia! Foundation! for! Cultural! and! Artistic!Patrimony,!(Foundation).!!Sociologists!were!funded!by!the!Foundation!to! produce!extensive!surveys!and!provide!ethnographic!detail!over!the!course!of!the! 1970s! and! 1980s.! ! While! the! newspaper! press! described! prostitution! as! dangerously! escalating,! Chapter! Four! explores! the! Foundation’s! surveys! that! demonstrated!prostitution!was!in!decline!and!gave!evidence!of!the!multiplicity!of! informal!jobs!residents!held.!!Just!as!adamant!as!the!newspaper!press,!sociologists! produced!a!plethora!of!reports,!advocating!and!proposing!a!variety!of!programs!to! ! ! ! ! ! 24( improve!employment!and!social!services!for!PelourinhoYMaciel!residents.!By!the! early!1980s!however,!some!sociologists!were!critical!of!the!most!touted!initiative:! the!resident!artisanYtraining!program.!Sociologists!provided!lengthy!commentary!as! to! why! the! artisanYtraining! program! had! failed! and! faulted! the! marketYdriven! approach.!!Sociologists!were!also!writing!their!own!books!and!papers!and!I!turn!to! these!sources!in!order!to!explore!more!fully!sociological!thought!during!the!1970s! and!to!compare!how!sociologists’!findings!differed!from!their!Foundation!reports.!! Chapter! Five! “To! Save! the! Heart! and! Soul! of! Bahia:! The! Celebration! of! Mestiçagem!and!the!Sexual!Mulata!in!the!Visual!and!Imaginary”!describes!the!sexual! and! racial! codings! informing! PelourinhoYMaciel! as! the! “Black! Rome”! of! the! Americas.! Specifically,! I! ask! how! historical! representations! of! the! place! of! PelourinhoYMaciel! construct! certain! geographies! of! desire! and! pleasure?! If! capitalism!inevitably!commodifies!and!fetishizes,!how!did!economic!development! strategies!for!PelourinhoYMaciel!necessarily!build!upon!historical!representations! conflating!the!erotic!and!the!exotic?!I!explore!the!writings!of!Jorge!Amado!and!the! images! of! Miguel! Rio! Branco! as! texts! that! both! reflect! and! craft! an! already! commodified!and!fetishized!PelourinhoYMaciel.!!!Through!the!image!of!the!sexual! mulata,!both!Jorge!Amado!and!Rio!Branco!fetishize!the!Maciel!resident!and!make! PelourinhoYMaciel!a!place!known!through!her!body.!!!In!the!UNESCO!narratives! justifying!why!PelourinhoYMaciel!must!be!saved,!it!is!through!the!sexual!mulata&that! the!narrative!of!racial!democracy!is!encoded.!! ! ! ! ! ! 25( Finally,!Chapter!Six!explores!how!the!chapters!mutually!constitute!each!other! and!inform!the!placeYmaking!strategies!of!PelourinhoYMaciel.!!More!specifically,!I! link! visual! realism! to! placeYmaking! in! order! to! chart! how! a! seemingly! purely! expressive!domain!is!also!an!active!agent!in!the!process!of!making,!altering,!and! transforming! places! and! persons.! ! Visual! realism! describes! “the! ethic! of! the! correctness!of!the!gaze!that!matches!perception!to!what!should&be&sighted”!(Feldman! 1997:41).!!Similar!to!Allen!Feldman’s!(1997)!discussion!of!the!plurality!of!realisms! through!which!acts!of!domination!and!violence!are!incorporated!into!daily!life,!I!also! locate!forms!of!realism!as!fundamental!to!the!strategies!of!transforming!PelourinhoY Maciel!into!a!place!that!could!be!seen.& !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 !For!an!inYdepth!analysis!of!the!historical!legacy!of!stateYsponsored!cultural!production!and!historic! preservation!management!see!Daryl!Williams!(2001).!!Williams!locates!the!construction!of!national! identity! for! the! Vargas! era! dictatorship! (1930Y1945)! within! official! cultural! policy! and! argues! historical! preservation! played! a! key! role! in! Vargas’! regime! successfully! building! international! recognition!as!a!modern!nationYstate!(pages!90Y132).! ! 2 !! Much! scholarship! has! been! written! on! the! contemporary! marketing! and! preservation! state! sponsored!strategies!for!cultural!and!historical!patrimony.!In!the!Brazilian!cases,!see!Meira!2004;! Ribeiro!2005;!Sinoti!2005;!Gonçalves!2007;!Nogueira!2005.!!! ! 3 !In!the!1930s,!a!famous!priestess!of!the!AfroYBrazilian!religion!Candomblé,!Mãe!Aninha,!began! identifying!Salvador!as!the!Roma&Negra&("Black!Rome").!!She!argued!that!just!as!Rome!was!the!center! of!Catholicism,!Salvador!would!be!the!center!of!Candomblé.!Later,!anthropologist!Ruth!Landes!cited! Aninha's!characterization!of!Salvador!in!her!classic!1947!study!City&of&Women:!"Brazilians!had!sound! reasons!for!considering!Bahia!as!the!gateway!to!West!Africa.!One!prominent!Negro!woman!even! called!the!city!the!'Negro!Rome'"!(cited!in!Dunn,!17).!The!term!gained!even!wider!circulation!through! the!travel!writings!of!FrenchYSwiss!avantYgarde!poet!and!novelist!Blaise!Cendrars,!who!also!referred! to! Bahia! as! the! "Black! Rome.”! ! More! recently,! in! his! book! Rome& Noir,& Ville& Metisse,! French! anthropologist! Michel! Agier! argues! that! Salvador! has! constructed! a! national! and! international! discourse!around!Africanness!despite!the!centuries!of!racial!miscegenation.!While!the!term!Roma& Negra&is!not!circulated!as!often,!it!does!appear!sometimes.!!An!example!is!in!a!famous!Bahian!singer! Caetano!Veloso's!song!"Reconvexo":!"Eu!sou!a!sombra!da!voz!da!matriarca!da!Roma!Negra!/!Você!não! me!pega,!você!nem!chega!a!me!ver"!("I!am!the!shadow!of!the!voice!of!the!matriarch!of!Black!Rome!/! You!can't!get!me,!you!can't!even!see!me")!(Dunn!2007).!!For!a!larger!context!and!more!detailed! history!of!Mäe!Aninha!and!her!commercial!success!through!an!affirmation!of!African!tradition!see! Romo!(2010)!chapter!two!“Contests!of!Culture”,!pages!47Y85.! ( ! ! ! ! ! 26( !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4 !!In!addition!to!the!discourses!surrounding!mestiçagem,!a!reader!familiar!with!Brazil!knows!the!long! history!of!debates!over!the!difference!between!processes!of!racialization!in!Brazil!and!the!United! States!and!why!this!is!so.!!The!differences!and!contestations!lie!in!the!history!of!miscegenation! celebrated!in!Brazil!as!a!mixedYrace!nation!while!in!the!U.S.!a!racial!hierarchy!was!formed!based!on! the!“one!drop!rule”.!For!this!literature!see!Skidmore!(1983,!1993);!Silva!(1998);!Bourdieu!and! Wacquant!(1999);!Hanchard!(1994,!2003);!Sansone!(2003);!Telles!(2006);!Pinho,!P.!(2006);!Siegel! (2005,!2009).! ! 5 !The!Porta&de&São&Bento!was!one!of!eight!entries!to!the!walled!city.!!The!door!probably!existed!from! 1549Y1796!and!was!on!the!south!side!where!today!exists!the!Plaza!Castro!Alves!(Coelho!Filho!2004).! ! 6 !The!same!year!(1835)!the!pillory!was!taken!down!from!the!Largo&do&Pelourinho5Maciel!a!huge! marble!cross!was!erected!just!a!few!blocks!away!in!front!of!the!Church!of!San!Francisco.!The!cross! remains!there!to!this!day.!I!do!not!think!the!year!is!a!coincidence.!!Rather,!I!see!the!Cross!erected!as! symbolically!replacing!the!whipping!post!to!remind!all!who!walked!past!the!power!of!the!church!and! state!and!to!reassert!a!message!of!not!being!intimidated!by!the!urban!insurrections.! ! 7 !For!a!contemporary!analysis!of!how!the!pillory!functions!as!a!site!of!racial!reconciliation!see!Straile! (2007).! ! 8 !On!the!processes!through!which!social!space!is!racialized!and!ghettoized!see!Smith!(1992);!Rodman! (1992);! Goldberg! (1993)! chapter! eight! “Polluting! the! Body! Politic:! Racist! Discourse! and! Urban! Location,”!pages!185Y205;!Massey!(1984)!and!Shields!(1991).!! ! 9 !!On!the!current!processes!producing!PelourinhoYMaciel!residents’!displacement!see!Collins!(2011).! He!argues!city!and!state!processes!producing!Maciel!residents!as!improper!and!illegitimate!while! celebrating!them!as!historicized!citizens!have!produced!contemporary!shifts!in!racial!consciousness.! ! 27! CHAPTER(TWO( ( THE(PROMISE(OF(A(TOURIST(ECONOMY:(REGIONAL( DEVELOPMENT(AND(THE(IMPACT(OF(ECONOMIC( RESTRUCTURING(FOR(TOURISM(DEVELOPMENT(IN(THE( PELOURINHO7MACIEL(DISTRICT( ! ! The!recent!histories!of!Pelourinho0Maciel!tourism!development!throughout! the!1970s!can!be!understood!as!local!expressions!of!larger!regional!development! strategies!that!were!fundamental!for!Bahia’s!economic!growth!during!this!time! period.! ! Regional! development! was! identified! by! Bahian! economic! strategists,! including!principal!economist!Rômulo!Almeida,!as!key!to!creating!economic!equality! between!Bahia!and!the!larger!national!concentration!of!wealth!in!the!Central0South! (Almeida!1970,!1977;!Pinheiro!1999;!Spinola!2004;!Alban!2006).!Thus,!the!potential! for!creating!a!regional!tourist!economy!with!assistance!from!UNESCO!and!UNDP! beginning! in! the! late! 1960s! was! advocated! as! a! strategy! to! diversify! Bahian! economic! development! that! had! previously! concentrated! development! through! industrialization!and!the!producer!product!economy.!Tourism!thus!was!identified!as! part! of! a! lager! regional! development! strategy! and! was! understood! as! another! resource!the!Bahia!state!should!develop.!! Salvador!da!Bahia!tourism!development!strategies!during!the!1960s!and! 1970s! must! also! be! understood! as! reflecting! larger! Latin! American! economic! development!frameworks!gaining!acceptance!throughout!this!time,!especially!under! the!leadership!of!renowned!Argentinian!economist!Raúl!Prebisch!and!the!United! ! 28! Nations! Economic! Commission! for! Latin! America! (ECLA).! Prebisch! believed! industrialization!was!the!only!means!by!which!Latin!American!countries!would!be! able!to!fully!obtain!the!advantages!of!technical!progress,!increased!productivity!and! accumulated!capital!already!enjoyed!by!the!industrialized!north!(Toye!and!Toye! 2003) .!!The!work!of!Prebisch!and!the!ECLA!was!especially!embraced!by!Rômulo! Almeida,!a!leading!Bahian!economist,!who!identified!industrialization!and!producing! regional!trade!and!equity!as!necessary!both!for!Bahia!to!gain!competitive!advantage! nationally! as! well! as! for! Brazil! to! gain! economic! equality! with! northern! industrialized!markets. 1 !! I!pay!special!attention!to!the!interrelationships!between!foreign!and!local! capital! investment,! state! policies,! and! the! development! of! a! tourism! economy! initiated!during!a!post0industrial!moment!in!the!early!1970s.!!To!explain!what! happened,! I! take! a! look! backward! to! understand! the! foundations! of! economic! distress!characterizing!Salvador!de!Bahia,!and!the!competing!theories!and!elites! who!struggled!to!define!the!regional!and!urban!developmental!path.!I!examine!how! structural!changes,!including!the!failure!of!foreign!aid!for!tourism!development,! forced!the!city!government!to!increasingly!finance!Pelourinho0Maciel!restoration! and!tourism!projects!through!private!investments.!!I!argue!that!competing!economic! ideologies! and! strategies! between! Brazilian! development! economists,! UNESCO! professionals,!and!UNDP!economic!thinkers!ultimately!clashed!and!resulted!in!less! foreign!capital!than!Bahia!state!and!Salvador!da!Bahia!city!officials!had!expected.!! Without! UNDP! financial! backing,! state! and! city! officials! were! forced! to! find! ! 29! alternative! private! financial! initiatives! to! support! tourism! development! in! the! Pelourinho0Maciel! neighborhood.! ! As! a! result,! UNESCO! mandates! including! an! emphasis!on!the!original!poor!residents!remaining!and!benefitting!from!tourism! development!became!more!difficult!to!implement.!!! ! UNITED'NATIONS'ECONOMIC$COMMISSION$FOR$LATIN%AMERICA%(ECLA)% DEVELOPMENT*STRATEGIES( By! the! 1960s,! industrialization! had! become! Brazil’s! primary! strategy! for! economic!development!and!was!envisioned!as!providing!employment!for!the!poor! that!would!then!lead!to!self0sustaining!economic!growth!(Evans!1979,!95).!!Salvador! da! Bahia’s! industrialization! strategies! and! promotion! of! regional! tourism! was! largely! influenced! by! the! developmentalist! research! and! theory! crafted! by! the! United!Nations!Economic!Commission!for!Latin!America!(ECLA).!!ECLA!economists! dedicated!themselves!to!understanding!Latin!America’s!place!in!the!international! economic!system,!under!the!leadership!of!Raúl!Prebisch.!Rather!than!create!theories! of! development! from! an! industrialized! Northern! perspective,! ECLA! economists! began!with!their!own!experiences!situated!in!the!South.!Thinking!from%the!South! provided!a!unique!set!of!circumstances!for!ECLA!economists!and!allowed!Latin! American! economists! to! develop! theories! and! practices! of! development! that! prioritized!their!needs.!!This!mentality!served!them!well,!and!the!economic!theories! of!development,!including!structuralism!and!its!related!ideas!of!import!substitution! industrialization!and!regional!integration,!became!recognized!as!fundamental!to! ! 30! balance!out!the!terms!of!trade!between!the!“core”!industrialized!countries!and!the! primary!producer!product!countries!of!the!“periphery”.!!! Prebisch’s!conclusions,!drawn!from!his!report!The%Economic%Development%of% Latin%America%and%Its%Principal%Problems%(what! became! known! as! the! Prebisch! Manifesto),!were!simple!yet!profound:!the!terms!of!trade!of!primary!products!were! declining!relative!to!those!of!manufactured!goods,!with!industrialized!countries! deriving! more! benefit! from! trade! than! developing! ones.! ! ECLA! economists! understood!the!empirical!evidence!of!worsening!terms!of!trade!against!primary! goods!from!the!countries!of!the!periphery!as!a!result!of!the!advances!in!technical! progress! concentrated! in! the! industrialized! centers.! Since! the! lack! of! industrialization! also! determined! the! lack! of! access! to! foreign! exchange! (an! important!issue!given!that!economic!growth!determines!the!ability!to!import!capital! goods),! ECLA! economists! promoted! programs! of! industrialization! as! allowing! countries!previously!dependent!on!imported!goods!to!manufacture!them!at!home— hence!the!strategy!name!“import!substitution!industrialization”!(Escobar!1995,!81). 2 !!! Therefore,!Prebisch!and!ECLA!decided!one!of!the!strongest!ways!to!improve! Latin!American!economic!conditions!would!be!to!promote!industrialization!in!Latin! America.!! ( BRAZILIAN(NATIONAL(INDUSTRIALIZATION,1960S71970S( Brazil’s!economic!policy!since!the!1960s!emphasized!industrialization!as!a! key!role!in!its!development!strategies.!The!effects!of!the!military!takeover!of!1964,! ! 31! and! the! ideology! of! desenvolvimentismo! (developmentalism)! that! had! grown! throughout!the!late!fifties,!produced!a!regime!that!promoted!liberal!free!enterprise! while!also!working!to!vastly!increase!the!state’s!ability!to!control!the!economy!both! in!its!regulatory!and!entrepreneurial!capacities.!!Industrialization!was!envisioned!as! providing! employment! for! the! poor! that! would! then! lead! to! a! self0financing! economic!growth!(Evans!1979,!95).!!The!growth!of!state!projects!was!especially! significant!in!the!areas!of!electricity,!petroleum,!and!steel.!!At!the!height!of!what!was! hailed!an!“economic!miracle”!(196901973),!growth!rates!greater!than!10!percent! per!year!were!maintained!(Escobar!1995,!80).!!! Yet!rather!than!realizing!an!improvement!of!wages!and!living!standards!as! theory!had!predicted,!this!new!income!was!not!distributed!equally,!exacerbating!the! economic!disparity!of!low!income!groups.!Poverty!and!unemployment!increased!in! direct!relation!to!the!growth!of!GNP!(Escobar!1995,!80).!As!Evans!notes,!“In!a! decade!during!which!the!production!of!television!sets!tripled!and!the!top!5!percent! of!the!population!almost!doubled!their!average!income,!the!80!million!on!the!bottom! remained! stagnate! at! incomes! averaging! below! $200! a! year”! (Evans! 1979,! 96).! Rather! than! industrialization! improving! terms! of! foreign! trade! and! creating! independence!from!imported!goods,!import!substitution!merely!changed!the!kinds! of!imports!Brazil!needed.!!In!addition!to!the!growing!costs!of!servicing!internalized! foreign!capital!(repatriated!profits,!interest!payments,!fees,!royalties,!and!technical! assistance),!Brazil’s!manufacturers’!dependence!on!external!capital!for!machinery,! equipment,!and!fuel!escalated!with!import!substitution!and!increases!in!exported! ! 32! manufactured! goods! (Evans! 1979,! 98;! Escobar! 1995,! 98).! ! As! Evans! (1979)! demonstrates,! in! 1971! and! 1972,! rising! exports! never! balanced! the! need! for! imports,!even!before!accounting!for!the!cost!of!imported!services!(98).!!Once!the! price!of!oil!tripled,!the!imbalance!of!trade!became!even!more!aggravated!as!costs!of! servicing! internalized! foreign! capital! increased.! ! As! exports! escalated,! Brazil’s! demand! for! new! loans! rose! even! faster:! “While! exports! tripled! between! the! beginning!of!the!sixties!and!1972,!the!amount!of!foreign!loans!went!up!over!1,300%.!! Exacerbated!by!the!rise!in!the!price!of!oil,!Brazil’s!foreign!debt!was!between!$25!and! $30!billion!by!the!end!of!1976”!!(Evans!1979,!98).!! ! BAHIA%STATE%INDUSTRIALIZATION(( Being!from!the!poorest!state!in!Brazil,!Bahia!state!economists!were!especially! attentive!to!ECLA!research!and!recommendations!for!economic!growth.!Throughout! the!1950s!and!1960s!Rômulo!Almeida,!a!Bahian!economist!and!a!Brazilian!Workers! Party!(Partido%Trabalhista%Brasileira)!political!leader,!participated!in!many!inter0 American! commissions,! and! was! one! of! the! strongest! advocates! for! ECLA! recommendations,!most!importantly!regional!integration!!(A.!Almeida!1995;!Souza! and!de!Assis!2006).!!Specifically,!Almeida!strengthened!the!region!through!building! the!fiscal!infrastructure!to!produce!the!investments!required!for!industrialization.!! In!particular,!Almeida!created!the!first!state!planning!entity!called!the!Commission! of! Economic! Planning! (Comissão% de% Planejamento% Econômico).! In! addition! to! providing!greater!economic!independence!and!security,!Almeida!envisioned!Bahia! ! 33! regional!development,!including!industrialization!and!tourism!development,!as!the! solution!for!social!equality:!“the!proposition!of!social!justice!between!the!regions,!is! parallel!and!sometimes!confluent!with!social!justice!between!classes”!(R.!Almeida! 2001). 3 !! The!state!of!Bahia,!and!specifically!the!city!of!Salvador,!experienced!a!wave!of! industrialization! in! the! 1960s.! This! included! the! development! of! a! large0scale! industrial!center!called!the!Centro%Industrial%de%Aratú,!created!in!1967!by!the!state’s! Superintendência% para% o% Desenvolvimento% do% Nordeste! (SUDENE),! and! later! the! Camaçari! Petrochemical! Complex,! built! in! 1970! near! the! Petrobrás! refinery.!!! Between!1950!and!1970,!tens!of!thousands!of! rural!migrants!moved!to!the!city,!and! about!80,000!industrial!jobs!were!created!in!the!majority!of!new!industries!set!up!in! Aratu!and!Camaçari!(Herold!2004).!While!job!creation!increased!during!the!1950s! and!1960s,!during!which!period!economically!active!persons!remained!about!40%! of!the!population,!by!1970!actively!employed!residents!dropped!to!36%!as!the!city’s! population!outpaced!job!creation!(Herold!2004). ! Data! collected! in! Salvador! during! 1961! and! 1962! reveal! a! substantial! worsening!of!income!distribution.!“Very!poor”!families!earning!less!than!Cruz!170!a! month! (or! US! $32)! rose! from! 7.0%! to! 16.1%! between! 1961/62! and! 1970.! In! contrast,!those!families!“very!rich”!earning!at!least!Cruz!3,500!a!month!(or!US!$670)! grew!from!0.7%!to!3.8%.!!Data!supporting!these!figures!were!found!in!the!Fundação% Getulio%Vargas%(FGV)!sample!surveys!on!family!budgets,!the!sample!survey!findings! provided! by! the! Centro%Brasileiro%de%Análise%e%Planejamento! (CEBRAP),! and! the! ! 34! Federal!University!of!Bahia!(UFBa).!!As!Herold!(2004)!poin ts!out,!this!data!reveals! “per!capita!income!growth!during!this!period!of!rapid!industrialization!was!due!only% to!the!increase!in!this!proportion!of!the!very!rich.!!Rather!than!an!increase!in!the! average!monthly!income,!all!remaining!families!actually!fell!from!Cruz!712!(US! $135)!to!Cruz!671!(US!$127)!in!1971”!(Herold!2004).!In!addition!to!in 0migration! outpacing! industrial! job! availability,! the! military! government’s! post01965! wage! policy!reduced!the!minimum!wage!from!Cruz!206!(US!$39)!in!1961/62!to!Cruz!170 ! (US!$32)!by!1971).!This!explains!the!difficulties!faced!by!and!deteriorating!living! conditions! for! low0income! families.! As! was! the! case! in! other! Latin! American! countries,!growth,!industrialization,!and!an!increase!in!factory!jobs!were!never!a! guarantee! that! the! minimum! needs! of! Salvador’s! poorest! would! be! improved! (Prebisch!1959;!Murphy!and!Augelli!1993;!Murphy!1998).! ! DEVELOPING*A*BAHIA*REGIONAL(STATE%ECONOMIC%PLAN%( Although!economist!Rômulo!Almeida!greatly!influenced!the!Bahia!state!team! of!economists!during!the!time!Salvador!da!Bahia!was!institutionalizing!a!regional! tourism!development!strategy,!the!group!of!economists!who!gave!a!new!economic! vision!to!the!Bahia!state!administration,!ultimately!faced!the!strong!resistance!of! traditional!oligarchic!leaders,!resulting!in!the!inability!of!the!state!to!enforce!a!wide! ranging!state!plan!(Guimarães!1966,!32).!Almeida’s!strategies!were!deemed!too! radical!and!socialist,!which!in!turn!caused!staunch!resistance!from!the!landholding! oligarchic!elite!as!well!as!many!of!the!top!conservative!intellectuals!(Mello!e!Silva! ! 35! 2001 :!15).!!In!addition!to!the!resistance!presented!by!the!oligarchic!leaders!and! conservative! elite,! Almeida’s! economic! group! also! faced! two! other! significant! problems,!which!ultimately!crippled!any!sustained!economic!state!advancement! during!the!1950s:!1)!the!lack!of!qualified!economists!to!develop!new!propositions,! and!2)!the!lack!of!support!from!the!local!elite!to!initiate!necessary!state!intervention! and!planning!(L.!Queiroz!2002).!This!political! period,!named!the!Pastas%côrLdeLrosa% was! defined! by! the! inaction! of! the! Bahia! state! government! in! response! to! the! strategies!laid!out!by!the!team!of!economists.! While!Almeida’s!economic!group!experienced!these!difficulties,!Almeida’s! status! as! a! well0known! public! figure! significantly! influenced! the! Bahia! state! government!to!gradually!implement!some!of!his!economic!policies.!!As!a!member!of! the!Partido%Trabalhista%Brasileiro!(Brazilian!Workers!Party),!Federal!Deputy!for!the! Vargas!administration,!and!Secretary!of!State!Treasury,!Almeida!had!the!strong! support!of!the!State!Governor,!the!Chancellor!of!the!Universidade%Federal%da%Bahia! (UFBa—Federal!University!of!Bahia),!and!representatives!of!local!economic!groups.!! One!of!the!biggest!successes!resulting!from!this!newly!formed!economic!system!was! the!creation!of!the!Comissão%de%Planejamento%Econômico—CPE!(Economic!Planning! Commission).!Originally,!the!CPE!was!created!in!conjunction!with!the!Conselho%de% Desenvolvimento%Econômico%da%Bahia!(CONDEB),!by!Decree!n°16.261,!in!May!1955.!! It!was!first!institutionalized!as!a!Secretary!position,!but!was!transformed!into!a! foundation!four!years!later!(L.!Queiroz!2002).!!The!principal!activities!of!the!CPE! consisted! of! planning! and! coordinating! economic! assets.! ! The! CPE! was! also! ! 36! responsible!for!elaborating!on!the!projects!and!propositions!from!both!the!public! and! private! sectors,! and! for! promoting! regional! and! national! investment! opportunities!offered!by!the!State!(Guimarães!1966,!37099).!!! Through!the!CPE,!the!Bahia!state!assumed!the!role!as!promoter!of!economic! development!via!direct!intervention.!From!its!inception,!various!programs!were! being!implemented!in!Bahia!through!federal!funds.!!In!this!way,!the!CPE!sought!out! programming!with!state!government!funds,!and!was!responsible!for!coordinating! action!between!both!private!initiatives!and!federal!government!funding.!!During!this! period!there!was!a!general!lack!of!information!about!Bahia!state!funds,!which!the! CPE!initially!sought!to!remedy!by!offering!an!evaluation!of!the!local!economy.!This! resulted! in! a! series! of! proposals! including! 1)! the! Programa% de% Recuperação% Econômica%da%Bahia,!lead!by!Antonio!Albino,!2)!the!Plano%do%Desenvolvimento%da% Bahia!(PLANDEB),!carried!out!within!Governor!Juracy!Magalhães’!first!year!in!1959,! and!3)!the! “Plano%Trienal,”!presented!within!the!first!governorship!of!Lomanto! Júnior,!in!1964!(Guimarães!1966,!90091).!Of!the!three!economic!development!plans,! the! most! successful! was! the! Programa% de% Recuperação% Econômica% da% Bahia.% It! resulted! in! the! creation! of! various! state! institutions! including! the! Bahia! Hydroelectric! Company% (Companhia% Hidroelétrica% da% Bahia! COELBA),! the! Self0 financed!Telephone!Company%(Companhia%Telefônica%Autofinanciada!TEBASA),!and! the!Companhia%de%Armazéns%e%Silos%da%Bahia!(CASEB—Bahia!Company!of!Food!and! Grains).!This!development!plan!also!created!various!reserves!including!the!Banco%de% Fomento% do% Estado! (Bank! of! State! Advancement),! the! Fundo% de% Alimentação% e% ! 37! Sementes! (Food! and! Seeds! Fund),! and! the! Fundo% de% Recuperação% da% Lavoura% Cacaueira!(Recuperation!of!Cocoa!Farming!Fund)!(91).!! The!Plano%Trienal!was!never!completed!due!to!the!1964!military!dictatorship.!! PLANDEB!was!the!most!ambitious!and!complete,!with!defined!strategies!for!the! period!1960063,!and!sought!to!strengthen!state!support!from!the!newly!formed! Superintendência% do% Desenvolvimento% do% Nordeste! (SUDENE) 4 ,! whose! objectives! were! to! channel! federal! investments! and! access! the! profit! gained! from! state! government!resources.!!! ! DEVELOPING!A"REGIONAL"BAHIAN"TOURISM(INDUSTRY( As! recommended! in! the! Tourism%Project%for%Brazil,! President! Kubitschek! created!at!the!end!of!1958,!with!Decree0Law!n°!44.865,!the!Comissão%Brasileira%de% Turismo%(COMBRATUR0!Brazilian!Tourism!Commission),!a!federal!body!responsible! for!administrating!tourism!initiatives.!No!state!body!was!created!specifically!for! tourism! in! Bahia! during! this! phase.! Nonetheless,! with! a! range! of! directed! and! undirected! activity,! PLANDEB,! Bahia’s! development! planning! group,! already! understood! tourism! activity! as! indispensible! and! integral! to! Bahia’s! economic! development. 5 !!With!the!CPE’s!newly!instituted!planning,!tourism!became!more! widely!recognized!within!government!documents,!and!for!the!first!time,!became! incorporated!into!Bahia!State!government!strategies,!which!resulted!in!a!chapter! included!in!the!1958!Programa%de%Recuperação%Econômica%da%Bahia.!!One!year!later,! tourism! became! a! sector! of! priority! for! PLANDEB,! which! sought! to! carry! out! ! 38! Salvador’s!possibilities!with!recommendations!to!renovate!the!urban!Salvador!da! Bahia!state!capital,!and!created!a!program!specifically!for!this!activity!(Guimarães! 1966,!92).! Furthermore,!PLANDEB,!through!the!Comissão%Estadual%(a!Bahia!committee! created! for! the! purposes! of! coordinating! with! federal! and! municipal! tourism! institutions)!had!recommended!the!private!sector!financially!concede!to!the!state.! Had! the! strategies! defined! by! PLANDEB! for! state! tourism! been! implemented! according!to!the!established!timeline!of!1960!to!1962,!there!might!have!been!an! even! greater! international! response! for! Bahia! tourism.! ! Instead,! PLANDEB! was! overthrown! in! the! Legislative! Assembly! by! its! own! state0governing! bank.! ! The! PLANDEB!plan!was!disapproved!in!large!part!because,!among!other!factors,!the! Bahian!oligarchic!elite!resisted!any!modernization!schema!that!allowed!for!growth! in!non0traditional!sectors!of!the!state!such!as!tourism!and!industrialization.!Also,! fearing!CPE!interference!within!their!respective!areas,!state!secretaries!refused!to! disclose!key!information!(L.!Queiroz!2002,!55). !PLANDEB’s!collapse!resulted!in!the! dissolving!of!the!CPE.!!Thus,!the!idea!of!an!economic!plan!for!Bahia,!conducted!by! the!state,!fell!into!decline.!!While!many!of!the!plans!were!unsuccessful!due!to!local! conservative! elite! resistance,! the! government! of! Bahia! state! governor! Juracy! Magalhães! (1959! 0! 1963)! and! his! successors! did! gradually! implement! some! proposals!for!tourism!and!other!sectors!submitted!by!PLANDEB.!!In!most!cases! however,!the!plans!were!executed!much!later!than!had!been!originally!suggested!(L.! Queiroz!2002,!55). ! ! 39! The!possibility!for!a!regional!Bahian!tourism!industry!was!also!a!result!of! political!and!economic!strategies!implemented!nationally!in!the!previous!decade.!!A! national! highway! system! constructed! by! the! federal! government! for! industrial! development!during!the!1950s!greatly!expanded!the!potential!for!national!tourism! activity.! ! As! a! result,! huge! efforts! were! made! to! connect! the! most! important! Brazilian!economic!centers!with!the!Northeast,!including!Bahia,!Rio!Grande!do!Sul! and! Minas! Gerais.! ! In! this! way,! industrial! production! in! the! South! would! be! distributed! to! the! North! and! the! primary! materials! from! the! North! could! be! distributed!to!the!Southern!productive!regions.!!During!this!phase,!strong!national! efforts!to!become!incorporated!within!a!global!development!market!resulted!in!a! highway!system!connecting!the!manufacturing!centers!São!Paulo0Rio!de!Janeiro.! Highway! BR0116,! Rio! Bahia,! was! created! in! 1963,! and! brought! in! growing! investments!such!as!the!reinvestment!of!federal,!state,!and!municipal!monies.!!Of!the! main!investments!during!this!period,!those!that!had!the!largest!impact!for!Bahia! were! the! BR0242! (Salvador0Brasilia,! constructed! in! 1968)! and! the! BR0101,! completed!in!1972!connecting!the!North!and!South!(L.!Queiroz!2002). ! In!addition!to!highway!construction,!investments!in!communication!were! also!considered!as!fiscal!incentives!for!greater!inter0regional!integration.!!Largely! through!the!leadership!of!Rômulo!Almeida,!efforts!to!fund!new!private!investments! were! understood! as! fostering! competitive! advantages! associated! with! the! disposability!of!natural!resources.!Various!federal!agencies!worked!to!strengthen! development!outside!the!Southeast!region!by!investing!directly!with!state!funds!(L.! ! 40! Queiroz!2002;!Souza!and!de!Assis!2006).!!These!federal!actions!(re cognizing!the! profitability! of! private! fiscal! incentives,! creating! strategies! for! modernizing! agricultural!and!traditional!industries,!investing!in!economic!infrastructure,!etc.)! impacted!the!Northeast,!and!especially!the!state!of!Bahia.!!! It!must!also!be!understood!that!these!tourism!strategies!brought!to!fruition! by!the!State!of!Bahia!were!also!a!reflection!of!Brazil’s!newly!gained!international! status!as!a!country!with!“maturing”!economic!development!potential.!!In!1958,!the! president! of! the! Republic,! Juscelino! Kubitchek,! was! in! communication! with! the! United!States!government!about!the!possibility!of!borrowing!US$300!million!for! Brazil.!!The!Eisenhower!Administration!approved!this!funding!and!offered!a!team!of! professionals!to!help!Brazil!explore!its!tourism!potential.!The!resulting!U.S.0Brazil! Joint! Commission! created! the! document! entitled! Tourism% Project% for% Brazil% (L.! Queiroz!2002).!!!The! Tourism%Project%for%Brazil!produced!two!significant!studies.!! The!first!was!an!extensive!inventory!of!current!Brazilian!tourism!initiatives.!In!the! second!study!(June!to!August!1958)!the!U.S!produced!research!detailing!ways!the! U.S.! could! promote! North! American! tourism! for! Brazil.! ! The! U.S.0Brazil! Joint! Commission!produced!a!plan!of!action!to!be!implemented!simultaneously!in!Brazil! and!the!United!States,!with!the!establishment!of!a!government!body!responsible!for! administrating!tourism!initiatives.!!The!creation!of!the!EMBRATUR!constitution! eight!years!later!was!a!result!of!this!initial!partnership!between!the!two!countries! (Flores!1993,!56059).! ! ! 41! TOURISM(DEVELOPMENT(IN#CONJUNCTION#WITH#UNESCO' RECOMMENDATIONS,( Between!1968!and!1971,!discussions!of!how!to!best!finance!the!Pelourinho0 Maciel!restoration!projects!were!taking!place!between!a!range!of!city,!state,!and! international! players.! ! Bahia! state! governor! Antonio! Carlos! Magalhães,! who! originally!envisioned!the!restoration!of!colonial!buildings!and!infrastructure!as!a! means!to!promote!tourism,!largely!initiated!the!development!of!a!Bahia!tourism! industry. 6 !!The!United!Nations!Development!Programme!(UNDP),!combined!with! state!and!city!financial!support,!would!supply!funds.!!In!order!to!receive!funding!by! UNDP,! UNESCO! needed! to! provide! its! support! and! recommendations! for! the! restoration!plans.!!Between!1966!and!1970!UNESCO!funded!multiple!visits!from! urban!planners!and!historical!preservation!specialists!to!provide!recommendations! for! modeling! Bahia’s! bourgeoning! tourism! industry! on! other! cities’! successful! tourism!ventures. 7 !Agreements!to!restore!Pelourinho0Maciel’s!colonial!architecture! were!made!between!the!city,!state!and!UNESCO/UNDP!at!the!beginning!of!1968.! Their!target!year!for!completing!the!restoration!process!was!1973.!!The!urban! planners,!in!accordance!with!the!UFBA!urban!specialists,!were!following!the!Urban! Projects!Plan!approved!by!the!City!Council!of!Deliberations!in!1968.!!The!Plan! established!the!area!of!Pelourinho0Maciel!to!be!the!city’s!first!priority!in!terms!of! architectural!restoration.!!The!Plan!also!described!the!collaboration!and!agreements! made!between!the!Bahia!state!and!local!city!governments.!!Bahia!state!government! funding!would!be!responsible!for!new!sewage!and!water!lines!while!the!Salvador!da! ! 42! Bahia! city! government! would! be! responsible! for! underground! electrical! power,! street! paving! with! stones,! public! notices! of! building! and! street! closures,! the! elimination!of!heavy!vehicle!traffic,!a!mapping!of!buildings!to!be!restored!by!DPHAN! (Departamento%Patrimônio%Histórico%Artístico%Nacional),!and!the!initial!restoration!of! the!colonial!façades!in!Largo!do!Pelourinho0Maciel!and!adjacent!buildings.! Refurbishing!the!colonial!buildings!surrounding!the!main!plaza!(Largo%do% PelourinhoLMaciel)!began!the!physical!restoration!process!of!Pelourinho0Maciel. 8 !! The!first!two!buildings!appropriated!by!the!city!were!transformed!into!Foundation! of!Artistic!and!Cultural!Patrimony!of!Bahia!(Foundation)!headquarters!and!a!bank.!! Restoration! work! commenced! in! July! of! 1968! after! Governor! Luiz! Viana! Filho! allocated! the! first! installment! of! NCr! $10! thousand.! ! The! state’s! initial! funding! prioritized!Foundation!approved!restoration!projects!for!colonial!buildings!in!most! danger!of!collapsing.!The!restoration!project!for!Pelourinho0Maciel!was!described!as! part!of!a!larger!collaborative!project,!including!other!cities!with!historical!buildings! and!neighborhoods,!to!be!preserved!by!the!Historic!Patrimony.!!UNESCO!supported! the! larger! project! through! the! Program! of! Cultural! Tourism;! a! program! whose! primary!aims!was!to!cultivate!and!support!international!tourism.!! Once!UNESCO!approved!the!restoration!projects!and!methods!of!Foundation,! state!and!city!officials!assumed!that!significant!financial!support!would!materialize! via! the! international! organizations! Inter0American! Development! Bank! (Banco% InterAmericano%de%Desenvolvimento;%BID)!and!the!Organization!of!American!States! (OEA).!!While!the!Foundation!would!receive!more!than!Ncr$100!thousand!by!the! ! 43! end!of!1968!from!the!OEA,!state!funds!were!still!insufficient!for!Foundation!to!fully! restore!Pelourinho0Maciel.!Early!in!1969,!Governor!Luiz!Viana!Filho!and!Salvador! Mayor!Antônio!Carlos!Magalhães!were!ecstatic!after!receiving!news!from!Brazil’s! UNESCO!ambassador,!Carlos!Chagas.!!According!to!Chagas’!letter!to!the!Governor! and!Mayor,!Pelourinho0Maciel!received!very!high!praise!by!UNESCO!world!heritage! expert!consultant!Michel!Parent,!who!recommended!that!Pelourinho0Maciel!“should! be!of!the!highest!priority!for!UNESCO!to!obtain!international!financial!help”!(Jornal% da%Bahia,%December!4,!1967).!In!addition,!Parent!recommended!that!Salvador!create! a!Foundation!composed!of!a!Central!Administration!to!be!responsible!for!all!projects! involving!education,!culture,!or!tourism.!!Accordingly,!Salvador!had!already!created! Foundation!composed!of!an!Executive!Committee,!with!representatives!from!the! offices!of!the!Historical!Patrimony,!Embratur,!Governor,!and!Mayor.!!Foundation! was!incorporated!as!a!state!government!entity!responsible!for!soliciting!local!funds! for!the!most!urgent!restoration!projects.!The!governor!also!wrote!a!letter!to!the! State! Minister! of! Planning,! Hélio! Beltrão,! requesting! his! aid! to! prioritize! international!funding%for!cultural!tourism!(Jornal%da%Bahia,%December!4,!1967).! Plans! for! post0restoration! commercialization! included! the! creation! of! art! studios!and!galleries,!theater,!cinema,!and!artisan!shops.!In!addition,!there!would!be! areas!dedicated!to!folkloric!“shows”!including! maculelê!and! capoeira!as!well!as! candomblé!houses!(Jornal%da%Bahia,!June!21,!1969).!!The!plan!emphasized!Afro0 Brazilian!cultural!customs!would!be!the!focus!for!the!area!dedicated!to!international! ! 44! tourism. 9 !! The! plan! was! approved! by! urban! planners! as! well! as! by! UNESCO! specialists. 10 ! By! May! of! 1969,! UNESCO! had! failed! to! provide! the! international! loan! acquired!through!the!UNDP!to!aid!Salvador!with!Pelourinho0Maciel’s!restoration! development.!!Salvador!Mayor!Antônio!Carlos!Magalhães!expressed!his!frustration! and!disappointment:!!“not!now!and!not!in!ten!years!will!there!be!any!financial!loans! [promised!by!UNESCO]”!(Jornal%da%Bahia,!June!21,!1969).!Yet!Magalhães!would!not! be!deterred,!and!resolved!to!move!forward!on!the!Pelourinho0Maciel!project!despite! the!lack!of!international!aid.!!Rather!than!rely!on!international!financial!loans,!the! city!would!restore!the!colonial!buildings!through!private!initiatives,!as!well!as!with! loans!provided!by!the!National!Bank.!!Magalhães!and!the!Foundation's!first!order!of! action!would!be!to!re0appropriate!the!seventy!buildings!in!Pelourinho0Maciel.!!The! city!would!restore!the!façades!of!the!colonial!buildings!along!the!main!square,!and! would!then!sell!them!to!private!parties.!!When!asked!by!two!French!journalists! about!the!promised!UNESCO!financial!backing,!Magalhães!wryly!responded,!“Once! the!project!is!finished,!the!financing![from!UNESCO]!will!come”!(Jornal%do%Brasil,! June!10,!1969).! Yet!a!fraught!relationship!between!Brazil!and!its!international!counterparts! for!development!financing!should!not!be!surprising!or!historically!unfamiliar.!A! tourism!strategy!funded!in!part!with!foreign!financial!assistance!was!conceptualized! initially!by!Brazil!and!the!United!States!during!the!1950s—a!time!in!which!Brazil! was! experiencing! a! newly! acquired! international! status! as! a! country! ripe! with! ! 45! development! potential.! U.S.! President! Dwight! Eisenhower! believed! in! the! importance!of!tourism!as!an!instrument!of!peace!and!enrichment!of!nations!and! offered! financial! support! to! Brazil! by! signing! the! convention! between! the! Confederação%Nacional%de%Comércio!(agency!created!by!the!federal!government!to! direct! the! program! of! cooperation)! and! the! International! Cooperation! and! Administration!(a!U.S.!agency!responsible!for!financial!aid!programs!to!countries! with! tourism! development! potential).! This! U.S.0Brazil! Joint! Commission! was! dissolved!by!the!U.S.!shortly!thereafter!in!response!to!Brazil!institutionalizing!the!oil! industry!as!a!state!monopoly!(L.!Queiroz!2002,!54).!! ! ! UNESCO'REPORT'ON'THE!POTENTIAL)FOR)TOURISM"AND"ECONOMIC" GROWTH'FOR'SALVADOR'DA#BAHIA( In!1968,!British!architect!and!UNESCO!urban!restoration!specialist!Graeme! Shankland! visited! Salvador! da! Bahia! to! provide! technical! assistance! to! its! developing!tourism!industry,!and!produced!a!report!for!UNDP!on!the!economic! viability!of!an!international!tourism!market!in!the!Northeastern!state!of!Bahia,!and! specifically! Salvador! da! Bahia.! ! Shankland’s! report,! “São! Salvador! de! Todos! os! Santos!Town!Planning,!Conservation,!and!Tourism”!(1968),!provided!in!great!detail! the!city’s!existing!organization!and!financial!structures.!This!report!included!the! types!and!amounts!of!financing!Salvador!da!Bahia!had!already!requested!from!other! multinational! financial! institutions! (OAS! and! Gulbenkian! Foundation)! for! its! Pelourinho0Maciel! restoration! project.! ! In! addition,! Shankland! identified! the! ! 46! potential!and!limitations!he!foresaw!with!UNDP!financial!backing!of!the!Pelourinho0 Maciel!restoration!project.!!Shankland’s!report!provided!UNESCO!recommendations! needed!for!the!city!and!state!to!maintain!a!good!foreign!credit!rating!and!be!granted! UNDP!international!financial!aid.!!His!report!was!positive!and!he!identified!Salvador! as!well!organized!and!fully!capable!of!producing!tourism!profit!given!UNDP!foreign! investments.!!In!his!conclusion!he!writes:!“UNESCO!must!continue!to!give!the!project! every!support,!and!constantly!review!its!requirements.!!The!need,!the!powers,!the! will,!and!the!ability!are!there!but!in!the!short!term!financial!assistance!is!necessary! and! UNESCO’s! support! [in! helping! attract]! technical! assistance! to! complement! Brazilian!expertise!is!both!needed!and!welcomed”!(24).!! ( THE$BRAZILIAN$NATIONAL#PLAN( Shankland’s!report!highlights!the!Brazilian!tourism!industry!in!its!infancy.!! The!National!Tourism!Development!Plan!was!created!within!the!Brazilian!National! Plan!and!was!described!as!having!four!goals:!1)!To!balance!internal!trade;!2)!To! attract!foreign!currency;!3)!To!develop!areas!with!natural!potential!for!tourism!and! 4)!To!secure!the!social,!economic,!and!political!integration!of!the!country.!According! to! the! National! Tourism! Development! Plan,! tourism! was! considered! a! private! enterprise! activity! that! the! government! assisted! by! providing,! stimulating,! and! coordinating! its! development! within! the! norms! established! within! the! National! Tourism!Plan.!!With!the!Plan,!the!National!Council!for!Tourism!formulated!the!policy! for!tourism!development.!!The!executive!organ!of!the!National!Council!of!Tourism! ! 47! was!EMBRATUR,!established!in!1966.!!According!to!the!decree,!it!was!to!have!a! capital!of!50,000!NCr.!to!be!paid!over!5!years!t o!invest!in!the!tourism!development! projects.!!However,!according!to!Shankland,!only!2,000!NCr.!had!been!paid.!!Given!its! lack!of!revenue,!Shankland!thought!EMBRATUR!would!become!more!administrative! than!investment!based.!!Ultimately,!the!Plan!was!prepared!by!CEAB!(Professors! Simas!and!Reboucas)!for!FPACB,!under!the!direction!of!the!President,!Wladimir! Alves! De! Souza,! and! was! submitted! to! OAS! with! the! following! requested! loan! amounts:!1)!$2,000,000!for!infrastructure,!2)!$1,500,000!for!DPHAN,!3)!$2,450,000! for!Reconstruction!Stage!1!(196901971),!and!4)!$4,750,000!for!Reconstruction!Stage! 2! (1970073).! ! The! total! amount! petition! to! OAS! was! $10,700,000.! ! Shankland! documents!that!Foundation!was!also!seeking!financial!assistance!from!SUDENE,!the! World!Bank,!and!the!Gulbenkian!Foundation.! ! SUPERINTENDÊNCIA-DE-TURISMO(DE(SALVADOR((SUTURSA)( ( The!Mayor!of!Salvador,!Antonio!Carlos!Magalhães,!established!SUTURSA,! Salvador’s!municipal!government!body!in!charge!of!promotion!of!tourism,!in!1965.!! Shankland!documented!that!SUTURSA’s!funding!came!from!the!Municipal!budget,! with!a!small!proportion!derived!both!from!ticket!sales!and!rentals!on!property! inherited!from!the!Department!of!Culture,!and!from!DPHAN!property,!in!Salvador.!! In!1968,!the!budget!was!1!million!NCr.,!“from!which!50%!was!taken!up!by!salaries,! 25%!by!Administration,!Publicity,!and!Entertainment,!including!the!repayments!of! past!debts,!and!25%!by!the!organisation!of!festivals!and!other!cultural!activities”! ! 48! (33).!Shankland!described!SUTURSA!and!its!Superintendent!Flavio!Costas’s!support! of!allied!projects!including!the!Foundation!and!Carnival.!!Ultimately,!Shankland! described! the! SUTURSA! staff! as! full! of! “enthusiasm! and! charm”! yet! lacking! effectiveness!and!organization!!“with!the!offices!decorated!in!an!impromptu!fashion.!! There!is!only!one!telephone!for!the!staff!of!translators!and!guides,!few!of!whom! speak!a!language!other!than!Portuguese”!(33).!! !In!addition,!Shankland!was!critical!of!SUTURSA’s!priorities,!as!reflected!in! their! decision! to! focus! on! a! national! tourism! industry! before! focusing! on! the! international!tourism!market.!!SUTURSA!had!concentrated!on!the!development!of! national!tourism!in!order!to!establish!the!necessary!infrastructure!“in!the!belief!that! this!will!develop!international!tourism.”!However,!according!to!Shankland,!a!focus! on!national!tourism!! does!little!to!help!Brazil’s!balance!of!payments!and!capacity!to!obtain!foreign! credit.!!The!special!needs!of!international!tourism!need!to!receive!priority! study!in!conjunction!with!enterprises,!such!as!air!lines!and!international! tourist!agencies,!who!will!be!the!main!agents!for!the!expansion!of!this!trade.!! The!results!of!these!studies!can!then!be!related!to!a!comprehensive!tourist! development!programme,!embracing!Brazilian,!Latin!American,!North! American,!and!European!tourism.!(35)! ! ! FOUNDATION)OF)ARTISTIC#AND#CULTURAL#PATRIMONY&(FPACBA)( The!Governor!of!the!State,!Luis!Viana,!established!Foundation!in!1968,!“to! support,!restore,!conserve,!improve,!and!enhance!the!buildings!of!artistic!interest!in! the!historic!quarters!of!the!City!of!Salvador.”!!Foundation!was!to!be!the!center!of! development!for!tourist!and!cultural!activities.!!!Foundation!was!an!administrative! ! 49! organization!decentralized!from!the!Government,!but!under!the!direction!of!the! Ministry!of!Education!and!Culture.!Therefore,!its!actions!still!required!the!approval! of!DPHAN.!!Its!executive!commission!consisted!of!six!representatives:!!a!personal! representative! of! the! Governor,! two! others! appointed! by! him,! and! one! representative!each!of!the!Municipality,!DPHAN,!and!EMBRATUR.!!The!Municipal! representative!was!the!Superintendent!of!Tourism,!Flavio!Costa.!!The!President!of! this!Foundation!was!Professor!Wladimir!Alves!de!Souza,!also!the!Architect!and! Director!of!EMBRATUR.!The!Secretary,!with!powers!to!act!for!the!President!and! Vice0President,!was!Professor!Vivaldo!de!Costa!Lima,!a!native!Bahian!resident!and! professor!of!Social!Anthropology!in!the!Faculty!of!Afro0Asian!Studies!at!the!Federal! University!of!Bahia.! The!Foundation's!financial!procedures!were!controlled!through!the!Secretary! of!Education.!!Its!banker!was!the!Bahia!State!Bank,!which!according!to!Shankland,! was! “open! to! national! or! foreign! financial! assistance”.! ! The! Foundation! could! purchase!property!and!rent!it,!hold!it!for!profit!and!investment,!or!grant!free!use!of! it—the! Foundation! could! also! loan! money! to! assist! private! users,! and! resell! property—subject! to! the! Governor’s! approval.! ! In! 1968,! the! State’s! taxes! from! Petrobras’s! activities! generated!the! Foundation's! income.! ! It! was! expected! that! NCr200,000!($58,800)!would!be!provided!in!1968.!!Shankland’s!report!stated!that! the!Foundation’s!aims!were!to!be!financially!self0sufficient!by!using!the!profit!from! investments! in! the! improvement! of! the! historic! quarters.! ! However,! Shankland! further!recognized!that!it!would!take!many!years!for!Foundation!to!become!self0 ! 50! sufficient,!and!noted!that!in!1968,!both!the!Municipality!and!its!Tourist!Organization! had! given! Foundation! financial! support.! ! Foundation! could! sponsor! the! development! of! art! schools,! book! shops,! conference! rooms,! accommodation! for! artists! and! students,! bars! and! restaurants,! hotels,! tourist! information! centers,! markets,!shops,!and!boutiques!for!arts!and!crafts,!cinemas,!and!museums!for!the! traditions!and!arts!of!Bahia.!!! Shankland!briefly!identified!rehousing!and!prostitution!as!the!“two!major! social!problems”!Foundation!would!encounter!with!the!Pelourinho0Maciel!urban! historical! redevelopment! project! (21).! ! ! Shankland! noted! that! his! Brazilian! colleagues! had! only! reached! “general! conclusions”! about! these! social! issues.! Shankland!recommended:!! ! The!removal!of!population!should!be!kept!at!the!minimum!possible!level,!but! as!many!of!the!present!inhabitants!would!be!unable!to!afford!the!rent!of! improved!property,!and!a!reduction!in!overcrowding!is!necessary,!a!system! of!compensation,!and!if!possible,!rehousing,!would!need!to!be!arranged.!! Direct!police!action!against!the!prostitutes!is!totally!unacceptable,!and! therefore!efforts!to!diminish!its!extent!through!improved!health,!social,! economic,!and!housing!standards,!will!be!necessary.!(21)!! ! Shankland! recognized! Pelourinho0Maciel’s! original! residents! would! be! unable!to!afford!the!increased!rent!of!the!restored!colonial!mansions!and!that!there! was!a!need!to!reduce!overcrowding.!!As!a!solution,!he!suggested!the!poor!should!be! offered!some!kind!of!compensation!and!“if!possible,!rehousing!would!need!to!be! arranged”!(21).! ! ! 51! UNESCO%IMAGES!OF#PELOURINHO7MACIEL( Equally! important! as! Shankland’s! report! are! the! images! from! the! 1969! UNESCO! report! determining! Pelourinho0Maciel! a! site! worthy! of! the! UNESCO! decree. 11 !!Individually!and!collectively,!the!images!work!to!construct!visual!proof! supporting!Shankland’s!narrative!claims!including!the!potential!for!international! tourism!development.!The!images!thus!provide!evidence!for!the!potential!touristic! pleasure!by!offering!the!viewer!images!visually!structured!to!take!on!a!qualitative! scrutiny!akin!to!John!Urry’s!“tourist!gaze”!(2002).!The!UNESCO!experts!and!city!and! state! technocrats! visiting! the! site! essentially! become! Pelourinho0Maciel’s! first! tourists! and! direct! their! gaze! “to! features! of! landscape! and! townscape! which! separate!them!off!from!everyday!experience”!(6).!! The!forming!of!realist!modes!of!depiction!as!produced!through!the!images! included!in!the!1968!UNESCO!report!helped!to!create!a!hierarchy!of!credibility!and! fact!setting!particular!to!the!process!of!making!Pelourinho0Maciel!legible!to!city,! state!and!foreign!UNESCO!managers.!!As!Allen!Feldman!(1997)!argues,!realist!modes! of!depiction!have!a!long!history!that!can!be!documented!in!multiple!and!overlapping! social!sites.!!!!Just!as!realist!discourse!can!be!found!in!the!process!of!state!archiving,! juridical!rules!of!evidence!and!popular!media,!we!can!also!recognize!the!function!of! realist!discourse!produced!through!the!photographs!included!in!the!UNESCO!report.!!! ! ! 52! ! ! Figure!1:!“The!Ambassador!Peña!Marinho,!with!the!Foundation!Directors,!went!through!the! entire!area!declared!Pelourinho.”!(Foundation!1969,!76)! ! 53! ! ! Figure!2:!“!A!prostituição!é!um!dos!grandes!problemas!sociais!do!Pelourinho.“!Translation:! “Prostitution!is!one!of!Pelourinho’s!primary!social!problems.”!(Foundation!1969,!75)! ! ! 54! The!third!image!(Figure!3)!shows!two!holy!daughters!dressed!in!traditional! white! and! practicing! the! Afro0Brazilian! religious! faith! candomblé% by! collecting! donations!for!their!patron!saint.%Afro0Brazilian!religiosity!is!included!within!the! report! to! signal! for! UNESCO! development! planners! a! unique! cultural! aspect! of! Pelourinho0Maciel!potential!international!tourists!would!be!able!to!witness!and! experience.!Image!4!shows!a!barefoot!man!in!loosely!draped!white!pants!selling! large!woven!baskets!and!also!enters!the!UNESCO!report!to!demonstrate!the!types!of! folkloric!artisan!wares!tourists!would!be!able!to!buy!as!souvenirs.!!! ! ! ! 55! ! ! Figure!3:!“Duas!filhasM deM santo!recolhem!donativos!para!a!‘missaM pedida’!do!Senhor!São! Roque.!O!calçamento!de!pedrasM moleque!é!típico!da!area!do!PelourinhoM Maciel.”!Translation:! “Two!holy!daughters!collect!donations!for!giving!the!blessing!of!Saint!Roch.!The!cobble!stone! pavement!is!common!of!Pelourinho!streets.”!(Foundation!1969,!74)! ! ! 56! ! ! ! Figure!4:!“Man!selling!baskets:!one!of!the!many!distinctive!characters!of!Pelourinho.”! (Foundation!1969,!77)! ! 57! ! ! Figure!5:!“O!Pelourinho!visto!de!‘O!Tempo,’!pequena!loja!de!artigos!típicos!e,!ainda,! botequim.de!aperitivos!variados.”!Translation:!“Pelourinho!seen!from!‘O!Tempo,’!a!small!shop! and!minimart!that!sells!traditional!items!as!well!as!drinks!and!snacks.”!(Foundation!1969,!66)! ! 58! ! ! ! Figure!6:!“Largo!do!Pelourinho,!where!restoration!of!the!historic!quarters!of!Salvador!will! begin.”!(FPACBa.1969,!65)! ! ! 59! ! ! ! Figure!7:!Typical!mansions!on!Pelourinho!Plaza.!(Foundation!1969,!67)" The!image!of!the!UNESCO!group!surveying!Pelourinho!also!provides!visual! proof!of!the!key!transcendental!moments!of!Pelourinho!becoming!a!World!Heritage! Site.! ! Above! all,! the! practical! evaluative! procedures! involved! with! surveying! Pelourinho0Maciel!allowed!for!the!place!to!be!conceptually!changed!from!“common”! and! “everyday”! to! ideal! (Di! Giovine! 2009:! 207).! ! As! Di! Giovine! states,! the! “evaluation”!phase!of!a!potential!UNESCO!World!Heritage!Site!is!part!of!the!process! ! 60! of!“idealization”!where!the!site!is!isolated!and!stripped!of!its!functional!locality!in! order!to!become!an!“ideal!type”!of!monument.!!An!“ideal”!UNESCO!monument!is!a! monument!“that!espouses!UNESCO’s!narrative!claim!of!unity!in!diversity!and!exists! in! heritage! time! and! within! the! heritage0scape”! (Di! Giovine,! 207).! ! In! essence,! Pelourinho0Maciel!became!universally!tangible!through!its!aesthetic!and!conceptual! ability!to!take!on!the!UNESCO!claim!of!diversity.!!!! ( CHANGES(IN(UNITED(NATIONS&DEVELOPMENT&PROGRAMME'(UNDP)' FUNDING( On! January! 15020,! 1968,! experts! from! the! United! Nations! and! non0 governmental! organizations,! including! the! International! Council! of! Museums! (ICOM),! the! International! Council! on! Monuments! and! Sites! (ICOMOS),! and! the! International!Union!of!Official!Travel!Organizations!(IUOTO),!gathered!at!a!meeting! on!measures!needed!to!encourage!cultural!tourism.!!The!resulting!1968!UNESCO! Report!by!the!Director0General!clearly!stated!the!relationship!between!UNDP!and! UNESCO!with!regards!to!cultural!tourism.!UNESCO!and!UNDP!experts!agreed!that! the! development! and! financing! of! projects! for! conservation! were! especially! important!since,!if!no!action!were!taken,!“the!cultural!heritage!of!mankind!was! doomed!to!disappear”.!They!were!also!in!agreement!that!historic!monuments,!sites,! and!cultural!institutions!would!be!positive!for!tourism.!!Tourism,!the!experts!agreed,! “was!an!essential!factor!in!a!country’s!economic!and!social!development!and!an! important! element! to! ensuring! a! favourable! balance! of! payments”.! It! was! also! ! 61! agreed!“many!countries’!programmes!for!conservation!can!now!be!financed!as!one! of!the!means!of!investing!in!economic!development”!(UNESCO!1968).!!! The!same!UNESCO!Report!(1968)!also!discussed!provisions!for!how!technical! assistance!and!UNDP!financial!aid!would!be!distributed.!!Suggestions!for!how!a! UNDP!funded!program!should!proceed!were!to!be!forwarded!to!Member!States!by! the!Secretariat,!whose!main!concern!was!to!assist!them!in!arranging!their!requests! within!the!financial!framework!assigned!by!the!Governing!Council!of!UNDP.!!In!the! 1968!report,!existing!and!continuing!UNDP!regional!projects!under!the!Technical! Assistance!category!were!to!be!reviewed!and!submitted!to!the!6 th !session!of!the! Governing!Council!for!approval!in!June!1968.!!In!1968,!the!UNDP!Governing!Council! approved!a!total!of!thirty!UNESCO!projects!having!a!cumulative!value!of!$959,550.!!! In!addition,!the!sixth!session!of!the!Governing!Council!made!radical!changes! in!the!procedures!to!be!adopted!for!future!regional!programming.!!They!resolved!to! abolish,!as!of!1970,!the!system!whereby!financial!targets!were!assigned!to!different! agencies!in!order!to!plan!regional!programs.!Post01970!funds!would!rest!in!the! hands!of!the!UNDP!Administrator!for!allocation!on!a!projectLbyLproject%basis.!In!so! doing,!the!Council!reversed!a!former!decision!by!deciding!to!retain!as!its!prerogative! to!approve!only!those!projects!having!an!accumulative!value!greater!than!$200,000.!! As!a!result!of!this!change,!the!Secretariat!“is!under!the!obligation!to!review!both!new! and!continuing!projects!affecting!regional!or!inter0regional!groupings!of!countries”! (UNDP!1968).!!! ! 62! By! 1971,! the! dramatic! changes! UNDP! had! undergone! with! regard! to! financing!UNESCO!projects!were!shaping!Salvador!da!Bahia’s!strategies!for!tourism! and!financing!of!the!Pelourinho0Maciel!restoration!project.!!Specifically,!Brazil’s!$30! billion!foreign!debt!correlated!with!severe!financial!cuts!in!the!proposals!submitted! by!the!city!regarding!Pelourinho0Maciel!restoration!project.!!In!a!letter!dated!April!2,! 1971,! UNDP! Brazilian! representative! Eduardo! Albertal! submitted! a! “Cultural! Tourism!Development”!request!on!behalf!of!Bahia!state!governor!Antonio!Carlos! Magalhães!to!UNDP!Assistant!Administrator!and!Director!Myer!Cohen.!!In!the!letter,! Albertal!clearly!states!his!reservations!with!Governor!Magalhães!funding!request:!“I! have!some!doubts!about!the!priority!that!this!project!should!be!given!by!UNDP!as! well!as!on!the!advisability!of!earmarking!UNDP!resources!for!this!purpose!in!view!of! the!small!balance!remaining!in!the!country!programme!for!Brazil”!(Albertal!1971).! By!June!13,!1971,!UNDP!delivered!a!preliminary!appraisal!of!Brazil’s!Cultural! Tourism!Development!Plan!request.!!In!a!cover!letter!submitted!with!the!appraisal,! Manuel! Jimenez,! UNESCO’s! Director! of! Relations! with! Member! Cities! and! International!Organizations!and!Programmes,!addresses!Carlos!Vegega,!Regional! Bureau!of!Latin!America!Officer0in0Charge,!detailing!his!concerns!as!to!whether!a! renovation! of! the! Pelourinho0Maciel! colonial! center! would! be! a! successful! development!venture!for!the!UNDP!to!support.!!Jimenez’!main!concern!was!whether! the!request!for!an!expert!in!the!“Administration!of!Programmes!and!Renovation!of! Historical!Buildings”!should!be!granted:!“As!for!the!programme!envisaged!for!the! Pelourinho0Maciel,! we! have! serious! doubts! on! whether! the! DPHAN! has! the! ! 63! necessary!resources!available!to!undertake!a!programme!of!renovation!of!the!size! and!scope!envisaged!in!the!request.!In!this!regard,!we!have!noted!that!the!budget!of! the!Director!has!been!reduced!from!$1!million!to!approximately!$500,000”!(Jimenez! 1971a).! July!9,!1971,!Manuel!Jimenez!wrote!another!internal!UNDP!letter!to!Carlos! Vegega!stating!renovation!of!Pelourinho0Maciel!posed!! a!multitude!of!problems,!the!more!complex!among!them!being!less!technical! than!social,!economic,!and!human.!!Specifically,!the!eviction!of!a!certain! category!of!inhabitants!has!begun.!!The!government!of!Bahia!is!extremely! desirous!of!seeing!the!operation!completed.!!It!is!giving!all!its!support!to!it! and!with!the!royalties!on!the!oil!exploitations,!it!is!financing!the!Foundation! of!Bahia,!the!entity!responsible!for!the!project.!!It!also!wants!to!arouse!the! interest!of!private!individuals.!!All!of!these!activities!are!delicate!and!could! have!regrettable!effects!if!they!were!poorly!managed!(speculation,!departure! of!small!artisans!and!businesses!of!African!origin!whose!presence!makes!the! charm!of!the!neighborhood)…Their!renovation!implies!social!consequences! through!the!setting!of!active!populations!and!the!eviction!of!undesirable! social!strata!(prostitution)!as!well!as!through!the!maintaining!and! encouragement!of!crafts,!folklore,!and!traditions!which!are!usually!African.! (Jimenez!1971b)! ! The!language!used!by!UNDP!officials!to!describe!Pelourinho0Maciel!tourism! development! reflected! the! theories! of! modernization! largely! embraced! by! the! United!States!and!other!Northern!industrialized!nation0states.!Walt!Rostow’s!theory! of!capitalism—as!linear!stages!through!which!a!country!gradually!passes!through— provided!both!excellent!legitimacy!to!the!Northern!industrialist!countries!as!already! successful!and!a!way!to!limit!foreign!aid!given!the!higher!risk!factor!of!a!lesser! developed!country!with!their!balance!of!United!Nations!(UN)!payments.!!!Even! supportive!UNESCO!reports!were!laced!with!a!more!cautionary!overtone!when! ! 64! describing!the!local!organizations!capacity!to!manage!such!a!highly!financed!project.!!! The!selectivity!in!providing!aid!only!to!countries!that!possessed!the!preconditions!to! use! it! well! and! technical! assistance! only! to! those! countries! identified! as! less! advanced!is!an!apt!description!of!how!UNESCO!technical!assistance!was!offered!with! no!UNDP!deployment!of!aid!for!the!Pelourinho0Maciel!development!project.!The! skeptical! tone! in! Jimenez’! letter,! including! the! multiple! problems! of! restoring! Pelourinho0Maciel,!and!“regrettable!effects!if![development!activities]!were!poorly! managed,”!reflects!his!doubts!as!to!whether!the!state!of!Bahia!could!successfully! implement!UNDP!financial!assistance.!!! ! CONCLUSION( Bahia!state!officials!and!Salvador!da!Bahia!city!managers!were!repeatedly! frustrated!in!their!attempts!to!receive!international!financing!for!the!restoration! and!development!of!Pelourinho0Maciel!during!the!1960s!and!1970s.!!In!part,!as!the! UNESCO/UNDP!internal!correspondence!indicated,!UNDP/UNESCO!managers!were! cautious! about! financing! Pelourinho0Maciel! restoration! because! of! Brazil’s! large! national!deficit.!!In!addition,!UNDP!had!made!applying!for!funding!more!arduous!for! developing!countries!by!shifting!funding!to!a!project0by0project!basis!instead!of! providing! funding! to! multiple! national! financial! agencies! whose! goals! were! to! develop! regional! development! programs.! ! This! shift! to! a! project0by0project! application!provided!UNDP!further!control!since!funded!projects!could!be!reviewed! and!specific!items!slashed/reassessed!line0by0line.!This!strategy!for!UNDP/UNESCO! ! 65! international! financial! support! for! developing! countries! reflected! an! economic! development!ideological!framework!largely!developed!by!Walt!Rostow!that!defined! stages!of!capitalist!economic!growth!to!determine!a!country’s!‘maturity’.!!!Thus,!a! developing!country!that!was!identified!as!less!advanced!would!therefore!also!be! seen! as! a! greater! risk! in! repaying! multinational! assistance.! ! Since! Western! overdeveloped!countries!were!the!guarantors!for!developing!country!projects,!it! was!to!their!benefit!to!embrace!Rostow’s!logic!as!it!allowed!them!a!paternalistic! position!from!which!to!view!developing!countries’!applications.!!UNDP’s!concern! with!Brazil’s!enormous!national!debt!is!indicative!of!this!attitude.!! Brazil’s!massive!national!deficit!was!partly!caused!by!the!effects!of!Brazil’s! industrialization!boom!of!the!1960s.!!Brazilian!economists!were!deeply!influenced! by!Latin!American!economists!whose!work!at!the!ECLA!identified!their!relationship! to!the!industrialized!North!as!dependent,!a!result!of!developing!countries!being! primarily! exporters! and! not! industrialized.! Brazilian! economists! were! hopeful! industrialization! would! provide! employment! for! the! poor! that! would! then! contribute! to! self0sustaining! financial! growth.! ! Yet,! rather! than! self0sustaining! financial!growth,!industrialization!caused!a!worsening!of!living!standards!and!wages! for! the! poor! majority.! ! ! An! imbalance! of! trade,! due! both! to! Brazil’s! continued! dependence!on!foreign!machinery,!equipment,!and!fuel!(which!increased!as!Brazil’s! manufacturing!grew),!and!to!a!rise!in!oil!prices,!aggravated!Brazil’s!already!tenuous! economic!state!and!increased!the!costs!of!servicing!internalized!foreign!capital.!!!As! already!noted,!even!though!Brazil’s!exports!tripled!through!the!sixties,!by!the!end!of! ! 66! 1972,!foreign!loans!increased!over!1,300%.!Industrialization!in!the!state!of!Bahia! (Brazil’s!poorest!state)!also!produced!conditions!of!extreme!poverty!for!the!masses,! and!created!a!massive!flight!to!cities!of!rural!migrants!seeking!employment.!!As! already!noted,!80,000!jobs!were!creat ed!from!the!new!industries!set!up!in!Aratú!and! Camaçari!(Herold!2004).!Yet!these!jobs!were!grossly!insufficient!for!the!tens!of! thousands!of!rural!migrants!who!arrived!hoping!to!obtain!employment.!! While!there!were!national!efforts!to!promote!tourism!throughout!the!1960s,! the!failures!of!industrialization!during!the!1970s!must!be!considered!as!particularly! detrimental!to!the!development!of!a!Bahia!regional!tourism!plan!and!the!strategies! for! Pelourinho0Maciel! restoration.! ! The! multiple! visits! of! UNESCO! restoration! specialists!throughout!the!late!1960s!and!1970s!gave!state!and!city!leaders!hope! that! international! financing! would! materialize.! ! City! and! state! managers! were! especially!keen!to!implement!UNESCO!recommendations,!since!only!in!following! their!recommendations!could!the!city!be!eligible!for!UNDP!funding.!!According!to! the!press,!Salvador!da!Bahia!government!officials!commonly!understood!that!UNDP! financial!backing!would!result!if!UNESCO!representatives!provided!positive!reports! of!their!referent!progress.!!Accordingly,!the!press!reported!the!city!government! officials’!disappointment!when!projected!aid!failed!to!materialize.!However,,!the! ways!UNESCO!reports!were!used!by!UNDP!were!extremely!limited!in!scope.!!Since! UNESCO!technicians!were!to!provide!“technical!assistance”!to!developing!countries! potential!World!Heritage!Sites,!their!reports!were!used!only!as!recommendations!to! UNDP!about!the!country’s!projects!and!potential!economic!development.!!This!was! ! 67! made!explicitly!clear!when,!in!the!Sixth!UNDP!Governing!Council!Session!(1968)! UNDP!changed!how!they!would!authorize!aid!for!any!project!introduced!in!1970! and! thereafter.! The! old! system! shared! Programme! funds! available! for! regional! projects!on!a!proportionate!basis!among!the!UNDP!agencies.!!In!its!place,!the!UNDP! Administrator!took!responsibility!to!allocate!funds!on!a!project0by0project!basis! based!by!region!for!any!project!in!excess!of!US!$200,000!!(UNDP!1968:!29).!!While! the! Bahian! press! is! not! specific! as! to! why! the! projected! UNDP! aid! failed! to! materialize,!we!can!discern!that!this!shift!in!UNDP!funding!strategies!could!have! played!an!integral!role!in!why!the!projected!UNDP!aid!failing!to!materialize,!thereby! forcing!Bahia!state!and!Salvador!da!Bahia!to!seek!alternative!private!financing!for! the!restorations!of!Pelourinho0Maciel.! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 !On!Almeida’s!contributions!towards!building!a!Bahia!regional!planning!see!Mello!e!Silva!2001b.!For! a!compelling!reflection!on!the!economic!history!of!Bahia!from!the!19 th !century!and!why!Bahia! gradually!became!economically!depressed!over!the!next!150!years!(and!its!corresponding!negative! image!nationally!referred!to!as!“o%enigma%beano”)!see!Almeida!(1949)!2009. ! ! 2 !The!center!and!periphery!model!originally!coined!by!ECLA!became!especially!useful!in!the!1960s! for!theories!of!dependency,!peripheral!capitalism,!and!unequal!exchange!(Cardoso!1979;!Escobar! 1995;!Coatsworth!2005 ).! ! 3 !Almeida’s!paper!“Planejamento!Regional”!was!first!presented!at!the!VIII!Inter0American!Planning! Conference!(VIII%Congresso%Interamericano%de%Planificación),!Salvador0Bahia!18/09/1970. ! ! 4 !SUDENE!was!created!by!Law!n°!3.692,!December!15,!1959!(Secretaria!da!Indústria,!Comércio!e! Mineração!da!Bahia!1997,!45).! ! 5 !PLANDEB!had!previously!recommended!the!following!actions:!creation!of!an!education!program!for! tourism,!implementation!of!new!hotels,!restaurants,!etc.,!direct!assistance!to!the!preservation!and! valorization!of!patrimony!for!tourism!purposes,!better!freeway!access!(including!communication!and! transportation!infrastructure),!development!of!specific!strategies!to!promote!culture,!better!! general!conditions!for!social!life!and!the!implementation!of!a!program!specific!for!modest!hotels!for! the!interior!of!the!State!(L.!Queiroz!2002;!Solha!2004). ! ! ! 68! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 6 !Conservative!elite,!Antônio!Carlos!Magalhães,!was!handpicked!by!the!military's!own!political!party,! the!National!Renovating!Alliance!(ARENA)!and!enjoyed!a!range!of!government!positions!throughout! the!bureaucratic!regime.!!As!Alfred!Montero!(2009)!states,!“ Conservative!elites!remained!strongest!in! the!North!and!Northeast!and!the!regime!fortified!them!by!pouring!resources!into!these!regions!in!the! form!of!development!project!money!and!fiscal!transfers”!(10).! Thus,!tourism!development!initiated! by!Magalhães!throughout!this!time!was!a!project!directly!supported!and!subsidized!by!the!regime.!! ! 7 !UNESCO!Principal!Inspector!Michel!Parent!visited!various!historical!cities!during!his!mission!lasting! from!November!1966!to!January!1967!and!then!a!second!visit!from!April!to!June!1967.!Belgian!urban! specialist! Frederic! Limburg0Stirum! visited! in! January! of! 1968.! ! English! urban! planner! Graeme! Shankland!visited!August!to!October!1968!and!then!again!from!February!to!March!1969.!Portuguese! urban!planner!Alfredo!E.!Viana!de!Lima!visited!August!to!December!1968!and!again!from!April!to! June!1970.!! ! 8 !Largo%do%PelourinhoLMaciel%is!the!main!square!in!the!historical!city!center!and!originally!named!for! its!whipping!post.! ! 9 !Tourism!development!centered!on!celebrating!Afro0Brazilian!cultural!practices!including!maculelê,% capoeira,%and!candomblé—I!focus!on!tourism!and!the!promotion!of!an!Afro0Brazilian!past!as!part!of! chapter!four.! ! 10 !What!was!also!mentioned!in!this!same!article!yet!not!mentioned!in!any!official!reports!was!that!the! city,!“must!execute!the!restoration!plan!first!by!doing!a!‘social!cleansing’!of!the!area,!transferring!the! families!that!lived!in!the!brothels!to!another!area!and!eradicating!the!prostitution!that!had!been! established!in!the!area”!(Jornal%da%Bahia,!June!21,!1969).!As!will!be!discussed!further!in!Chapter!Two,! this!indicates!early!on,!how!the!newspaper!press!largely!wanted!Maciel!residents!evicted!as!part!of!a! social!cleansing.!! ! 11 !!The!lengthy!process!of!a!place!becoming!an!UNESCO!World!Heritage!Site!is!predicated!on!its! “outstanding!universal!value”!and!is!centered!on!a!nation0state’s!willingness!to!celebrate!“unity!in! diversity”!as!outlined!in!the!UNESCO!Criteria!for!Inscription.!!In!addition,!a!potential!World!Heritage! Site!must!solicit!help!from!the!World!Heritage!Centre!in!Paris.!!Michael!A.!Di!Giovane!(2009)!argues,! this!second!procedure!is!important!as!it!“force(s)!the!nation0state!to!shed!prior!notions!of!use0value! or!social0environmental!factors”!and!becomes!isolated!in!name!and!in!practice!as!an!UNESCO!World! Heritage!Site!(205).!!While!this!is!an!important!symbolic!step!for!a!site!to!be!assessed!in!terms!of!its! “universal!value,”!to!argue!a!nation0state’s!use0value!or!social0environmental!factors!can!be!shed!is!to! ignore!the!material!conditions!and!consequences!this!process!creates.!!In!addition,!it!is!only!through! the!analysis!of!these!factors!that!a!site!is!evaluated!for!its!development%potential!as!a!successful! international!tourist!site.!!Thus,!rather!than!the!“shedding”!of!these!values,!we!can!understand!the! process!of!becoming!an!UNESCO!World!Heritage!Site!as!only!transforming!these!very!same!nation0 state!factors!into!a!more!globally!tangible!narrative.! 69# CHAPTER(THREE! A"“FESTERING*ULCER”*IN!THE$HEART$OF$BAHIA:! PROSTITUTION,*TRANSVESTITE%THIEVERY%AND%THE$POLITICS$ OF#THE#NEWSPAPER#PRESS,#1968"1978! ! During! the! 1970s,! the! highly! censored! local! Salvador! da! Bahia! press! dramatically!increased!its!coverage!of!Pelourinho!colonial!city!center!as!an!area!of! prostitution!and!crime.!Maciel,!a!small!neighborhood!of!eight!streets!within!the! Pelourinho! district! was! the! specific! target! of! these! articles. 1 ! Over! the! previous! decades,!Maciel!had!developed!the!reputation!of!being!rife!with!thievery,!drug! trafficking!and!prostitution.!!Given!Maciel’s!history,!why!the!press!chose!to!increase! negative!attention!on!Maciel!residents!Maciel’s!criminality!and!moral!ruin!requires! some!explanation.!As!we!have!already!seen!in!Chapter!Two,!since!the!city!wanted!to! become!a!United!Nations!Education,!Scientific!and!Cultural!Organization!(UNESCO)! World!Heritage!Site,!certain!UNESCO!protocols!had!to!be!implemented,!includ ing! ensuring!the!original!residents!remain!and!benefit!from!tourism!development!in!the! area.!!!!One!strategy!the!local!press!used!to!paint!the!UNESCO!recommendations!as! illogical!was!to!use!the!rhetoric!of!criminality!to!describe!a!largely!Black!working! poor! population.! ! By! ridiculing! UNESCO! recommendations,! the! press,! and! the! authoritarian!regime!censoring!it,!was!able!to!encourage!a!rational!market!approach! to!development,!emphasizing!the!maximization!of!capital!profit!by!relocating!longS time! poor! Black! residents! to! neighborhoods! on! the! outskirts! of! the! city! and! 70# transforming!their!residential!spaces!into!cafes,!tourist!shops,!museums,!hotels,!and! restaurants.!!! When! UNDP! financing! for! Pelourinho! redevelopment! projects! failed! to! materialize,!city!and!state!managers!became!frustrated.!They!had!faithfully!followed! recommendations! that! had! been! required! to! receive! official! UNESCO! support.!Without!UNDP!financing!it!became!more!difficult!for!Foundation!planners! to!advocate!and!implement!the!recommendations!advocated!by!UNESCO.!!As!a! result,!the!government!elite!shifted!to!private!capital!investment!in!the!Pelourinho! restoration!projects.!Once!a!neighborhood!shared!by!prostitutes,!small!business,! and!workingSclass!residents,!Maciel,!in!the!eyes!of!the!press,!became!an!area!where! only!prostitutes!and!transvestites!resided.!Criminality,!disease,!and!moral!ruin,!it! was!said,!came!with!them.!!!In!the!process,!both!Black!women!and!transvestites! could!not!be!imagined!as!fully!embodied!human!beings,!but!rather!became!reduced! to!a!dismembered!body:!“a!dangerous!sexual!organ!prone!to!deviance!and!disease”! (Alexander!2005,!43).!!The!media!thus!operated!as!a!crucial!locus!of!support!for! increasing!police!control!of!female!and!transvestite!sexuality!by!rendering!their! bodies!and!actions!hypervisible!and!criminal.!! From!a!localized!level,!the!newspaper!press!advocating!private!enterprise!for! PelourinhoSMaciel!development!provided!legitimacy!to!the!regime’s!investment!in! spurring! private! growth! and! investment! (including! foreign! investment).! This! chapter!addresses!how!the!newspaper!press!not!only!demonized!and!criminalized! poor!people,!but!also!how!the!press!worked!against!relatively!more!secure!social! 71# actors!and!advocates!including!local!social!scientists,!Foundation!city!planners!and! foreign!UNESCO! urban!specialists.!Each!subheading!follows!its!own!chronological! timeline!in!an!effort!to!produce!a!coherent!narrative!while!also!attending!to!the! complexities!and!details!of!each!subject.!!In!the!first!part!of!the!chapter!I!address! how!the!authoritarian!regime!influenced!what!the!newspaper!press!could!and!could! not!write.!!!In!the!second!part!of!the!chapter!I!explore!three!categories!of!persons! the!newspaper!press!used!to!demonize!Maciel!residents,!justify!them!as!unworthy!of! social!services!and!advocate!for!their!removal!once!the!process!of!restoration!was! complete.!!The!common!categories!used!to!describe!sexual!deviance!and!criminality! were! the! prostitute,! the! child! as! the! future! prostitute! and! criminal,! and! the! transvestite!thief.!!In!the!third!part!of!the!chapter!I!examine!the!Maciel!community! organizations! that! were! contesting! police! violence! and! the! threat! of! possible! evictions.!! I! also! discuss! how! the! history! of! the! press! advocating! for! private! enterprise!set!up!their!quick!dismissal!of!UNESCO!recommendations!that!the!local! residents!remain!and!benefit!from!tourism!development.! REGIME&CENSORSHIP&OF!THE$NEWSPAPER$PRESS! Under! the! 1964S1985! military! regime,! the! dictatorship! imposed! a! long! censorship!on!the!Brazilian!press!that!took!on!various!forms,!all!illegal,!hidden,!and! denied.!!Yet!censorship!of!the!press!did!not!follow!an!explicitly!violent,!intimidating! form!of!repression.!Instead,!the!most!common!method!used!by!the!military!regime! was!through!highly!routinized!and!regularized!practices!in!which!the!vast!majority! 72# of!the!press!was!subjected!daily!to!news!prohibitions!issued!secretly!by!the!Federal! Police;!a!practice!AnneSMarie!Smith!(1997)!states!was!euphemistically!known!as! “selfScensorship”!(5).!!As!Smith!notes,!the!regime’s!desire!for!political!legitimacy,!in! addition!to!social!control,!encouraged!them!to!go!to!great!lengths!to!maintain!and! protect! traditional! institutions! and! legal! forms! so! that! they! could! then! be! manipulated!for!the!regime’s!purposes.!!For!example,!rather!than!closing!Congress,! the! regime! instead! passed! Institutional! Acts! that! violated! the! Constitution! and! sought! various! ways! to! manipulate! elections! but! still! continued! to! hold! them.!! Similarly,!the!regime!claimed!freedom!of!the!press!was!constitutionally!protected! and! denied! the! existence! of! censorship! all! the! while! maintaining! daily! news! prohibitions.!!! The!language!and!procedures!of!the!restrictions!copied!proper!legal!forms! when!possible!in!order!to!appear!banal!and!routine.!!While!the!forms!of!censorship! the!regime!enforced!did!not!necessarily!produce!the!legitimacy!it!sought!from!the! press,!the!highly!routinized!and!ordinary!appearance!of!censorship!allowed!the! regime!to!secure!a!press!reaction!that!was!functional!for!its!purposes:!“everyday! forms!of!quiescence”!(6):!! Indeed,!the!censorship's!banality!was!the!primary!aspect!experienced!by!the! press.!!Censorship!was!perceived!as!a!mundane!and!allSencompassing!system! that!seemed!to!operate!automatically,!impersonally,!and!comprehensively.!!It! was!against!this!anonymous,!routinized,!allSencompassing!systemSS and!not! against!the!raw!coercive!power!of!the!regime!that!the!press!felt!powerless! (Smith!1997:6).!!! 73# THE$FUNCTION$OF$NEWS! In!the!process!of!narrating!“news!events,”!the!newspaper!press!played!a! significant! role! in! determining! the! course! and! outcome! of! PelourinhoSMaciel! residents’!ability!to!remain.!!!As!Stuart!Hall!(1981a)!argues:!“The!news!is!not!only!a! cultural!product:!it!is!the!product!of!a!set!of!institutional!definitions!and!meanings,! which,!in!the!professional!shorthand,!is!commonly!referred!to!as!news%values%(149).! For! example,! while! the! role! of! the! news! journalist! is! to! negotiate! the! different! spheres!between!public!and!private,!news!production!often!becomes!a!selfSfulfilling! activity!as!news!categories!then!create!a!need!for!the!media!to!continue!filling!the! categories!made.!Once!the!category!of!“law!and!order”!became!a!legitimate!news! category,!a!cluster!of!terms!became!associated!with!understanding!these!criminal! categories.!!Therefore,!the!type!of!news!the!Salvador!da!Bahia!newspaper!press!was! narrating!about!Maciel!crime!does!not!necessarily!represent!actual!crime!activity!or! movement!but!rather!the!“changing!definition!of!what!constituted!crime,!how!it!was! recognized,!labeled!and!dealt!with”!(Hall!1981a:!149).!In!producing!a!“legitimate”! news!category,!the!press!established!a!particular!way!of!seeing!and!understanding!a! complex!set!of!public!events!within!PelourinhoSMaciel.!!! News!photographs!also!must!be!understood!as!playing!a!particular!role!in! the!production!of!news!events.!!Understanding!the!role!of!photography!in!the!press! means!to!retrace!the!wider!range!of!techniques!and!procedures!that!were!being! articulated! in! order! to! extract! and! evaluate! the! type! of! “truth”! that! was! being! circulated!discursively.!.Surveillance!by!the!military!police!was!a!key!component!of! 74# this!radical!restructuring!of!the!urban!neighborhood!and!newspaper!photos!of!the! accused!transvestite!thief!(suadouro)%acted!as!a!kind!of!“natural”!proof.!The!poor! became!the!purported!criminals,!prostitutes!and!“fairies”!through!the!replicated! images!produced!in!the!press!and!provided!the!accumulated!burden!of!evidence! that!underscored!the!need!for!aggressive!state!intervention.!!Rather!than!think!of! photographs!as!“evidence”!of!history!I!take!up!the!task!of!exposing!the!historical! work!photography!produces!and!of!finding!what!their!purpose!was.!!Or,!as!John! Tagg!(1993)!writes:!of!finding!“what!they!do!and!do!not!do,!what!they!encompass! and!exclude!and!the!ways!they!open!on!to!or!resist!a!repertoire!of!uses!in!which! they!can!be!meaningful!and!productive”!(65).! Figure 8: Maciel Neighborhood. The shaded area represents Maciel in the larger district of Pelourinho. Source: Espinheira (1971, 4). 75# HISTORICAL*CONTEXT! The!attitudes,!theories,!stereotypes,!and!perceptions!of!race,!gender,!and! class! that! surfaced! throughout! the! 1970s! within! the! media! both! reflected! and! reinforced! preexisting! assumptions! regarding! prostitution! and! earlier! moral! campaigns.!!!Given!earlier!police!and!media!campaigns!defining!Maciel!as!a!place!of! prostitution!and!crime,!it!was!not!a!huge!leap!for!the!newspapers!to!revive!this! claim!and!attempt!to!explain!the!abandonment!of!Pelourinho!as!a!mushrooming!of! thievery,!disease!and!moral!ruin.!!These!representations!of!raced!and!sexed!social! relations!produced!the!fear!and!legitimacy!necessary!to!redirect!a!development! strategy! from! one! that! prioritized! the! social! and! economic! conditions! of! the! residents!to!a!strategy!that!prioritized!private!capital!investments!and!delegitimized! social!welfare!for!the!original!residents.!While!prostitution!was!defined!as!legal,! pressures!to!“clean!up”!the!old!city!center!so!that!elite!families!and!foreign!visitors! would!not!have!to!view!prostitutes!while!visiting!Pelourinho!forced!the!police!to! follow! extralegal! policies.! ! Police! actions,! including! arbitrary! “sweeps”! and! relocation!of!prostitutes!to!less!visible!and!less!desirable!parts!of!the!city,!reflected! the!racial,!ethnic,!and!class!prejudices!that!informed!elite!ideals!for!the!nation.!!! In!1959,!the!police!department!of!Games!and!Vices!initiated!a!campaign!to! “transfer”!prostitutes!from!Pelourinho!to!the!docks!in!the!Lower!City!(Cidade%Baixa).!! The!campaign!was!extensively!covered!in!the!newspapers,!with!the!Jornal%da%Bahia% and! A% Tarde% covering! the! campaign! in! April! and! May! of! that! same! year.! ! The! campaign!also!received!the!support!of!the!Municipal!Council,!as!can!be!noted!in!the% 76# Jornal%da%Bahia,%April!18,!1959!article!entitled:!“Applause!for!the!campaign!against! houses!of!tolerance:!Municipal!Council.”!The!Jornal%da%Bahia%newspaper!on!May!9,! 1959!wrote!a!four!column!length!article!with!the!title:!“They!will!be!transferred!to! the!Lower!City:!prostitution,”!and!includes!a!statement!from!the!Police!Chief,!Dr.! Mozart!Pedrosa:!“The!fight!against!prostitution!has!become!necessary!to!liberate! Bahia!and!for!the!tourist!to!visit!the!historic!and!artistic!part!of!the!city!that!is!found! transformed!into!a!brothel”.!!He!continues:!! ! The! Secretary! of! Security! and! the! Assistant! Commissioner! should! become! familiar!with!our!Police!Unit,!in!terms!of!studying!and!planning!for!a!solution!to! locate!the!prostitution!of!the!lower!class!in!one!area!only,!which!will!facilitate! control,!as!well!as![sic]!keep!safe!the!historical!patrimony!currently!found!in!a! state!of!abandon.!!Taking!into!consideration!past!examples!of!attempted!actions! in!other!periods,!looking!to!resolve!the!problem!of!prostitution!with!the!police! baton,!forgetting!the!social!and!economic!order!and!given!that!it!is!impossible!to! extinguish,! but! can! be! controlled,! we! have! decided! to! transfer! them! [the! prostitutes]!to!the!docks,!which!has!been!done!in!all!the!large!capitals!of!the! world.!!More!so,!this!transfer!shall!be!managed!in!successive!stages!and!over!the! longSterm;!that!is,!in!eight!months!without!violence.!(Jornal%da%Bahia,!May!9,% 1959)! ! The!police!campaign!to!relocate!prostitutes!closer!to!the!shipping!docks!was! initiated!yet!shortSlived!due!to!many!incidents!of!municipal!administrators!covering! for!the!owners!of!the!more!highSclass!brothels!in!the!center!of!the!city.!This!defense! of!some!of!the!brothels!later!precipitated!sympathies!from!the!local!press,!resulting! in! the! police! abandoning! the! project! closely! after! the! move! had! been! initiated! (Levantamento%Sócio<Econômico%do%Pelourinho%1969).!The!type!of!violent!language! commonly!employed!by!the!press!as!a!means!of!advocating!their!support!is!typified! 77# in!the!following!article!written!in!the!Jornal%da%Bahia,%April!29,!1959,!“Prostitution! and!Pelourinho!II”:! Brazen!cynicism,!for!years!and!years,!produced!in!all!of!us,!a!tacit!acceptance! of! the! ostentatious! exhibition,! the! impudent! location,! of! prostitution! in! Pelourinho.!!And!Pelourinho,!for!its!history,!for!its!artistic!collection,!for!its! incomparable!originality,!does!not!deserve!the!state!of!degradation!in!which! it!now!resides.!!Physical!and!moral!degradation.!!If,!on!the!one!side,!there! exists!disgust!and!shame,!loathing,!the!degeneration!of!these!poor!and!sick! women,!desperate,!destined!to!a!life!in!poverty,!on!the!other!side!is!the! distress!of!witnessing!the!houses!that!shelter!them.!!They!are!the!mansions!of! the!elite,!majestic!palaces,!the!dignified!multiSstory!houses!that!accompanied! the!vertical!ascent!of!the!social!quality!of!its!residents.!!And!today,!with!the! vestige!of!dignity,!nobility,!and!splendor!that!they!still!protect,!they!are!made! to!look!like!the!old!prostitutes,!taken!from!hand!to!hand,!aged,!degraded,! relegated!to!the!public!scorn,!the!walls,!roofs,!tiling,!floors!and!sidewalks! decaying.! ! 1970S&PROSTITUTION&DEBATES! Moral!campaigns!of!the!1970’s!regarding!prostitution!in!PelourinhoSMaciel! followed,! almost! to! the! letter,! what! newspaper! articles! had! already! written! in! previous!eras.!!!What!Stuart!Hall!calls!“the!social!production!of!news,”!is!a!useful! concept!through!which!to!explore!the!Salvador!da!Bahia!newspaper!press!and!their! particular! turn! toward! prostitution! (Hall! et! al.! 1978).! ! ! In! Policing% the% Crisis:% Mugging,%the%State%and%Law%and%Order%(1978),!Stuart!Hall!et!al.!followed!the!role!of! the!media!and!discovered!the!ways!in!which!the!idea!of!‘mugging’!became!shaped! and! reproduced! as! truth! within! the! media,! thereby! creating! through! the! manipulation!of!ideology!–!and!the!production!of!common!sense!SS !a!mediaSmade! moral!panic.!!The!study!showed!that,!while!the!judiciary!and!the!police!were!the! “primary% definers”! of! the! mugging! events,! it! was! the! media! that! transformed! 78# mugging!into!their!referent!own!idiom,!purportedly!as!the!‘public!voice’!(especially! in!their!role!of!producing!opinion!editorials)!(Jefferson!2008,!115).!!In!what!follows,! I! argue! that,! similar! to! Hall! et! al.’s! findings,! a! dominant! discourse! around! prostitution!as!a!moral!crisis!became!authorized!as!truth!through!the!local!press,! and!that!we!can!identify!specific!ways!in!which!this!happened.!Further!support!for! this!analysis!comes!from!the!socioSeconomic!surveys!of!Maciel!residents!throughout! the!1970s.!The!surveys!demonstrate!that!the!number!of!prostitutes!working!in! Maciel!in!fact!decreased!while!the!newspaper!press!continuously!cited!prostitution! as!increasing!in!numbers.!In!addition,!while!the!requirement!of!news!to!provide!a! ‘balanced’!perspective!meant!that!other!voices!did!make!an!entry!into!the!debate,! they!were!limited,!and!never!contested!the!original!framing!of!the!debate!(Jefferson! 2008).!!Thus,!the!main!debate!over!what!to!do!with!prostitution!within!a!colonial! city! center! in! the! process! of! restoration! became! an! issue! of! whether! or! not! prostitutes! should! be! relocated! or! be! rehabilitated! (e.g.,! by! learning! an! artisan! trade).!!The!story,!then,!was!never!allowed!to!be!about!the!political!economy!of!sex! or!the!“economies!of!being”!produced!through!the!“hierarchical!divides!of!who! performs!what!work”!(Gilmore!1993,!33).!! Especially!for!poor!Black!women!and!transvestites!residing!in!Maciel,!their! social!and!legal!status!disabled!them!from!putting!their!truth!forward.!!They!had! neither!the!means,!opportunity,!nor!standing!to!make!claims!deemed!truthful.!!For! the! Salvador! da! Bahia! press,! in! contrast,! the! putting! forth! of! truth! was! both! 79# produced!and!accepted.!In!this!analysis!I!follow!M.!Jacqui!Alexander!(2005)!who! writes! …this!putting!forward!of!truth![that]!relies!on!other!conditions:!that!one!has! to!have!the!will%to!do!it,!the!means%to!do!it,!the!opportunity!to!do!it,!and!the! standing%to!have!those!claims!accepted!as!credible.!!Ultimately,!one’s!ability! to!be!heard!as!saying!what!one!is!saying!and!what!one!intends!to!say!is! structured!by!one’s!social!and!legal!status,!one’s!standing.!!Put!differently,!to! be!recognized!as!a!teller!of!truth!requires!basic!authority,!not!only!within! oneself!but,!structurally,!in!contexts!where!both!truth!and!credibility!are!not! antagonistic!(122).! !! In!contrast,!then,!to!Maciel’s!residents,!the!press!had!the!will,!the!means,!the! opportunity!and!the!standing!to!produce!their!claims!as!credible.!! ! ! RELOCATION*VERSUS*REHABILITATION!! The!most!prominent!debate!that!raged!the!entire!decade!of!the!1970s!was! whether!to!relocate!prostitution!to!another!area!or!to!allow!prostitution!to!continue! in!Maciel.!!By!tracing!this!debate,!and!how!it!resurfaced,!one!can!recognize!that! while!prostitution!had!been!defined!as!legal,!there!was!no!defined!set!of!policies! regarding!how!to!control!prostitution,!which!allowed!the!police!to!act!in!ways!that! contradicted!both!Catholic!morality!and!civil!liberties!guaranteed!by!Brazilian!law.!! In!an!article!entitled!“Authorities!discuss!the!problem!of!relocating!the!zone!of! prostitution”,!two!professors!discussed!the!dangers!of!relocating!prostitution!to! another!area.!!Their!shared!concern!was!the!threat!of!prostitution!spreading!if!and! when!prostitutes!were!relocated:! Professor!Estácio!de!Lima,!considers!that!one!of!the!gravest!consequences!for! what!he!calls!the!“artificial!location!of!prostitution”!is!the!corruption!of!other! 80# places! with! the! displacement! of! prostitutes.! ! He! says:! ‘Places! where! prostitution!did!not!exist!become!the!safe!haven!for!outcasts.!!Owners!of!the! buildings,!houses,!become!pimps!and!the!problem!spreads!to!other!zones! where!families!live.!!When!the!role!of!the!police!is,!rightly!so,!to!combat!the! pimps,!the!exploiters!of!women,!they!are!also,!at!the!same!time,!needed!to! watch!over!and!maintain!an!environment!of!order!and!decency.’!(Jornal%da% Bahia,!April!20,!1969)! ! Professor!Estácio!de!Lima!argues!that!if!prostitutes!were!to!be!relocated!to! “other!zones!where!families!live,”!the!zone!of!the!heterosexual!family!and!enshrined! decency! would! soon! be! corrupted.! ! Here! the! role! of! the! police! is! affirmed! as! necessary! to! “combat! the! pimps”! and! “maintain! an! environment! of! order! and! decency.”!!Rather!than!relocation,!Estácio!de!Lima!advocates!educational!reform!to! improve!prostitutes’!economic!hardships:!! What!is!necessary!is!that!these!poor!women!who!live!in!agony,!exploited!and! corrupt,!be!given!work!and!education.!!Because!the!woman!who!works!and! gains!money,!does!not!enter!prostitution.!!In!another!form,!it’s!the!same!as! mixing!a!pile!of!rubbish.!!You!throw!it!from!the!curb!but!you!throw!it!on! another,!with!the!same!or!worse!consequences.!!Because!of!this!I!can’t!see! one!single!advantage!in!creating!these!artificial!locations!for!prostitution.!We! need!to!fight!in!another!way,!preparing!these!youth!for!the!future,!giving! them!education!and!work.!!!Avoiding,!for!example,!those!who!come!from!the! Interior,!attracted!with!the!possibility!of!gaining!employment,!but!are!instead! thrown!into!prostitution.!(Jornal%da%Bahia,!April!20,!1969)! ! Estácio!de!Lima!advocates!a!reformist!approach!by!arguing!for!work!and! education! as! the! only! solution! for! prostitutes! to! crawl! out! from! under! their! “exploited!and!corrupt”!living!conditions.!!According!to!de!Lima,!if!a!woman!works! and!gains!money,!she!does!not!become!a!prostitute.!!The!problem!then,!is!not!the! political!economy!of!sex,!but!the!prostitute’s!lack!of!education!and!ability!to!find!a! “decent”!job.! 81# ! Like!Estácio!de!Lima,!Professor!Raul!Chaves!also!identifies!the!relocation!of! prostitutes!to!another!area!as!very!dangerous:!! Dangerous—Professor!Raul!Chaves,!Chair!of!Criminal!Law!at!the!Faculty!of! Federal!Law,!sees!these!changes!of!prostitution!from!one!hour!to!the!next!as! very!dangerous.!!He!is!afraid!that!the!same!thing!that!happened!when!they! tried!to!shut!down!the!zone!of!prostitution!in!São!Paulo!and!Rio!can!happen! here….!! What! happened—he! says—was! an! even! greater! dissemination! of! prostitution,!of!such!a!form!that!in!São!Paulo!the!prostitutes!were!passing! through!the!streets!such!as!Av.!São!João,!and!Av.!Rio!Branco,!taking!over!the! city.! According!to!him,!it!can!happen!here!too,!and!sidewalk!prostitution!can! spread,!just!like!it!did!in!!São!Paulo!and!Rio.!(Jornal%da%Bahia,!April!20,!1969)! ! Professor!Raul!Chaves!alerts!the!reader!that!if!prostitution!is!relocated!to! another!part!of!the!city!it!has!the!potential!of!spreading!quickly,!with!prostitutes! “taking!over!the!city,”!and!provides!evidence!of!this!already!happening!in!São!Paulo! and!Rio.!! Two! years! later,! in! an! article! entitled! “Pelourinho! (without! prostitutes)! remains!a!question,”!FPACBa!Executive!Director!Vivaldo!Costa!Lima!reaffirmed!that! “since!prostitutes!had!been!part!of!the!environment![before!the!renovations]!they! should!not!be!removed!from!the!area”!(Tribuna%da%Bahia,!March!23,!1971).!The! decision! to! allow! prostitutes! to! continue! to! work! and! live! in! Pelourinho! was! influenced!in!large!part!by!the!UNESCO!“!Venice!Charter”!originally!passed!in!1964! (ICOMOS!(1964]!1994).!!According!to!the!Charter,!any!UNESCO!declared!World! Heritage!Site!would!not!solely!be!concerned!with!the!restoration!of!the!historical! buildings!but!also!improve!the!social!and!economic!conditions!of!the!lived!area.!! 82# Two!years!later,!a!newspaper!article!entitled!“Bahia!in!the!Time!of!Tourism”! discusses!the!difficult!occupation!of!the!tourist!guide!who!must!show!Pelourinho! but!must!also!guide!tourists!quickly!through!the!streets!to!avoid!their!questions! regarding!the!conditions!of!residents!living!within!the!colonial!ruins.!!The!article! forewarns!that!as!soon!as!the!colonial!mansions!are!restored,!the!removal!of!the! residents!and!their!relocation!elsewhere!will!be!required:! (…)!its!that!zone,!there!now!the!Pelourinho!of!restoration,!zone!of!the!church,! mansions,!and!brothels—these!aren’t!for!the!American!to!look!at.!!And!the! guide!walks!the!tourists!quickly!through!before!they!ask!too!many!questions! about!these!dirty!children,!ratty!street!kids!who!play!in!the!mud,!and!of!these! people!that!sell!love!at!a!bargain!price!because!a!solution!still!hasn’t!been! found!for!prostitution!in!this!or!in!any!of!the!other!cities!of!great!civilization.!! Here!it!is!just!lower!Maciel!and!the!upper!Maciel,!the!“Alley!of!Urine”!…!!And! why!is!it!that!in!the!time!of!the!tourist,!the!police!go!pushing!“the!girls”— 57.6%!of!the!local!population!into!the!houses!and!the!locals!into!the!houses! of!illSrepute?!!And!tomorrow,!when!Pelourinho!is!restored,!there!will!be!no! lack!of!those!who!will!want!to!move!the!people!of!the!neighborhood!to!more! distant! streets,! where! they! will! all! be! able! to! practice! their! profession! profitably,!owing![their]!tranquility!to!the!Bahian!family,!who!has!a!delicate! stomach.!(Jornal%da%Bahia,!July!12,!1973)! ! This!article!mocks!those!who!support!the!relocation!of!the!residents!postS restoration,!stating!the!prostitutes!relocated!would!be!the!inevitable!outcome.!The! author!suggests!with!violent!language!that!the!relocation!of!the!prostitutes!would! also!remove!their!“dirty!children,!ratty!street!kids!who!play!in!the!mud,”!and!that! the!“Alley!of!Urine”!could!finally!be!restored!for!tourist!consumption. !1 !!!The!author! describes!further:! But!until!this!time!comes,!you!will!see!the!houses!in!the!zone!of!tolerance! getting! squeezed! tighter! [with]! insalubrity! and! poverty…! (S)till! today! 1 !! 83# [PelourinhoSMaciel]! is! the! area! of! residence! most! expensive! in! Salvador,! where!even!the!wooden!floor!board!is!sold!for!many!cruzeiros.!!Everything!is! with!the!blessing!of!the!heavens,!since!the!mansions!of!the![sugar]!barons! and! [sic]! the! palaces! that! [have]! now! become! the! brothels! and! slum! properties!of!the![Catholic]!Brotherhoods!and!Sisterhoods….!!But!none!of!this! will! interest! the! tourist! who! does! not! know! this! side! of! Pelourinho! …Someday!all!will!be!torn!down!in!the!name!of!Patrimony.! ! The!author!continues!to!explain!the!differences!between!what!the!tourist! sees!and!what!the!people!of!Salvador!see,!including!the!Catholic!Houses!of!the! Saints,!the!Brotherhoods!and!Sisterhoods!of!the!churches,!who!own!the!buildings! and!whom!the!slumlord!or!brothel!must!pay.!His!final!phrase!“Someday!all!will!be! torn!down!in!the!name!of!Patrimony,”!indicates!a!sense!of!embitterment!about!a! future!with!no!future!in!the!name!of!a!false!past.! In!1977,!in!an!article!entitled!“The!Social!Problem!of!Maciel”!another!author! describes! his! frustration! with! FPACBa,! whom! he! identifies! as! having! taken! responsibility!for!removing!the!“filth!embedded!in!the!heart!of!the!city”!yet!who,!in! the!past!ten!years!“[had!]done!little!or!nothing!to!solve!the!social!problem…”.!!!While! prostitution!still!figures!prominently!in!the!article,!the!problem!of!prostitution,!now! practiced!by!only!“no!more!than!a!few!dozen,”!has!been!replaced!with!the!“nasty! man,!same!as!the!one!who!makes!the!thief,!streetkid,!hooligan,!robber,!street!beggar,! who!constitute!the!scum!of!our!population!and!who!make!Maciel!a!safe!haven!for! criminality—where! these! types! of! delinquents! proliferate.”! And! the! article! continues:! Many!have!discussed!the!problem:!why!has!the!Governor!not!removed,!for! once!and!for!all,!the!filth!embedded!in!the!heart!of!the!city?!Why!do!they!let! an!ulcer!stay!right!in!the!middle!of!the!most!beautiful!and!famous![complex! 84# of]!churches!that!we!have?..In!other!great!cities!of!the!country—such!as!Rio! and!Sao!Paulo!for!example—the!zones!for!prostitution!that,!in!the!beginning,! worked!in!the!centers,!were!progressively!emptied!with!the!transfer!of!the! women!to!more!distant!locations.!(…)Only!here,!in!Salvador,!a!solution!is!not! found!for!the!problem.!!It!seems,!until!the!dark!forces!take!action,!stubbornly,! in!the!sense!of!feeding!this!ulcer!and!maintaining!it!alive!and!palpitating…!! ! In! this! article,! the! author! questions! why! FPACBa! have! done! so! little! to! remove! the! “alive! and! palpitating”! ulcer! from! the! most! “beautiful! and! famous”! complex!of!churches.!!While!the!author!states!only!a!few!dozen!prostitutes!remain!in! PelourinhoSMaciel,!this!does!not!deter!him!from!advocating!their!removal:!“In!other! great!cities!of!the!country—such!as!Rio!and!Sao!Paulo!for!example—the!zones!for! prostitution! that,! in! the! beginning,! worked! in! the! centers,! were! progressively! emptied!with!the!transfer!of!the!women!to!more!distant!locations.!(…).”!!Again,!Rio! and!São!Paulo!are!cited,!as!the!two!model!Brazilian!cities!Salvador!da!Bahia!should! emulate.!!!! By!1978,!the!question!of!whether!to!relocate!or!allow!prostitution!to!remain! in!PelourinhoSMaciel!had!reached!a!fever!pitch.!In!a!newspaper!article!entitled! “Maciel!and!the!Police,”!a!journalist!questioned!why!prostitution!was!not!considered! within!a!“zone!of!tolerance”!such!as!other!major!cities!in!Brazil.!!! In!all!the!great!cities!of!the!country,!the!police!control!the!brothels!by!naming! them!within!the!“zones!of!tolerance.”!!In!Rio,!in!São!Paulo,!Belo!Horizonte!and! other! capitals,! the! police! stations! of! Vice! and! Diversion! (Delegacias% de% Costumes%e%Diversões)!name!a!“Zone!of!Prostitution”!where!the!services!of! women,! brothel! addresses! and! names! of! those! responsible! are! made! available.!!This!allows!a!type!of!control!to!be!exercised!over!what!is!really! going!on!in!these!‘zones’!and!prohibits!any!excessive!punishment!of!criminal! activity!by!the!police.!(Diário%de%Notícias,!March!3,!1978)! ! ! 85# AND$WHAT$TO$DO$WITH$“THE%CHILDREN!OF#THE#STREET#WITH#NO"SUN”?! Throughout! the! 1970s,! a! corollary! argument! used! to! advocate! for! the! removal!of!prostitutes!was!to!employ!the!child!as!the!future!prostitute!and!thief.!! The!newspaper!press’!depictions!of!Maciel!children!as!nameless,!ageless,!and!sexless! was!an!effective!way!to!castigate!them!as!empty!vessels!only!capable!of!continuing!a! vicious,! neverSending! cycle! of! illicit! and! immoral! activity.! ! This! process! of! dehumanizing! the! Maciel! child! was! a! narrative! used! by! the! press! that! became! naturalized!through!its!repetition!and!frequent!appearance!throughout!the!1970s.!I! repeat!the!language!used!in!the!press!not!to!sensationalize!the!already!sensational,! but!to!pay!close!attention!to!how!the!newspaper!press!used!!representations!of! Maciel!children!as!the!future!criminals!and!prostitutes!of!tomorrow!to!effectively! encourage!the!removal!of!Maciel!residents!from!PelourinhoSMaciel;!a!necessary! removal!if!the!city!were!to!create!an!economically!profitable!tourism!industry!for! the!Pelourinho!district.!! In!the!most!sensational!!of!the!pieces!written!on!Maciel!youth,!“Children!of! the!Street!With!No!Sun,”!Anísio!Felix!describes!the!children!of!Maciel!as!without!age! or!name,!as!sleeping!in!the!same!rooms!where!their!mothers!who!have!sex!with! their!clients,!and!as!disease!infested,!“eyes!bright!with!syphilis”:! ! Where!age!does!not!count—Neither!sex!of!the!children!of!the!street!with!no! sun!have!an!age!or!name.!!At!night,!sleeping!in!the!same!room!where!the! mothers!have!sexual!relations,!they!dream!maybe!of!being!a!professional!of! the! Red! Light! District.! ! Naked! from! the! waist,! without! dolls! or! sweets! throughout!the!whole!day,!they!make!a!living!in!the!streets!as!gangs!running! 86# from! the! bars…where! one! will! find! the! oldest! and! most! savvy! outcasts,! [already]!wellSknown!by!the!police.! ! In!short,!Maciel!children!could!hardly!be!recognized!as!children!but!were!instead! described!as!already!dead:!! Since!age!does!not!count,!the!more!serious!crime!is!within!the!company!of! adults;!they!gain!a!life!in!the!street!and!begin!to!practice!what!they!learned!in! the!school!of!crime.!!The!prize!does!not!delay.!!The!police!report,!a!time!in! prison,!and!finally!a!stupid!death.!!A!body!riddled!with!bullets.!!The!wake!has! no!tears,!flowers!or!candles.!!It!was!a!delinquent!who!died…! ! Similar! to! the! newspaper! press’s! narrow! framing! of! how! to! develop! Pelourinho!as!a!debate!of!whether!or!not!prostitutes!should!stay!in!Maciel,!once! Maciel!children!were!vilified,!the!newspaper!press!and!the!authoritarian!regime’s! elected!officials!could!much!easier!denounce!UNESCO!recommendations!asserting! the!poor!should!remain!and!benefit!from!tourism!development!in!the!area.!!Rather,! the!press!employed!the!faceless!child!to!establish!any!efforts!to!improve!the!quality! of!life!for!Maciel!residents!as!an!inevitable!failure.!Instead,!the!press!advocated! private! entrepreneurship! as! the! most! effective! strategy! to! develop! PelourinhoS Maciel!for!tourism!purposes.!! The!child!again!appears!in!the!debate!as!to!whether!prostitution!should!be! considered!within!a!zone!of!tolerance!in!an!editorial!by!Robert!A!de!Souza.!Unlike! the!previous!articles!that!employed!children!to!encourage!the!removal!of!Maciel! residents,!de!Souza!advocates!for!the!artisan!training!programs!in!order!for!Maciel! residents!to!remain:!! The!editor!Roberto!A!de!Souza!is!horrified!that!the!ruins!of!the!underworld! have!become!the!artistic!and!colonial!landscape!of!Pelourinho.!!Truth!be!told,! 87# in!the!face!of!the!high!investments!of!Pelourinho’s!renovated!mansions!there! exists!another!reality!within!those!old!and!irreparable!houses—the!houses! continue!to!only!be!of!use!for!those!escaping!law!and!order.!!There!is!also!the! unmistakable!presence!of!the!child—!her!eyes!and!mind!are!left!to!observe! the!ways!of!this!infected!and!inappropriate!world!and!will!walk!through!the! gates! of! criminality! tomorrow.! ! Why! aren’t! these! children! taken! by! the! organizations!to!enter!boarding!schools!to!learn!a!professional!trade?!!We! wouldn’t!have!this!marginal!class!tomorrow!and!our!police!could!rest!more!if! we! take! care! of! these! children! today.! ! The! construction! of! ‘houses! of! tolerance’! in! the! area! only! predicates! the! formalization! of! professional! prostitution.!However,!if!women!were!trained!in!artisan!craftsmanship,!in! addition!to!receiving!medical!aid,!a!new!form!of!consciousness!could!swell!in! these! people! and! the! general! public! will! be! well! compensated! for! their! investment.!!What!exists!right!before!our!very!eyes,!in!the!heart!of!our!city,!is! a!real!school!of!crime!that!the!tourist!visiting!the!colonial!ruins!is!forced!to! view.!!!Therefore,!rest!assured!that!this!proliferation!does!not!have!to!expand! into!other!areas!of!the!city!(A%Tarde,!April!2,!1978).! ! In!order!for!the!children!to!be!“saved,”!from!leading!a!life!of!crime!tomorrow,! Roberto!A!de!Souza!advocates!that!they!be!removed!from!Maciel!and!transferred!to! boarding!schools!“to!learn!a!professional!trade.”!Rather!than!advocating!“houses!of! tolerance,”!De!Souza!argues!providing!artisan!training!for!women!and!their!children! would!improve!their!quality!of!life!and!could!remain!in!Maciel.!For!de!Souza,!the! problem!of!prostitution!lied!with!lack!of!employment!opportunities!for!the!women! and!represents!a!rare!voice!found!within!the!press!advocating!for!Maciel!residents! to!remain.!! ! TRANVESTITE)THIEVERY! While!the!issues!of!transvestite!residents!never!publicly!entered!the!debate! regarding!whether!or!not!prostitution!should!remain!in!Pelourinho,!tranvestites! were!constantly!reported!in!the!newspaper!pages!of!police!activity!as!perpetrators! 88# of!suadouro%crimes!throughout!the!1970s.!!I!analyze!the!newspaper!articles!here! with!the!objective!of!demonstrating!the!extent!to!which!some!Maciel!residents!were! subjected!to!police!violence!and!public!scrutiny!purportedly!for!their!illicit!behavior.!! As!a!whole,!the!style!of!writing!and!the!content!of!the!articles!present!Maciel!to!the! Bahia!reading!public!as!an!area!overrun!with!prostitution,!crime,!and!the!“cunning”! transvestite,!ready!to!make!a!fool!out!of!her!next!victim.!!! The!“profusely!sweating!man,”!o%suadouro,!played!a!prominent!role!in!media! characterizations!of!Maciel!throughout!the!late!1960s!and!1970s.!%O%suadouro!is!the! man!who,!once!naked!within!the!prostitute’s!room,!is!robbed!of!his!cash.!!Written!in! humorous! and! playful! overtones,! newspaper! articles! were! especially! keen! on! reporting! the! suadouro% “tricked”! by! a! transvestite! prostitute.! ! In! this! case,! the! suadouro! is! reported! as! also! being! deceived! by! the! transvestite’s! “womanly! caresses”!and!“feminine!charms”:!!! Yesterday,!the!Police!Unit!for!Crimes!and!Theft!arrested!José!Maria,!but!he! dresses!like!a!woman!and!uses!the!suggestestive!name!Vanusa.!!The!police! arrested! Vanusa! while! attending! to! a! complaint! made! by! Carlos! José! de! Souza,!who!was!robbed!last!night!in!Maciel.!!Vanusa!attracted!José!Carlos! with!her!feminine!charms!and!in!the!passageway!of!one!of!the!houses!of! Maciel,!tried!to!take!José!Carlos!money.!!While!fighting!Vanusa,!José!Carlos! noticed!he!was!not!fighting!with!a!woman.!! ! By!making!a!claim!to!the!police,!the!suadouro%“victim”!also!made!his!claim! public!and!the!press!often!used!photographic!images!to!humiliate!and!ridicule!him.!! In!Figure!9,!a!naked!man!sits!on!a!curb!holding!his!head!in!his!hands!with!a!caption! that!reads!“man!left!without!a!handkerchief!or!a!cent.”!The!use!of!quick!cartoon! sketches!next!to!the!news!articles!of!suadouro%crime!contributed!to!representing!the! 89# crime!as!comedic!and!absurd.!!Figure!10!is!a!caricature!of!a!man!drenched!in!sweat! with!his!hands!in!the!air!saying,!“now!this!too!is!a!sauna”!while!a!bill!with!wings!is! shown!flying!into!the!distance.!Figure!11!represents!the!commonly!imagined!scene! of!transvestite!prostitutes!tricking!their!naïve!victim.!!The!cartoon!shows!three! transvestite! prostitutes! surrounding! and! entrapping! their! next! victim! with! the! caption!“Party!of!a!hundred!cruzeiros.”!As!the!photograph!of!the!naked!man!and!the! cartoon!images!demonstrate,!suadouro%crime!was!to!be!thought!and!understood!by! the!general!public!as!meaningless.!The!absurdity!of!the!crime!is!made!even!more! explicit!by!questioning!who!was!at!fault!for!the!crime!happening!in!the!first!place.!! The!crime!was!to!be!blamed!on!the!victim!as!much!as!on!the!transvestite!prostitute! because!the!victim!was!naive!enough!to!think!the!transvestite!a!woman.!!In!doing!so,! same!sex!male!desire!was!rendered!impossible!(Gopinath!2005).! 90# ! ! Figure!9:!A!suadouro'“victim”!“Without![a]! Handkerchief!or!Identification.”!After!a! suadouro,!the!sailor!Gregorio!Manuel!dos! Santos,was!left!‘without![a]!sheet!and! without!!identification,’!crying!in!one!of!the! waiting!rooms,!completely!undressed,!at! the!Police!Department!of!Games!and! Vices.”!(A'Tarde,!July!25,!1971)!! ! ! Figure!10:!Caricature!of!the!suadouro' “victim.”!“Now!this!is!also!a!sauna.”!(Diário' de'Noticias,'August!12,!1971)! ! ! Figure! 11:! Caricature! of! the! suadouro' “victim.”!“Party!of!Cr$!100,00”!(Tribuna'da' Bahia,!August!20,!1971)! ! ! As!Stuart!Hall!(1981b)!reminds!us,!the!function!of!news!is!not!to!describe! what!is!new!but!rather!to!show!what!is!already!familiar.!!He!argues,!“photos!of!an! event!carry!a!metaSmessage:!‘this!event!really!happened!and!this!photo!is!proof!of! it’”!(241).!News!photos!“suppress!their!selective/interpretive/ideological!function”! 91# by!appearing!as!a!public!record!and!operating!under!the!sign!marked,!‘this!really! happened,! see! for! yourself’! (241).! ! Yet,! the! procedure! through! which! the! photographed! incident! is! chosen! represents! a! complex! chain! of! events! and! meanings! including! the! particular! angle,! person,! and! moment! that! make! the! photograph!seen.!The!familiar!is!a!useful!concept!to!underscore!the!ways!in!which! visual!proof!can!only!act!as!truth!if!it!was!something!that!already!existed!as!part!of! the!public!imaginary’s!repertoire.! Photos,!then,!underwrite!“selective/interpretive/ideological”!sign!that!is!the! “common!sense,”!the!obvious,!neutral,!and!preSgiven.!!In!sum,!news!photos!produce! the!evidence!necessary!to!support!the!text!describing!what!“really!happened”!and! what!therefore!becomes!beyond!interpretation.!!At!this!level!then,!news!photos!not! only!function!to!give!credibility!to!the!news!event,!but!also!support!the!objectivity!of! the!newspaper!press.!By!performing!the!“ideology!of!objectivity”![explain]!news! photos! underwrite! the! common! sense! rule! in! newspaper! practice:! the! absolute! distinction! between! fact! and! value! or! what! Hall! (1981b)! calls! “the! empiricist! illusion”!(242).!News!photos!then!directly!operate!as!supporting!the!newspaper! press!as!the!achievement!of!neutrality.!!Suadouro%purported!“perpetrators”!were! often!described!and!pictured!as!being!arrested!in!groups!in!random!raids.!!The! newspaper!articles!also!justified!police!raids!by!emphasizing!how!long!they!had! been!practicing!suadouro%crime:! Led!by!the!delinquent!Josair!Batista!Matos,!a!homosexual!known!as!“Zona,”! and!the!rest!of!the!gang!known!as!Maria!das!Graças,!Gracinha,!Nilza!Ramos! and!Roqueline!Conceição,!and!the!youngest!known!as!“Little!Dog,”!have!been! 92# practicing!for!a!long!time!a!series!of!assaults!known!as!suadouro%crime%in!the! brothels!on!Gregório!de!Matos!street.!!The!action!of!these!delinquents!was! interrupted!yesterday!when!a!caravan!of!…police!vehicles!arrived!at!the! scene,!arresting!everyone!and!driving!them!to!the!jail!where!their!crimes! were! booked,! with! the! purpose! of! investigating! several! thefts! that! have! already!been!attributed!to!the!delinquents.”!! Diário% de% Noticias!April!15,! 1971)! ! It!is!under!this!guise!of!objectivity!that!I!now!turn!to!the!mug!shots!of!three! “triumphant”! suadouro% perpetrators! (Figures! 12,! 13! and! 14)! and! is! where! the! slippage!between!newspaper!event!and!police!record!is!highlighted!and!refracted!to! show!the!already!familiar!criminal.!! ! ! 93# ! ! Figure!12:!A!suadouro'“perpetrator”:! ! “This!is!‘Andorinha,’!a!criminal.!!She!shows! no!remorse.”!(Tribuna'da'Bahia',!March!23,! 1971)! ! ! Figure!14:!A!suadouro'“perpetrator”:! ‘Simone’(Roberto!Ferreira!dos!Santos).”! (Diário'de'Noticias,!January!19,!1971)! ! ! Figure!13:!A!suadouro'“perpetrator”:! “‘Cláudio’!(Marcos!Antonio).”!! (Diário'de'Noticias,'January!19,!1971 94# Another!newspaper!article!(Figure!15)!pictures!three!transvestites!side!by! side!against!a!wall!looking!into!the!distance,!perhaps!to!be!read!as!plotting!their! next!suadouro%crime.!!In!contrast!to!the!mug!shots!of!the!transvestite!women!in! feminine! dress! and! composure,! this! photograph! shows! three! men! in! masculine! clothing!to!be!understood!as!transvestites!in!their!“real”!clothing.!When!comparing! the! mug! shots! to! this! image,! we! can! also! decipher! the! shifting! range! of! public! lexicons!and!confusion!that!surrounded!the!“problem”!of!same!sex!trafficking!and! same!sex!male!desire.!The!policing/photographing/disciplining!represented!in!the! newspaper!photos!is!indicative!of!a!highly!repressive!sexual!space!and!the!active! process! of! dislocation! that! was! being! mapped! onto! PelourinhoSMaciel! resident! bodies.! ! The! chosen! playful! postures! of! those! pictured! also! indicate! sites! of! resistance.!!Simon!and!Claudia!hold!a!finger!to!their!mouth!and!glance!at!the!camera! with!general!disinterest.!!Andorinha!looks!up!at!the!camera!from!her!hands!and! shows!no!emotion.!!The!caption!“she!shows!no!remorse”!says!more!about!how!the! press!wanted!mug!shots!to!prove!their!criminality.!!Figure!15!shows!three!men!in! men’s!clothes.!!While!the!caption!reads!the!“girls”!were!boys,!the!photographer! chose!to!picture!them!in!men’s!clothes,!perhaps!to!prove!they!were!indeed!men.!! Each!poses!with!a!smile!and!looks!off!to!the!right!as!if!she!is!enjoying!her!picture! being!taken.!!! 95# ! ! Figure!15:!“‘Elas’!eram!éles…”!(the!“girls”!were!boys…”)! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!“And!here!are!the![sic]!“dolls”!who!attracted!the!boy!for!a!night!of!fun!in!the!“Garbage!! Mouth”!neighborhood.!Just!when!the!youngster!was!to!be!given!what!he!was!looking! for,!a!sexual!escapade,!he!realized!he!was!surrounded!by!”boys”!and!not!“girls.”!And! this!is!when!the!plot!thickened.!!The!young!man!had!become!the!latest!victim!of!a! suadouro!crime:!his!cash!had!disappeared.!(Diário'de'Noticias,!January!1971)! ! ! A"SYSTEM"OF"LOW"INTENSITY'WARFARE! Although!Maciel!brothels!were!legal,!the!ability!for!sex!workers!(in!addition! to! any! woman! residing! in! Maciel)! to! move! within! the! PelourinhoSMaciel! neighborhood!was!highly!repressed.!!In!addition!to!women,!transvestites!were!also! heavily!persecuted.!!An!article!in!Díario%de%Notícias,%entitled!“Fairies!sauntering!the! streets!will!be!hunted!prey!and!will!have!their!heads!shaved,”!provides!evidence!of! not!only!the!type!of!severe!police!repression!inflicted!on!women!and!transvestites! but!also!the!celebratory!tone!with!which!the!newspaper!describes!these!incidents:!! “Homosexuals!and!prostitutes!will!have!their!heads!shaved!at!clip!zero!if!they! are! caught! from! the! next! day! 28! practicing! streetwalking! in! public! 96# thoroughfares.!!The!declaration!is!from!Police!Chief!of!the!Department!of! Games!and!Vice,!Orlando!Barcelar,!who!has!already!initiated!the!repression! and!the!flight!of!the!fairies.! Last! night,! in! a! sneak! preview,! the! Department! of! Games! and! Vices! imprisoned!19!women!of!the!“easy!life”!who!were!“streetSwalking”!on!many! streets!of!the!city,!principally!on!Carlos!Gomes,!Terreiro!de!Jesus!and!Praça! Cairú…”!(Diário%de%Notícias,!July!26,!1969)!! ! What!we!can!also!glean!from!the!local!press!documenting!police!brutality!is! its!cyclical!nature.!!FPACBa!social!scientists!and!residents!were!in!constant!struggle! with!the!police!committed!to!solving!the!problem!of!prostitution!by!“cleaning!up”! the! neighborhood’s! image! literally! through! random! police! raids! and! constant! surveillance!and!harassment.!In!1972,!another!attack!on!residential!mobility!came! in!the!form!of!a!curfew!by!encouraging!the!owners!of!houses!of!tolerance!to!impose! financial! restrictions! on! “their! subordinates”! if! they! stayed! in! the! bars! past! midnight.!On!April!19,!1972,!an!article,!entitled!“Police!give!rules!for!prostitution! not!to!disturb,”!describes!the!following:! In!summary,!the!police!informed!the!women!could!keep!their!houses!open! and!radios!playing!until!midnight.!!They!also!demanded!the!owners!impose! financial!restrictions!on!their!subordinates!in!order!to!further!encourage! them!to!not!stay!in!the!bars!until!the!very!late!hours!provoking!fights!and! drunken!brawls.!They!are!also!asked!to!not!use!clothing!considered!indecent! or!attentionSseeking!when!they!are!in!the!street!and!that!they!excel!in!good! behavior,!treating!the!police!with!civility!(Tribuna%da%Bahia,%April!19,!1972).%% ! Organized! raids! were! also! cited! in! the! newspaper! press! throughout! the! 1970s.!!The!word!“FAMILY”!was!often!written!on!the!front!door!of!many!homes!in! an! attempt! to! stop! police! raids! and! distinguish! places! of! residence! from! the! prostitution!brothels!in!the!area.!!The!sign!could!also!indicate!residents’!defiance!of! social!divisions!and!usage!by!nonSfamilies.!!On!February!19,!1970,!Diário%de%Notícias% 97# reports!twentySeight!prostitutes!were!arrested![sic]!by!the!police!department!of! Games!and!Vices!“as!a!preliminary!attempt!to!close!the!red!light!district!on!João!de! Deus!Street…”(Diário%de%Notícias%February!19,!1970).%In!October!of!the!same!year,! Jornal%da%Bahia%reports!“The!brothels!and!tenements!on!João!de!Deus!street!were! shut!down!one!more!time!in!a!blitz!done!yesterday.!…Police!commissioner!Guy! Clement!organized!the!patrol!vehicles!that!arrested!close!to!16!women!and!4!men! that! were! found! in! the! mentioned! buildings.”! Police! authorities! justified! their! actions!by!referring!to!the!“families!that!move!throughout!the!area!as!well!as!the! place!being!a!tourist!attraction”!(October!24,!1970).!! Eight!years!later,! Diário% de% Noticias!notes!the!police!initiated!“Operation! CleanSUp”!(operação%limpeza)!and!arrested!a!number!of!“the!many!delinquents!who! live!in!the!“Garbage!Mouth”!neighborhood,!the!shame!for!all!Bahians.!Selected!drug! addicts,!thieves!and!muggers!were!arrested!and!taken!to!the!police!department! where!they!were!given!their!due!punishment”!(Diario%de%Noticias,!June!15,!1979).! The!level!of!police!violence!in!Maciel!finally!caused!FPACBa!officials!to!complain! when!their!offices!were!targeted!by!the!military!police!in!May!1980.!The!Director!of! FPACBa!reacted!by!threatening!to!halt!all!restoration!and!economic!recovery!of!the! area!if!the!police!force!did!not!stop!attacking!Maciel!residents!and!FPACBa!workers! (O%Estado%de%São%Paulo,!May!20,!1980.).!!Again,!a!police!raid!is!documented!as! accosting!a!family!“without!the!authority!of!the!Secretary!of!Public!Safety!or!by!the! Military! Police! of! the! State”! (Jornal% da% Bahia% March! 10,! 1984).! As! these! cases! demonstrate,!the!military!police!caused!residents!to!live!in!a!constant!state!of!fear.!! 98# While!the!financial!commitment!of!FPACBa,!the!many!sociologists!working!in!the! area,!as!well!as!organized!residents!made!concrete!improvements!for!the!Maciel! community,!the!Foundation!could!not!control!the!authoritarian!regime’s!support!of! everyday!police!harassment!of!residents!in!addition!to!the!random!“blitzes”!waged! against!residents.! ! ! NEIGHBORHOOD*COMMUNITY#ORGANIZATIONS! From!the!late!1960s!to!mid!1980s,!Maciel!residents!were!under!constant! police!surveillance,!and!often!experienced!harassment!and!assault!based!on!the! whims!of!the!police!officers!as!well!as!through!organized!police!raids!(what!the! press!named!“blitzes”).!!From!the!late!1960s!to!the!mid!1970s!newspaper!accounts! of!police!brutality!were!celebratory!in!tone.!!However,!by!the!late!1970s,!newspaper! accounts! also! began! to! document! more! of! the! residents! concerns.! This! section! explores!how!police!activity!in!the!Maciel!neighborhood!was!reported!and!asks!why! the!press!celebrated!police!brutality!from!the!late!1960s!to!mid!1970s!yet!became! more!sympathetic!to!residential!concerns!by!the!early!1980s.,!I!argue!this!positive! change!in!newspaper!reporting!regarding!Maciel!residents!problems!indicates!the! strength! of! Maciel! residents! organizations! in! crafting! collective! campaigns! that!! compelled!the!press!take!notice.!!While!there!is!less!written!in!the!press!about! community! organizations,! the! little! that! is! documented! demonstrates! the! many! campaigns!residents!were!organizing!throughout!this!time.!!Newspaper!articles! from!the!late!1970s!and!early!1980s!document!the!work!of!various!neighborhood! 99# community! organizations,! including! the! Maciel! Community! Council! (Conselho% Comunitário),!Revicentro,!Alerta,!and!the!Association!of!Maciel!Residents!(Associação%% dos%Moradores%do%Maciel).!!They!organized!around!a!range!of!issues!including!the! right!to!safe!housing,!as!well!as!an!end!to!curfews!and!police!persecution.! The!Moradores%do%Maciel!had!earlier!campaigned!for!police!reform,!against! resident!evictions,!and!for!safer!housing!conditions.!On!June!16,!1978,!A%Tarde% reports!the!Moradores%do%Maciel!collected!740!signatures!that!were!taken!to!the! Governor!as!well!as!the!Director!of!FPACBa!to!begin!reconstruction!on!seven!of!the! buildings!in!the!area.!The!Moradores!stated!the!roofs!were!in!danger!of!collapsing! on!the!residents!with!the!rains,!and!documented!two!mansions!on!Francisco!Muniz! Barreto!street!had!fallen!with!the!latest!rains.!!The!Foundation!recognized!the! buildings! were! in! need! of! repair! and! promised! to! place! support! beams! in! the! buildings!the!next!week!(A%Tarde,!June!16,!1978).!The!Foundation’s!quick!response! and! the! fact! that! the! newspaper! covered! the! Foundation’s! response! indicates! Moradores%were!effective!in!forcing!the!Foundation!and!the!newspaper!press!to! address!their!issues.! In!1979,!A%Tarde%mentions!Maciel!residents’!fear!of!losing!their!homes!postS restoration.! ! The! article! describes! residents! who! had! heard! rumors! that! the! Foundation!was!going!to!evict!residents.!M.L.A.,!71!years!old!and!having!lived!in! Maciel!since!she!was!14!was!also!afraid!she!would!be!evicted.!“She!shares!a!room! with!her!four!grandsons,!she!is!afraid!of!losing!her!home!and!being!forced!to!live!far! 100# away!from!the!city!center”!(A%Tarde,!August!20,!1979).!!!Their!fears!were!justified!as! more!evictions!continued!to!take!place.!!! In!January!of!1980!the!Committee!of!Representatives!of!Maciel!Residents! (Comitê%de%Representantes%dos%Moradores%do%Maciel)!was!formed!around!the!basic! issue!of!denouncing!the!negative!image!of!Maciel!as!a!dangerous!neighborhood!filled! with!crime!and!delinquents.!!The!Committee!was!formed!from!Community!Council! (Conselho%Comunitário),!an!organization!formed!by!residents!in!1974.!!In!1981,! Moradores%do%Maciel!organized!a!campaign!to!end!the!curfew!that!forced!residents! to! remain! in! their! homes! and! businesses! to! close! at! 10pm.! ! ! A% Tarde% reports! Moradores%do%Maciel%were!collecting!signatures!to!take!to!the!governor!and!the! Secretary!of!Public!Security!demanding!an!end!to!house!arrest!(estado%de%sítio).!! According!to!the!president!of!the!Committee,!Raimundo!Alves!de!Souza,!“…this! [curfew]!and!the!restriction!of!residents’!capacity!to!move!is!an!undisclosed!fact!of! Brazil!and!is!an!attack!on!the!rights!of!the!citizen!to!come!and!go!as!they!please”!(A% Tarde,!March!21,!1981).!The!campaign!proved!successful!and!on!June!1!1982,!the! Maciel!community!celebrated!its!first!year!free!of!house!arrest!(A%Tarde,!June!1,! 1982).!!! On! October! 29,! 1985,! A% Tarde% reports! an! official! memorandum! was! submitted!to!the!Ministries!of!Culture!and!Urban!Development!on!behalf!of!the! Moradores% do% Maciel% documenting! the! disappearance! of! a! social! atmosphere! (esvaziamento%social)!as!more!residents!were!forced!to!move!to!other!locations.!!The! memorandum! also! documented! the! physical! and! social! deterioration! of! the! 101# buildings!as!well!as!the!frequent!police!attacks!against!residents!(A%Tarde,%October! 29,!1985).!The!case!indicates!yet!another!successful!organizing!campaign!initiated! by!the!Moradores%do%Maciel.! Another! group! of! residents! active! during! the! 1970s! was! the! association! Alerta.!!Diário%de%Noticias%describes!the!group!as!constituted!of!prostitutes!as!well!as! exSprostitutes,!and!residents!of!Maciel.!!The!group!met!on!Fridays!to!discuss!the! state!of!the!neighborhood.!!Odile!Maso,!a!French!sociologist!is!mentioned!as!the! coordinator!of!the!group!and!as!having!worked!in!the!area!the!past!six!years.!!Maso! states!the!organization!was!created!to!call!on!government!officials!to!take!action! against!the!realities!and!suffering!of!the!Maciel!community.!!The!article!ends!“Alerta% works!with!prostitutes,!drug!addicts,!homosexuals,!thieves—that!is,!all!those!of!the! underworld!lacking!affection”!(Diário%de%Notïcias,!April!27,!1978).!In!other!words,! the!newspaper!article!describes!Alerta%%as!an!organization!working!with!all!those!of! whom!the!press!deemed!incapable!of!deserving!attention.! The! “Historic! City! Center! Revitalization! Association”! (Revicentro;! Revitalização%do%Centro%Histórico)!was!an!organization!created!in!the!early!1980s! that!generated!public!debate!about!the!role!of!Maciel!residents’!participation!in!the! Pelourinho!development!process.!!Tribuna%da%Bahia!reports!the!organization!met! with! Maciel! community! representatives,! IPAC,! the! Workers! of! the! Historic! City! Center,!with!the!purpose!of!organizing!a!regional!meeting!with!other!community! organizations!facing!similar!issues!in!other!historic!city!centers!in!the!state!of!Bahia! including!Pernambuco,!Paraíba,!and!Maranhão!(Tribuna%da%Bahia,!September!5,! 102# 1984).!!However,!Revicentro!also!received!the!wrath!of!A%Tarde%who!attacked!it!as!a! “silly”!organization!without!the!capacity!of!making!change!and!of!making!a!mockery! of!the!Pelourinho!development!process.!According!to!the!article,!Revicentro!united! 112! associations,! organizations! and! representatives! of! the! most! “diverse! and! unimpressive!segments!of!the!Bahian!society.”!A%Tarde%continues,!! Regardless!of!how!well!the!organization!knows!the!residents!of!Pelourinho,! or!the!‘marvelous!residents,’!as!the!Director!of!IPAC!describes!them,!the! organization!is!doomed!to!fail!because!it!does!not!have!what!it!takes!to!take! on!the!colossal!job!of!restoring!the!historical!city!center!(A%Tarde,!January!5,! 1984).!! ! While!the!press!worked!hard!to!create!common!sense,!and!in!some!cases! achieved! these! goals,! at! certain! moments! the! press! produced,! however! inadvertently,!counternarratives—if!only!to!mock!them—thus!giving!us!insights! into! the! ideological! as! well! as! material! processes! through! which! Maciel! was! contested!and!redeveloped!from!1968S1978.!!For!Revicentro’s!to!be!attacked!with! such! hostility! the! press! acknowledges,! however! inadvertently,! Maciel! residents’! successful!campaigns!that!challenged!Bahian!authoritarian!proScapitalist!control! over!what!types!of!action!would!be!allowed!and!not!allowed!in!PelourinhoSMaciel.!! ! !“FOREIGNERS*WITH*NO*SENSE$OF$REALITY”:$PRESS$OPINIONS$ON$UNESCO$ RECOMMENDATIONS In!July!of!1978!A%Tarde%newspaper!describes!the!visit!by!Spanish!architect! and!UNESCO!restoration!specialist!Raul!Pastrana!and!his!recommendations!for! restoring!PelourinhoSMaciel.!!Pastrana!declares!social!welfare!and!the!creation!of!a! 103# trade!school!for!the!current!residents!must!be!a!priority.!!Like!Roberto!A!de!Souza,! Pastrana!envisioned!economic!revitalization!of!PelourinhoSMaciel!as!also!benefiting! the!local!poor.!!The!permanence!of!the!local!community,!for!Pastrana,!should!be!the! city’s!guiding!principle!for!restoring!the!colonial!city!center.!!Pastrana!emphasized!if! the!poor!were!not!taken!into!consideration!there!would!be!disastrous!consequences! for!the!city!(A%Tarde,!July!21,!1978).! Local! journalists! expressed! extreme! disapproval! for! the! UNESCO! recommendations!advocating!social!services!for!the!Maciel!poor.!!!In!a!1978!opinion! editorial!printed!the!following!day,!Pastrana’s!suggestions!rang!hollow!for!an!A% Tarde%journalist!who!questioned!the!material!outcome!if!and!when!such!a!holistic! approach!was!implemented:! Whoever!wants!to!understand!their!past!will!see!that!their!‘cultural!and! social!values’!are!not!what!Mr.!Pastrana!assumes.!!Any!sensible!initiative,!in! terms!of!preservation,!cannot!involve!the!lower!marginal!class!that!occupies! the!majority!of!this!area!now.!Why!should!the!poor!be!considered!part!of! Pelourinho’s!“cultural!and!social!value”!when!it!was!the!colonial!bourgeoisie,! that!originally!owned!these!mansions,!palaces!and!churches?!!The!poor!only! were! able! to! move! into! Pelourinho! in! the! first! place! after! the! colonial! buildings! were! in! complete! disrepair.! ! Pastrana! is! getting! involved! in! something!he!has!no!idea!about.!!It!is!an!absurd!idea!to!think!the!poor!should! continue!to!live!in!the!colonial!homes!after!they!are!fully!restored!to!their! original!grandeur.!(A%Tarde,!July!22,!1978)! ! According! to! this! editorial,! poor! AfroSBrazilian! residents! could! only! justifiably! live! in! the! colonial! mansions! when! the! buildings! were! in! a! state! of! complete!disrepair.!!The!journalist!identified!the!poor!as!illegitimate,!unacceptable! residents!once!UNESCO,!the!state!and!city!began!investing!millions!of!dollars!into! the!beautification!and!restoration!process.!!Now!that!the!colonial!landscape!was! 104# targeted!to!attract!and!cater!to!international!tourists,!the!residents,!most!of!whom! had!lived!there!for!twenty!to!thirty!years,!were!portrayed!as!illegally!occupying!the! PelourinhoSMaciel!district.!!! The!journalist’s!second!critique!of!Pastrana’s!recommendations!was!his!lack! of! understanding! of! Salvador’s! goals! in! the! restoration! of! the! buildings:! “Every! country! that! has! a! colonial! history,! like! Pelourinho,! has! two! goals! in! terms! of! conservation:!to!prevent!the!further!destruction!of!the!buildings!and!to!promote!the! cultural!admiration!from!those!who!visit.”!!Therefore,!the!journalist!declares,!“The! buildings!will!only!be!used,!enjoyed,!and!destroyed!again!by!the!poor!if!the!colonial! buildings!are!physically!restored!with!the!Maciel!poor!allowed!to!live!in!them”!(July! 22,!1978).!!In!essence,!the!journalist!asks:!Why!would!Mr.!Pastrana!encourage!the! lower!class!to!remain!in!the!colonial!homes!when!they!do!not!have!the!ability!to! keep!up!the!houses!they!live!in?!As!this!article!and!various!other!newspaper!writers! indicate,!“gentrification”!was!being!touted!throughout!the!western!hemisphere!as! the!latest!urban!strategy!to!pour!capital!into!underdeveloped!places!and!pushing! out!the!poor!as!a!result.! The!second!critique!of!Pastrana!develops!a!corollary!argument!presented!by! the!local!elite!invested!in!promoting!a!cleansed!visual!and!affective!representation! of! the! PelourinhoSMaciel! landscape.! While! both! international! experts! in! urban! renewal!schema!and!historical!preservation!specialists!maintained!that!the!local! population!should!not!be!removed!during!the!urban!renewal!processes,!the!local! press! and! regime! largely! thought! otherwise! by! identifying! any! social! services! 105# provided!for!the!poor!current!residents!as!only!encouraging!and!sustaining!immoral! and!criminal!behavior.!!The!language!of!Roberto!A.!de!Souza!provides!rich!evidence! of! the! degree! to! which! many! journalists! and! elite! identified! prostitution! as! something!needing!to!be!tightly!controlled!and/or!removed!from!the!city!center.!!!! ! CONCLUSION! As! the! newspaper! debates! indicate,! the! criminalization! of! the! Maciel! residents! as! “women! of! the! easy! life”,! criminals,! fairies,! thieves,! outcasts,! delinquents,!scum!of!the!city,!and!beggars,!the!illSadjusted!and!diseaseSinfested,! made!the!visiting!UNESCO!officials’!recommendations!to!improve!residents’!living! conditions!seem!ridiculous!and!inapplicable!to!Maciel’s!problems!with!prostitution! and!crime.!As!international!funding!failed!to!materialize,!a!competing!discourse,!as! narrated!through!the!press,!represented!Maciel!residents!as!unfit!to!live!in!the! newly!restored!colonial!mansions!and!visiting!UNESCO!officials! were!described!as! foreigners!with!no!real!understanding!of!the!local!issues.!!Instead,!the!newspaper! press!assumed!the!position!of!expert!witness!with!local!knowledge!of!the!area!and! of!the!people;!effectively!representing!the!regime’s!investment!in!spurring!private! capital!and!growth.!!As!a!result,!the!press!advocated!ensuring!tourism!profit!by! removing!the!“canker!sore”!—poor!Black!women!and!transvestites—!as!the!more! logical!strategy.!!! The!highly!censored!press!played!a!prominent!role!in!how!Maciel!residents! were!depicted!to!the!larger!Salvador!da!Bahia!reading!public,!with!most!newspaper! 106# editors!railing!against!the!dangers!of!largeSscale!prostitution!if!Maciel!residents! were! to! be! relocated! to! other! parts! of! the! city.! ! As! discussed! in! this! chapter,! newspaper!editors!echoed!concerns!about!whether!employmentStraining!programs! would!be!of!any!benefit!given!the!prostitutes!alleged!uncivilized!habits,!poverty,!and! questionable!moral!capacity.!!In!addition!to!targeting!prostitutes!as!incapable!of! social!reform,!the!newspaper!press!advocated!for!the!removal!of!PelourinhoSMaciel! residents!through!additional!depictions!of!Maciel!children!as!the!future!prostitutes! and!criminals!of!PelourinhoSMaciel!and!the!suadouro%transvestite!thief!! While!policing!under!the!assumption!of!regulating!sexual!intimacy!and!crime! had!become!hyperSrepressive!from!the!late!1960s!onward,!this!was!by!no!means!the! first!episodes!of!police!violence!experienced!by!Maciel!residents.!!From!the!time! Maciel!was!demarcated!a!legalized!zone!of!prostitution!in!the!1930s,!residents!had! experienced!waves!of!police!brutality!including!the!state’s!first!attempt!to!physically! remove!Maciel!prostitutes!and!residents!in!the!late!1950s!during!one!of!the!city’s! efforts! to! “cleanse”! the! neighborhood! of! its! poor! AfroSBrazilian! residents! and! increase! domestic! tourism! in! the! area.! !What!was!different!this! time! from! the! previous!episodes!of!police!activity!was!the!intensity!and!length!of!repression!and! the!capacity!of!the!regime!to!control!what!was!discussed!in!the!press.!The!ease!with! which! the! press! dismissed! UNESCO! recommendations! as! well! as! the! difficulty! experienced!by!Foundation!social!scientists!in!terms!of!garnering!support!for!Maciel! social! welfare! programs! throughout! this! first! stage! of! restoration! development! demonstrates!the!strength!of!the!press!and!the!regime’s!commitment!to!private! 107# capital!growth.!!Private!capital!was!justified!as!the!only!viable!option!for!restoring! PelourinhoSMaciel!by!playing!upon!the!racial!and!gendered!assumptions!of!who!was! worthy!and!unworthy!of!potential!welfare!assistance.!!! Maciel!residents!were!most!often!represented!in!the!press!as!spectacles!of! illicit! crime! and! sexual! deviance.! ! News! photographs! and! narratives! of! Maciel! residents!produced!the!raw!data!and!presumed!firstShand!account!knowledge!for! the!Salvador!reading!public!to!make!their!own!assessments!of!what!“should!happen”! with!PelourinhoSMaciel!tourism!development!and!produced!the!public!support!the! regime!desired!for!private!enterprise!and!development.!!As!a!result,!the!newspaper! press! upheld! huge! authority! in! terms! of! favoring! systems! of! surveillance! and! regulations! through! which! the! physical! site! of! PelourinhoSMaciel! could! become! recognized!and!envisioned!as!worthy!of!reincorporation!into!the!city!corpus!while! the! original! residents! could! only! be! imagined! and! rendered! as! outside! and! unworthy!of!their!own!reincorporation!as!valid!citizens.!! ! Maciel!residents,!however,!did!not!accept!police!violence!or!their!curfews! without! a! fight.! ! Over! the! course! of! the! 1970s! various! Maciel! residential! organizations!fought!for!their!right!to!stay!and!to!live!and!work!in!better!physical! conditions.! ! While! there! is! less! known! about! resident! organizations! internal! structures!given!their!lack!of!public!record,!I!used!the!newspaper!press!to!discern! the!strength!and!number!of!various!organized!struggles!the!residents!successfully! waged!by!taking!a!close!look!at!the!positive!shift!in!newspaper!attention!and!tone!to! Maciel!residents!struggles!by!the!early!1980s.! 108# 1 As!will!become!evident,!the!majority!of!newspaper!articles!I!read!were!anonymously!written.!!! Throughout!the!chapter,!I!use!“the!author”!to!name!the!anonymous!journalist.! 109 CHAPTER(FOUR( ( SOCIOLOGICAL(STUDIES(AND(FOUNDATION(REPORTS(( ON(THE(MACIEL(POOR( Throughout(the(1970s(and(early(1980s,(sociologists(played(an(integral(role( for(the(Foundation(of(Artistic(and(Cultural(Patrimony (of(Bahia(((Foundation)(by( being(their(“eyes(and(ears”(on(the(ground:(collecting(data,(conducting(interviews( with( the( Maciel( residents,( and( providing( and( implementing( Foundation( recommendations.((The(priority(was(how(best(to( incorporate(and( improve(residents’( living( and( working( c onditions(within( the( restoration( and( tourism( development( strategies.((The(Maciel(poor(were(interviewed(to(such(an(extent(that(sociologists( were( concerned( residents( were( becoming( “trained( professionals( at( answering( questionnaires”(and(would(generate(serious (distortions(for(sociologists(producing( studies(on(their(social(reality((Bacelar(1982,(40).(( In(addition(to(their(primary(roles( within(the(Foundation, (sociologists(were(also(publishing(their(own(dissertatio ns(and( books(on(the(Maciel(poor.((The (first(section(of(the(chapter( offers(a(snapshot(of(their( own( studies( i n( an( attempt( to( understand( the ( larger( theoretical( frameworks( informing( their( policy( recommendations( subsequently( implemented( by( the( Foundation.(( The(second(part(of(this(chapter(examines(the(sociologi sts’(Foundation( reports(and(recommendations(for(housing(and(employment(for(the(Maciel(poor.(In( particular,(I(focus (on(the(artisanship Qtraining(program(implemented(in(the(early( 1970s(and(the(housing(programs(initiated(which(advocated(residents(could(remain( 110 by( putting( sweat Qequity( into( their( homes( and( participating( in( the( restoration( process.((In(addition,(I(analyze(other(solutions(for(tourism(development(that(drew( upon(regional(development(theories( in(order(to(advocate(how(the(local(economy( tied( to( tourism( h ad(in# place! qualities( that( could( provide( some( friction( against( complete(withdrawal(of(capital(by(foreign(businesses.(( (( By(the(early(1980s(however,(Foundation(reports(included(sociologists,(both( named(and(unnamed,(criticizing( the(previous(decade’s(Foundation(programs(in( particular(for(their(lack(of(success(in(allowing(residents(to(stay.((( While(initial( Foundation(strategies(in(the(1970s( received(intense(criticism(from(sociologist s(in( the(following(decade,(the(diversity(and(breadth(of(their( initial(proposals(indicate(the( types(of(radical(solutions(being(implemented(on(behalf(of(the(Maciel(poor (despite( living(within(a(bureaucratic(regime(that(advocated( private(growth(and(investment( (including( foreign( investment)( over( welfare.( ( Finance( minister( Delfim( Neto( succinctly(summarized(this(position(when(he(famously(stated(that(before(the(pie(can( be(divided(it(must(first(be(increased((Smith(1997,(25).((( ( ( SOCIOLOGICAL(STUDIES!ON#THE$MACIEL'POOR( Carlos( G.( D’andrea( Espinheira( (1971)( wrote( one( of( the( first( sociolog ical( studies(on(the(Maciel(poor.((As(the(Foundation’s(Director(of(Planning(and(Research,( Espinheira( was( responsible( for( producing( the( 1969( Socio QEconomic( Survey( of( Maciel(UNESCO(had(requested.((In(addition(to(1223(questionnaires(distributed(and( collected,(residents(were(interviewed(individually,(noting(the(adults(and(dependent( 111 minors,(“in(order(to(account(for(the(stable(population(of(the(area.”(Espinheira’s(own( book(Comunidade# do# Maciel# (1971)( differs( greatly( from( the( report( written( for( UNESCO.((Rather(than (emphasizing(the(potential(tourism(economy(Pelourinho(could( offer,(Espinheira’s(study(focused(on(the(residents,(and(provided(general(statistics(of( Maciel(residents(in(addition(to(contextualizing(these(statistics(with(the(history(of(the( area,(employment,(re sidential,(and(social(conditions.(Espinheira’s(study(was(the( only(study(I(found(during(this(time(period(that(argued(the(newspaper(press(played(a( significant( role( in( criminalizing( Maciel( residents.( ( However,( similar( to( the( newspaper(press,(Espinheira(also(u sed(moral(outrage(to(call(attention(to(residential( living(conditions.((As(noted(in(the(figures,(Espinheira’s(images(evidences(the(moral( argument( laced( throughout( his( study.( The( photographs( Espinheira( chooses( to( highlight(in(his(study(are(also(coded(by(some (of(the(most(common(scenes(the(press( made(hypervisible(including(scenes(of(prostitution,(violence,(and(children(in(the( street.( In( addition,( Espinheira( consistently( made( a( clear( distinction( between( prostitutes(and(residents((Figures(16(and(17).(Yet,(in(maki ng(this(clear(distinction( Espinheira(failed(to(recognize(sex(workers(as(also(residents(participating(in(the( larger(Maciel(community(or(the(imaginative(ways(sex(workers(could(have(also(used( signs(on(their(own(homes(to(hide(from(the(police.( ( As( the( Coordinat or( for( Planning( and( Social( Research( of( the( Foundation,( Bacelar( was( responsible( for( all( surveys( and( reports( produced( on( behalf( of( the( Foundation.((From(January(to(May(1977,(Bacelar(conducted(interviews(in(Maciel( with(the(objective(of(better(understanding(on e(type(of(family,(in(this(case(the(female( 112 prostitute(and(her(family.(((Interview(topics(with(sex(workers(included(learning(her( life(history,(understanding(the(social(and(economic(characteristics(of(the(group,(the( “structure(of(roles(and(the(mechanisms(of(s ocialization”((Bacelar(1982).(For(Bacelar,( these(interviews(had(the(potential(to(deepen(the(knowledge(provided(by(the(census( as(well(as(develop(a(more(complicated(understanding(of(how(prostitutes(and(their( families(live(and(work(on(a(daily(basis.((Bacelar’ s(political(project(was(simple:(to( challenge(the(normative(idea(and(definitions(of(the(family(and(produce(a(study( which(would(reformulate(what(constitutes(a(family,(in(this(case(women(heads(of( household( who( participate( in( prostitution.( During( the( early( 197 0s,( various( sociologists,(including(E.(Franklin(Frazier,(Margaret(Mead,(and(Robert(Staples,(were( debating(whether(the(female(headed(household(constitutes(a(deviant(group,(the( myth(of(the(black(matriarchy,(and(whether(the(nuclear(family(as(a(social(unit(was ( entering(a(state(of(crisis.((For(Bacelar,(the(answer(was(obvious:(the(issue(was(not(the( myth(of(the(deviant(black(matriarchy,(rather,(it(was(the(myth(of(the(productive( nuclear( family( that( had( to( be( exposed( as( false.( ( Bacelar( challenged( normative( definitions(of(the(family(through(the(example(of(the(female(prostitute(and(her(family( in(Maciel.((( ( Young# Thieves#(1982)#was( another( Maciel( study( produced( by( sociologist( Vicente(Deocleciano(Moreira. 1 (Moreira’s(goal(was(not(just(to(study(thievery(and( Maciel( youth,( but( also( to( examine( the( young( thief( as( a( reflection( of( the( larger( structural(problems(affecting(Brazilian(youth.((Citing(studies(such(as(Albert(Cohen’s( Delinquent#Boys,(Moreira(argued (that(there(are(no(such(things(as(deviants(in(and(of( 113 themselves.((Rather,(so Qcalled(‘deviants’(are(a(result(of(a(relationship(between(actors( that(accuse(others(of(violating,(consciously(or(not,(the(values(and(patterns(of(a(pre Q determined(socioQcultural(order.(( Moreira(discussed(issues(such(as(the(Youth(Code,( work,(education,(police,(and(the(“Death(Squad”(as(grave(problems(that( reinforce(the( status( quo( and( only( serve( to( stigmatize( Brazilian( youth.( ( What( Moreira( found( particularly(problematic(was(the(notion(of(a(“cul ture(of(poverty”(that(dominated( state(supported(youth(educational(programs.(These(programs(identified(poor(youth( as( having( delusional( thoughts,( being( incapable( of( adapting( to( different( cultural( environments,( and( having( “‘diminished( capacity’( to( verbally( co mmunicate( with( other(persons”((49).(( ( It(is(not(until(the( last(chapter(that(Moreira(delved (into(the(particular(issues( surrounding(Maciel(youth.(For(Moreira,(the(“culture(of(poverty”(and(the(idea(that( the(values(of(the(poor(include(strong(feelings(of(fatali sm(correspond(to(the(larger( issues(of(dependency,(inferiority,(and(the(inability(to(control(impulsive(behavior.( According( to( Moreira,( the( ideology( of( a( “culture( of( poverty”( surrounding( state Q sponsored(education(programs(created(for(the(poor(youth(only(serv e(to(“blame(the( victim”,(blaming(the(poor(for(their(own(economic(conditions((54).((In(his(c onclusion,( Moreira(cited(Michel(Foucault(and(his(discussion(of(crime(and(the(birth(of(the(prison( to(summarize(his(argument:(rather(than(the(poor(having(a(criminal(na ture,(the( stigmatization(surrounding(the(thief(is(defined(by(the(state(powers,(who(impose( differences(that(separate(the(“criminal”(class(from(the(class(of(individuals(who(were( “born(well(off,”(sat(on(the(tribunals,(and(distributed(justice((196).(( ( 114 PHOTOGRAPHIC%DETERMINATIONS( Espinheira’s( photographs( included( in( his( 1971( sociological( study( on( the( Maciel(poor(also(mark(the(beginning(of(a(systematic(and(official(state Qsponsored( photographic(discourse(with(clear(claims(and,(like(all(realist(photos,(pronounced( irrefutable(evidence.(Certainly,(the(photographs(included(in(Espinheira’s(study(do( not(resemble(the(types(of(images(associated(with(Maciel(crime(and(transvestite( thievery(as(discussed(in(the(newspaper(press.((Yet(the(line(is(not(so(clearly(drawn.(( Espinheira(and(his(trained(team(of(census Qtakers/photographers(constructed(the( images( that( would( be( carefully( examined( by( Foundation( and( city( officials.( Espinheira’s(trained(eye(participated(in(a(larger(production(of(social(engineering( that,( when( inserted( into( the( larger( professional( discourse( regarding( health( and( housing,(was(powerful(in(its(precision.(As(John(Tagg((1993)(has(written(on(the( involvement(of(photography(in(the(politics(of(slum(clearance(in(late(nineteenth Q century( Leeds,( there( is( no( transparent( documen t( of( working Qclass( housing( conditions,(no(“unambiguous(tradition(of(documentary(photography”((121).(((Rather( than(treat(Espinheira’s(photographs(as(“evidence”(of(1970s(Maciel(working Qclass( “slum”,( we( must( instead( examine( the( historical( specifications( under (which( the( photos(were(produced. ( Tagg( (1993)( argues( we( must( treat( photography( as( any( other( discursive( system( given( photography( itself( cannot( function( outside( the( specific( historical( spaces(for(representation(and(practice(from(which(it(is(constituted:( ( 115 “…the( question( we( must( ask( is( not,( ‘What( does( this( discourse( reveal( of( something(else?’,(but,(‘what(does(it(do;(what(are(its(conditions(of(existence;( how(does(it(inflect(its(context(rather(than(reflect(it;(how(does(it(animate( meaning(rather(than(discover(it;(w here(must(we(be(positioned(to(accept(it(as( real(or(true;(and(what(are(the(consequences(of(doing(so”((119)?( ( ( Rather(than(being(questions(about(the(‘externals’(of(photography,(Tagg(calls( for( us( to( question( “the( very( conditions( which( furnish( the( materials,( c odes( and( strategies(of(photographic(images,(the(terms(of(their(legibility,(and(the(range(and( limits(of(their(effectivities.(Such(determinations(are(scored(across(the(images,(in( what(they(do(and(do(not(do,(in(what(they(encompass(and(exclude,(in(the(ways(the y( open(on(to(or(resist(a(repertoire(of(uses(in(which(they(can(be(meaningful(and( productive”((119).((As(such,(Espinheira’s(photographs(included(in(his(study(must( also( be( recognized( for( what( determined( these( photographs( in( particular( to( be( included(and(not(o thers.((As(a(corpus(of(images,(Espinheira(provides(a(snapshot(of( how(Maciel(was(to(be(recognized(by(outside(viewers’(gazes.((As(the(Foundation( Director( of( Planning( and( Research,( Espinheira’s( photographs( set( the( scale( and( direction(for(what(was(to(be(coded( as(meaningful. 2 (( Espinheira’s(photographs(categorically(defined(what(was(to(be(read(as(the( typical( “everyday”( scenes( of( Pelourinho( working( class( life.( ( While( Espinheira( included(a(census(table(with(the(range(of(occupations(Maciel(residents(held,(the( photos(included( with( his( study( did( not( reflect( this( diversity.( ( Some( of( the( occupations( listed( included( bookbinders,( laundresses,( street( vendors,( barbers,( beauticians,(domestic(workers,(and(nannies.((Here,(we(can(see(the(work(of(the(image( doing(something(else.(( Espinheira’s(focused(on(the(problem(of(prostitution(and( 116 made(four(of(the(twelve(images(included(in(his(study(reflect(this(focus.((The(first( image((Figure(16)(is(of(two(women,(one(pregnant(and(one(not,(standing(in(front(of( the(door(to(their(home.(The(image( could(be(read(as(three(residents(having(casual( conversation(outside(their(front(door.((On(the(door(reads(a(sign:(“Be(polite:(Do(not( knock(and(do(not(enter(FAMILY”.(Espinheira’s(caption(below(the(photo(reads(“The( word(family(is(a(warning:(behind(the(door(is (a(group(that(isolates(itself(from(the( troubled( world( of( Maciel”( (Espinheira( 1971,( 18).( Could( it( be( that( Espinheira( assumes(this(is(a(casual(conversation(or(is(the(image(doing(something(else(the(text( does(not(describe?(Like(any(photograph,(authorship(does( not(determine(meaning( and(what(survives(is(not(a(neutral(document(of(Maciel(working(class(life.((Instead,( the(images(produce(meanings(of(their(own(and(must(be(read(as(a(whole.(( ( 117 ( Figure(16:(A!sign!on!the!door:!“Be!polite:!Do!not!knock!and!do!not!enter”!FAMILY”.!Translation:! “The!word!family!is!a!warning;!behind!the!door!is!a!group!that!isolates!itself!from!the!troubled! world!of!Maciel.!(Espinheira!1971,!18)( * The(next(image(describing(the(problem(of(prostitution(comes(in(the(image(of( a(dark(passageway,(presumable(the(first(floor.((The(front(door(is(marked(by(the( word(“FAMILY”(and(Espinheira(writes(in(the(caption(below(the(word(marking(a( “clear(separation”(between(families(and(prostitutes.((Whether(or(not(there(was(such( 118 a(clear(distinction(between(both(groups(cannot(be(determined(but(what(we(can( discern(is(the(meaning(of(this(particular(image(in(relation(to(the(previous.((Central(to( this(image(is(the(hallway,(dark(and(dingy,(the(space(is(narrow(with(no(presence(of( residents.((Their(absence(makes(the(space(seem(further(inhospitable(and(devoid(of( life.( ( Figure(17:(“Prostitutes!and!families!live!in!the!same!mansion,!but!there!is!a!clear! separation!between!the!two!!!groups.”!!(Espinheira!1971,!18)( ( A(third(image(shows(a(very(thin(young(girl(leaning(against(a(wall(looking( straight(back(at(the(camera.((She(wears(a(short(dress(just(skimming(her(upper( thighs.((She(is(smoking(a(cigarette(and(looks(relaxed.((Espinheira’s(text(does(not( describe(the(girl(but(instead(focuses(on(the(wall:(“The(world(of(Maciel(is(small(and( 119 poor—its(borders(are(large(walls”((Espinheira(1971,(49).((Here,(the(photographer( focuses(on(her(body(to(mark(the(squalid(slum’s(borders.( ( (( Figure(18:(“ The!world!of!Maciel!is!small!and!poor—Its!borders!are!large!!walls!.”! (Espinheira!1971,!49)! Espinheira( also( focuses( on( the( children( of( Maciel( to( express( his( moral( outrage(at(the(conditions(of(poverty(within(Maciel.((I(focus(on(three(of(these(images( of( children( to( demonstrate( Espinheira’s( explicit( investment.( ( Image( 19(shows( children(sitting(on(the(floor(behind(a(bed(in(the(passageway(of(a(mansion.((The( 120 caption(below(reads(“The(resident(of(Maciel(is(one(of(the(most(poor(in(Salvador(per( square(foot;(the(hallways(are(occupied(by(the(poorest(f amilies.((The(old(mansions( are(large(congested(brothels”((Espinheira(1971,(18).((The(space(is(gloomy,(cluttered( and(dark.(Two(children(are(the(focus(of(the(picture,(each(looking(at(the(camera.((An( adult,(perhaps(their(mother,(lies(on(the(floor(next(to(them (with(a(sheet(covering(her.(( An(unmade(bed(shows(the(cramped(quarters(in(which(this(family(live.((The(very( clutter( and( obscurity( of( this( image( makes( an( appeal( to( convert( the( dirty( and( cluttered( space( into( a( clean( and( healthy( one:( ( orderly,( open( to( vision( a nd( supervision.( Figure(19:( The!resident!of!Maciel!is!one!of!the!most!poor!in!Salvador!per!!square!foot;! the!hallways!are!occupied!by!the!poorest!families.!!The!old!mansions!are!large! congested!brothels.!(Espinheira!1971,!18) 121 The(most(explicit(call(for(improving(the(living(conditions(for(Maciel(residents( comes(in(the(form(of(an(infant,(naked(from(the(waist(down,(crawling(up(an(alley( commonly(referred(to(as(the(“Alley(of(Piss”.((The(street(is(filled(with(garbage.((Yet(the( caption(does(not(describe(the(baby.((Instead,(the(caption(is(brief(and(only(describes( the(name(of(the(alley(as(it(is(commonly(referred.((The(heavyQhanded(symbolism( directs(the(viewer’s(gaze(to(the(naked(baby(crawling(through(a(piss(filled(sidewalk.(( Here,(Espinheira(uses(the(image(to(capture(a(particular(scene(that(would(shock( Medical(Officers(and(social(reformers.( ( !!!!! Figure(20:!“!‘Alley!of!Piss’—Popular!name!for!Inácio!Accioli!Street.”!(Espinheira!1971,! 36)! A(third(photograph(shows(an(image(of(a(toddler,(fully(dressed(with(shoes( untied.(He(sits(on(the(front(steps(and(looks(off(into(the(distance.((The(caption(reads:( 122 “Boy(sitting(on(the(front(stoop(of(a(tenement(house(on(street(Rua(das(Laranjeiras.(( The(streets(of(Maciel(are(filled(with( the(melancholy(of(his(sad(songs ”((Espinheira( 1971,(35).(Perhaps(in(contradistinction(to(the(naked(infant(in(the(previous(photo,( Espinheira(felt(there(were(no(words(necessary(to(describe(the(image(photographed.(( However,(in(this(c loseQup(of(a(boy(fully(dressed,(Espinheira(felt(obligated(to(give(a( full(description(of(what(he(wanted(the(viewer(to(understand(when(looking(at(this( picture.( Figure(21:(“Childhood!VIII.!Boy!sitting!on!the!front!stoop!of!a!tenement!house!on!street!Rua!das! Laranjeiras.!!The!streets!of!Maciel!are!filled!with!the!melancholy!of!his!sad!songs.”!(Espinheira! 1971,!35)! In(addition(to(the(images(of(children(and(prostitution,(Espinheira(included( two(photos(to(represent(the(familiar(scenes(of(everyday(violence.(One( image((Figure( 24)(shows(a(street(full(of(commotion,(filled(with(people(looking(at(military(vehicles( 123 arriving(at(the(scene(of(a(crime.((Espinheira’s(caption(is(brief(and(only(describes(the( victim’s(name(and(description(of(the(crime:(Maria(de(Lourdes(Santos(was(knifed(on( the(corner(of(J.(Castro(Rabelo(street(and(João(de(Deus.(In(comparison(to(Figure(24,( Figure(25(shows(two(men(facing(each(other(with(a(crowd(of(onlookers.((Espinheira( describes(the(violent(scene(as(“common(and(everyday”(in(the(streets(of(Maciel.((The( two(photos(can(be(read(together(as(representing(the(varied(moments(and(forms(of( violence(that(Espinheira(wants(to(document(as(common(scenes(in(the(daily(life(of( Maciel(residents.((Here,(Espinheira(directs(the(viewer(to(witness(the(before(and(after( effects(of(Maciel(violence(and(crime.(( ! Figure(22.!“Military!vehicles!at!the!moment!Maria!de!Lourdes!Santos!called!for!aid,! knifed!on!the!corner!of!J.!Castro!Rabelo!and!João!de!Deus—Maciel!de!Cima—on!July! 28,!1971.!(Espinheira!1971,!38)( 124 ( Figure(23.(“In!the!very!moment!of!a!fight!at!the!top!of!the!‘Alley!of!Piss.’!Violent!scenes! are!common!and!everyday!in!the!streets!of!Maciel.”!(Espinheira!1971,!38)! ( The( careful( collection( of( ordered( images( included( in( Espinheira’s( study( produce(another(perspective(from(which(to(Maciel(was(becoming(recognized(to( outside( viewers.( Espinheira( used( moral( outrage( to( guide( the( viewer’s( understandings(of(the(pictures(of(children.(Espinheira’s(“true(representations”(were( used(to(show(positive(proof(that(Maciel(residents(were(living(in(the(most(unsanitary( and(dangerous(conditions.(((Concerns(for(public(health(can(be(recognized(in(these( images(as(also(closely(intertwined(with(complex(fears(about(what(life(was(like(in( this(‘other(place’;(what(were(the(behaviors(and(attitudes(of(these(other(people?(How( were(deteriorating(conditions(for(life(a(breeding(ground(for(disease,(criminality,(and( immorality?( Espinheira’s( camera( operated( across( and( manipulated( these( public( anxieties.((The(camera(lens(showed(the(specter(of(prostitution(as(a(transparent( 125 problem(that(needed(the(solutions(of(trained(professional(public(health(and(urban( development( specialists.( ( The( collection( of( social( census,( statistical( survey( and( photographs( were( the( refined( scientific( methods( to( record,( assess,( and( execute( solutions.(These(were(the(tasks(set(out(for(the(Foundation.((The(principles(guiding( the(Foundation(were(set(out(as(the(dictates(of(a(new(local(governmental(institution( and(articulated(a(new(socio Qpolitical(discourse(grounded(in(the(restructuring(and( reordering(of(urban(life.((Espinheira’s(camera(operated(similarly(to(the(camera(John( Tagg((1993)(describes(in(late(nineteenth(Leeds(social(engineering(projects:(“The( camera(operated(across(the(gulf(dividing(here(from(there,(the(eye(from(the(real,(the( seer(from(the(see n.((But(it(made(these(points(seem(irreversibly(fixed(and(rendered( transparent(which(held(them(together(and(apart:(the(shifting(field(of(the(sign(which( is(both(object(and(producer(of(relationships(of(power.( ( ( FOUNDATION)STRATEGIES"FOR"MACIEL"RESIDENTS( The(state’s(financial(investment(for(improving(living(and(working(conditions( for(the(Maciel(poor(was(largely(a(result(of(the(UNESCO(recommendations(stipulating( any( historical( restoration( should( avoid( eviction( or( displacement( of( the( original( community.( ( In( 1971, (the( Foundation( published( the( “Development( Plan( for( the( Maciel( Community,”((1971)(and( outlined( both( its( philosophy( and( the( welfare( programs(to(be(implemented(for(Maciel(residents.(((DPMC(established(that(the( primary(responsibility(of(the(Foundation(was ( to(promote(an(effective(climate(of(productive(and(profitable(activity(in(the( Maciel(area,( employing( the( idle( or( misguided( work( force;( modifying( the( 126 education(sector(and(creating(new(working(and(living(conditions(for(the( residents(of(the(area.((This(is,(of(cou rse,(without(utilizing(easier(methods(and( certainly( less( humane —the( simple( removal( of( the( residents( considered( undesirable(or(marginal.((This(is(a(huge(task(of(immense(complexity(but([sic]( because(of(this ,(the(State(Governor(has(decided(to(confront(it(with (vision(and( clarity([“decisão#e#metodo”].((Plano#de#Desenvolvimento#da#Comunidade#do# Maciel#1971,(1)( With( this( in( mind ,(the( following( categories( of( employment( were( adopted( as( a( priority:(first,( the(use(of(une mployed(or(“idle”(work(force;(second, (training(of(work( force(in([areas(of](specialization;(and(third, (engagement(of(the(work(force(in(the( labor( market”( ( Plano# de# Desenvolvimento(1971,( 2).((While( the( Foundation( did( provide(their(vers ion(of(employment(opportunities(by (allocating(more(than(70%(o f( its(budget(to(training(staff(and(requisitioning(materials,(by(the(late(1970s(the(results( were(dismal(and(largely(pronounced(a(failure(by(both(the(Foundation(and(social( scientists((Bomfim(2010).((( ( As(a(consequence,(by(the(late(1970s,(the(Foundation(came( under(increasing( attack(by(local(social(scientists(as(a(paternalistic(welfarist(institution.((However,( during(the(early(1970s,(local(sociologists(had(been(assigned(the(ambitious(task(of( developing(plans(on(behalf(of(the(Foundation(that(would(improve(reside nts’(ability( to(work(and(be(“productive.”(The(primary(solutions(implemented(were(the(creation( of(artisanship(training(program(a nd(prioritizing(the(unemployed(male (work(force( for(restoration/construction(work(in(the(neighborhood.((By(the(early(1980s,(some( social( scientists( were( highly( critical( of( the( Foundation ’s( strategies( for( Maciel( employment.((Reports(expressed(their(disappointment(with(the(degree(to(which(any( social(improvements(for(the(residents(could(be(documented,(as(well(as(with(the( 127 continuing( dangers( faced( by( the( residents (including( police( brutality( as( well( as( unsafe(living(conditions .(The(reports(called(on(the(Foundation(to(take(responsibility( for(their(part (in(the(disastrous(consequences,(specifically(highlighting(their(failure(to( create(job(emplo yment.((The(differences(and(criticisms(of(sociologists(expressed( during(the(early(1980s(demonstrate(sociologists(were(by(no(means(a(monolithic( category(of(researchers(and(negotiated(highly(fraught(tensions(between(themselves( as(well.( ( In(a(report(entitled( “General(Plan(for(the(Recuperation(of(Pelourinho”((1972)( the(Foundation(outlined(why(creating(jobs(was(necessary(for(the(Maciel(poor: ( Resolving(the(problems(of(Maciel(within([Maciel](will(avoid(the(transference( of(this(population(to(other(locations,(avoidi ng(the(danger(of(provoking(an( increase( of( the( already( existing( social( problem…[Creating( an]( economy( [within(Maciel](will(allow(the(local(population(to(remain(until(they(are(able(to( produce(the(means(for(their(gradual(and(progressive(move,(in(agreement( with(the(desires(of(the(residents,([and](the(locations(they(choose(( Plano#Geral# de#Recuperação#do#Pelourinho#1972,(4).( ( The( Foundation( argued( Maciel( job( creation( was( necessary( for( Maciel( residents(to(remain.((In(addition,(job(creation(would(give(residents(more (agency(and( control(in(deciding(when(and(where(they(would(like(to(relocate. (( The(“Immediate(Plan(of(Action(for(Maciel”(( Plano#de#Açao#Imediata#para# Maciel# 1972)( highlights(how(local( officials(were( identifying( and (implementing( strategies(for(residential(development.((In(the(first(half(of(the(document,( the(author( describes(Maciel(as(a(new(environment (based(on(the (changes(the Foundation(had( initiated.(This( new(environment(could(be(enjoyed(by(visitors( given(“the(occurrences( of(violent(robberies(and(the(hostile(verbal(abuse(that(had(previously(accosted( [the( 128 visitor]”(had(been(red uced(by(more(than(half.((The(author(attributes(sex(workers(as( those(“accosting”(visitors(entering(Maciel:(( On(the(streets…there(no(longer(exist (prostitutes(which(today(represent(only( 8.8%(of(the(Maciel(population.((Without(violent(means,(prostitution(has(left( Maciel(since([the(prostitute](cannot(exist(outside(her(system,(without(the( conditions(and(environment(that(she(created(and(maintained.( Through(the( establishment(of(artisan(centers,(medical(clinics ,([and](a(police(post,(the( Foundation(is( promoting(a(new(environment( as(well(as(giving(positive( examples(for(residents(to(embrace (a(new(way(of(life. ((Plano#de#Ação#Imediata# 1972,(n.p.)( ( Foundation( sociologists( were( hopeful( that( both( Maciel( residents( and( international(tourists(visiting(the(area(would (mutually(benefit(from(the(programs( initiated(including(artisan(centers,(medical(clinics(and(a(police(post. ( In(the(second(half(of(the(document,(the(author( describes(how(residents(are( unable(to(plan(for(the(extended(future(given(all(their(energies( were(focused(dayQtoQ day(survival(including(shelter,(food(and(clothing :(( The(renovation(of(Maciel(is(irreversible,(and(those(who(remain(in(the(area( will(only(be(thos e(who(embrace(an(ideology(of(self Qimprovement.([Currently],( the(Maciel(population(lives(in(tenement(type(housing,(in(conditions(without( the( minimum( amount( of( space( or( habitability.( ( Given( this,( they( pay( an( average(of(Cr$15,00(per(day(to(rent(one(“room”(occ upying(4(square(meters.(( And(this(quantity(must(be(paid(daily(excluding(water(and(electricity.((There( appears( to( be( a( decisive( factor( in( the( social( relations( of( the( area.( ( The( individuals(fixate(on(the(“here(and(now,”(for(the(solution(of(their(immediate( problems,(their(daily(insecurity,([exhibiting(their](lack(of(perspective(and( planning(for(the(future.((It(is(evident(that(the(projects(implemented(by(the( Foundation(in(the(area(are(having(positive(effects,(in(the(sense(of(neutralizing( this([current](state(of (things.((Plano#de#Açao#Imediata(1972,(n.p.)( ( The(author(describes(the(residents(of(Maciel( as(accustomed(to(living(day QtoQ day(for(outrageous(costs(and (identified(the(changes(initiated(by(the(Foundation( as( allowing( them( the( ability( to (plan( for( their( future( once( their( immediate (living( 129 conditions(and(costs(for(shelter(would( be(improved.(The(Foundation(identified(an( innovative( strategy( of( how( to( take( housing( improvement( out( of( the( market( by( allowing(poor(residents(to(put(sweat(equity(back(into(t he(places(they(w ould(then( own.( The( Foundation(advocated( residents’( own( participation( in( the( housing( restoration( process( with( “the( minimum( being( their( cooperation( with( the( construction( work”.( (In( addition,( the( Foundation( advocated( housing( for( Maciel( residents(through(the(i nitiation(of(housing(contracts(that(would(be(based(on(the( existing(rental(prices. (( In( another( report( entitled( “Evaluations( and( Proposals( for( Developing( a( Dynamic(Maciel(Community,”( (1972)(providing(means(for(employment(would(allow( residents(to(remain(and(b enefit(from(economic(development(in(the(area :(( …we(propose(that,(in(order(to(provide(alternative(solutions(to(this(“social( problem,”( we( create( other( “avenues( for( mobility”( stimulating( within( the( population(the(desire(to(break(free(of(their(state(of( isolation(and(identify(with( the( institutional( social( values. ( (Síntese# Evaluativa# e# Propostas# para# o# Desenvolvimento#de#uma#Comunidade#Dinámica#do#Maciel(1972,(n.p.)( ( As(both(the( Plano#de#Ação#Imediata#and(the(above(supportive(document( indicate,(in(order(for(Maciel(residents(to(become(productive(members(of(society,( they( would( need( to( unlearn( bad( behavior( (illicit( or( immoral( practices,( lack( of( determination,(not(planning(for(the(future)(and(be(trained(to( embrace(legitimate( moral(activities.(This(change(of(behavior(was(to(be(promoted(within(the(artisanship( training(school.(Residents( who(had(gone(through(the(program(would(be(rewarded( with(new(opportunities(for(work,(including(selling(their(artisan(crafts(in( the(shops( managed(by(“one,(two(or(more(students(depending(on(whether(they(had(passed( 130 their( studies( for( ‘economic( viability’”.( ( In( addition,( the( report( recommended( concrete(studies(be(made(on(the(possibility(of(exporting(the(artisan(crafts,(“to(the( south([of(Brazil](as(well(as(to(foreign(countries”.((The(report(concludes(with(a( cautiously( hopeful( tone QQQthe( adoption( of( these( measures( would( result( in( the( effective(integration(of(a(large(percentage(of(the(Maciel(community.(However,(the( Foundation(also(recogniz ed(that(the(proposed(and(implemented(methods(would(not( resolve(all(of(Maciel’s(problems;(some(cases,(including(those(who(suffer(“pathologic( or(psychological(disequilibrium,”(would(never(be(able(to(embrace(a(productive(life ( (Síntese#Evaluativa#1972,(n.p.).(( The( Foundation( identified( the( artisanship( program( as( providing( new( employment( opportunities( for( the( Maciel( poor( that( would( also( promote( and( facilitate(their(psychological(well Qbeing.((Jeferson(Afonso(Bacelar,(the(Foundation’s( lead(sociologist(and(Coordina tor(of(Planning(and(Social(Research,(identified(the( Maciel(poor(as( not(having(work(that(allowed(them(to(use(their(imagination :(( …While(the(work(is(unstable(and(socially(weak,(the(population(of(Maciel(does( participate(in(productive(labor[.]([It(is(a(labor]( that(fundamentally(uses(the( muscles(of(the(body(and(consequently(impoverishes(their(ability(to(have( “ideas”.( ( [To( not( have( ideas( is]( to( not( use( anticipatory( thinking —an( orientation(towards(the(future…while(it(does(exist(in(other(groups(of(society,( [and]( privileges( the( model( of( behavior( that( maintains( other( modes( of( existence.((The(social(and(economic(conditions(oblige(the([poor](individuals( to(only(aspire(to(satisfying(their(material(needs;(to(have(a(perception(of( reality(that(only(focuses(on(obtaining(thes e(immediate(needs.((The(struggle( for( life,( the( obligation( to( find( a( solution( for( their( basic( material( needs( eliminates(the(ability(to(have(a(focus(on(the(future(and(to(pass(through(to(a( second(phase(and,(over(a(longer(period(of(time,(satisfy(these(other(ne eds(on( another(level.((1979a,(7). (( ( 131 By(implementing(a(Marxian(framework,(Bacelar(advocated(for(the(Maciel( residentQworker(to(connect(with(her(work(in(a(way(that(would(not(separate(her( activity(as( a(worker(from(all(that(comprised(her(innate(human(potential( as(a(person.( In(The# Economic# and# Philosophic# Manuscripts# of# 1884# (1988),(Marx( defines(a( person’s( Gattungsesen# (human( nature)(as( existing( within ( a( set( of( specific,( historically(conditioned(activities.((Thus,(the(essential(nature(of(a(human(being(is( actualized(when(a(woman((or(man) —within(her(given(historical(circumstance —is( free(to(subordinate(her(will(to(the(external(demands(she(has(imposed(upon( herself,( by( her( imagination,( and( not( the( external( demands( imposed( upon( her( by( other( people.( In( addition( to( the( creation( of( an( artisanship( program,( the( Foundation( recognized(the(need(to(incorporate(the(Maciel(residents(through(four(additional( categories(of(development.((Modifications(were(made(in(the(categories(of(“public( health,”(“general(assistan ce,”(“housing,”(and(“education.” ((Changes(made(under(the( category(of(“public(health” (included(improving(access(to(medical(clinics,(mandatory( vaccination,(registration(of(respiratory(illness((tube rculosis)(as(well(as (syphilis(and( venereal( disease( control.( ( Housing( adjustments( included( the( implementation( of( stricter( housing( regulations,( such( as( the( “prohibition( of( sub Qdividing( rooms…compelling(the(fulfillment(of(minim um(space(per(person(agreement(within( the(Maciel(colonial(mansions(and(the(control(of(price(per(room.”(Changes(introduced( under( the( category( of( “General( Assistance”( included( producing( resident( identification( documents( with( health( and( employment( information. ((Under( the( 132 category(of(“education”(the(Foundation(would(improve(Maciel(schools(and(provide( “basic,(secondary,(and(professional”(education.( 3 (( The(combination(of(stricter(housing(regulations( in(addition(to (proprietor( speculation( that( their( buildings( would( eventually( be( bought( by( the( Foundation( encouraged(owners(to(abandon(their(buildings,(further(worsening(living(conditions( for(the(residents.(The(statistics(Washington(Queiroz((1984)(provides(are(indicative( of(how(changes(in(housing(regulations(were(affectin g(residents’(ability(to(stay(in( Maciel:(“In(1969(13(buildings(were(in(ruin;(By(1978(this(number(had(increased(to(41( and(today([1984]…68(buildings(are(uninhabited”((10).( ( ( SOCIOLOGISTS’)CRITICISMS!OF#MACIEL#INTERVENTION#PLANS#( By(1979,(the(Foundation(recogn ized(that(the(artisanship(program(had(not( produced( the( desired( results:( “the( artisanship( program,( the( priority( of( the( “Development( Plan( for( the( Maciel( Community,”( was( not( an( agent( capable( of( resolving(the(formation(and(engagement(of(the(work(force(within(t he(labor(market.(( While(a(reduced(number(of(residents(were(absorbed(into(the(administrative(sectors( and(within(projects(of(the(Foundation,(an(effective(course(of(action([ politica#efetiva]( was(not(able(to(produce(the(jobs([necessary](for(the(Maciel(populati on”((Bacelar( 1979b).( In(a(report(entitled(“New(Businesses(for(Pelourinho”((June(1979),(sociologist( Vicente(Deocleciano(Moreira(identified(the(Foundation’s(need(to(take(responsibility( for(producing(economic(growth(for(Pelourinho QMaciel.(Moreira(sought(to(ex plain( 133 how(the(business(climate(in(the(Pelourinho(actually(discouraged(business(growth( and(contributed(to(the(increasing(poverty(of(the(residents. 4 (( He(recognized(that(this( was(in(large(part(a(result(of(the(dominance(of(foreign(business: ( In(any(urban(zone(w here(there(exists(multiple(markets,( in#the#name#of#a# growing#local#economy,(there(should(always(be(an(influx(of(wealth(constantly( circulating(that(will(grow(from(any(increased(intensity(of(circulation.((In( Pelourinho(the(circulation(of(wealth(is(not(expres sed,(and(with(this(lack(of( circulated(wealth(there(is(the(absence(of(a(growing(business(sector.(The( economy(of(Pelourinho(finds(itself(completely(without(capital.(The(economic( clusters(that(do(exist((Hotel(Pelourinho,(SENAC(Tourism(Complex,(the(Gerson( Silver(Artisan(shop(and(the(Carmo(Hotel)(are(not(clusters(distributing(or( circulating(wealth.((On(the(contrary,(their(assets(are(channeled(away,(with( physical(and(economic(objectives(very(distant(from(the(Pelourinho.((As(a( result,(these(clusters(referenced(bec ome(ever(wealthier(while(Pelour inho( becomes(ever(more(poor… ( …It(is(worth(repeating —they(are(great(accumulators(of(capital,(every(day( they(are(ever(richer(and(Pelourinho(is(every(day(that(much(more(poor.((On( the(other(hand,(as(economic(poles,(they(are(incap able(of(contributing(to(the( “opening”(for(the(local(job(market.((They(do(not(absorb(the(work(force(of( Pelourinho(and(if(they(do(at(all(it(is(so(small(that(it(is(safe(to(say(it(is(nil.((( These( economic( clusters( are( the( “foreign( celebrities”;( [yet]( they( do( n ot( absorb( the( local( work( force.( [Rather],( they( accumulate( capital( and( take( advantage(of(the(condition(of(Pelourinho(as(a(tourist(zone(to(fatten(their( pockets,(exploiting(the(local(tourist(influx.((In(other(words,( Pelourinho(serves( the( [foreign( businesses](while( they([foreign( businesses](do( not( serve( Pelourinho((5).(( ( ( Moreira’s(criticism( regarding(how(foreign(businesses(operated(in(Pelourinho( exemplifies( a( major( theory( of( regional( development( that( was( gaining( a ttention( throughout( the( 1970s:( N amely,( the( Marx ist( theory( of( capitalistic Qimperialist( exploitation(and(theories(relating(to(the(“backwash(effect”(of(international(trade.( This( analysis,( which( was ( associated( originally( with( dependent( development( theorists(Myrdal,(Singer,(Prebisc h,(and(others( suggested(that(industrial(economies( benefit(relatively(more(than(the (primary(producing(economies (with(whom(they( 134 interact(based(on(the(recognition( that(international(monopolies(penetrate(national( economies(in(search(of(raw(materials(and(market(outlets(in(order(to(use(a nd(add(to( their(increasing(economic(surplus.( (As(a(result,(the(interaction(is(unequal(and( gives( rise( to( cumulatively( divergent( trends( in( the( development( of( the( two( groups( of( countries.((As(Osvaldo(Sunkel( (1973)(argues,(the(hypothesis(of(the(“spread”(and( “backQwash”(effects(from(the(international(extensions(of(some(national(economic( systems( into( other( national( economic( systems( essentially( boils( down( to( the( following:(( a)(the(nature(of(foreign(owned(or(controlled(primary(production(for(export,( which(tends(to( be(an("enclave"(with(little(relation(to(or(influence(over(the( local( economy( but( with( substantial( promotional( effect( over( the( home( economy(where(most(procurement,(financing,(storing,(processing,(research,( marketing(and(reinvestment(take(place;(b)(the(charac teristics(of(the(local( economy,(which(lacks(trained(manpower,(entrepreneurial(talent,(capital(and( physical(as(well(as(institutional(infrastructure,(and(is(therefore(unable(to( respond( positively( to( the( potential( opportunities( of( an( expanding( export( activity;(c)(the(relative(behaviour(of(the(prices(of(raw(material(exports(and( manufactured( importsQQthe( worsening( of( the( terms( of( trade( of( primary( producersQQas( well( as( the( instability(of( primary( product( prices;( d)( the( generally(monopolistic(nature(of(the(primary( product(prices;(d)(the(generally( monopolistic(nature(of(the(primary(export(activity(which,(when(the(firm(is( foreign(owned,(implies(an(outflow(of(excess(profits ."((Sunkel(1973,(137)( ( Moreira’s(solution(applied(the(theory(of(“spread”(and(“back Qwash”(effects( by( emphasizing( how( the( l ocal( economy( tied( to( tourism( had (in# place! qualities( that( should( provide( some( friction( against( complete( withdrawal( of( capital( as( well( as( qualities(that(can(intensify(its(local(circulation.(( In(the(case(of(a(business(interested( in(buying(a(building(from(a(private(owner,(Moreira(suggested(the(Foundation(could( play(the(role(of(real(estate(agent(and,(in(the(name(of(the(State,(offer(substantial( 135 benefits(to(the(seller,(such(as(debt(forgiveness,(with(state(funds.((In(cases(of(more( difficult(negotiations,(the(Foundation(could(also(play(the(role(of(facilitator(between( buyer( and( seller.( ( In( return,( the( Foundation( would( require( any( new( business( entering(Pelourinho(to(sign(a(contract(stipulating(the(hiring(of(Maciel(residents.(( Moreira( also( identified( the( need( to( make( Pelourinho( more( attractive( for( potential(businesses(to(invest(in(the(area.((In(order(to(attract(the(businesses,(the( Foundation( would( provide( a( clean( and( safe( Pelourinho( by( implementing( the( following:( a( “definitive( system( of( public( street( lights( of( the( highest( quality,”( “‘personalized(public(cleaning(services,”(“an(efficient(and(modern(basic(sanitary( system,”( and( a( defined( “road( system( for( the( circulation( of( Pelourinho( traffic.”( Moreira(believed(that(if(the(Foundation(facilitated(the(process,(it(would(be(possible( for(Maciel’s(poor(to(be(incorporated(into(the(Pelourinho(tourism(market(as(wage( laborers(for(other(businesses.(( Other(social(scientists(argued(that(the(Foundation(could(ensure(that(Maciel( residents( remain( in( the( neighborhood( postQrestoration( by( providing( residential( housing( at( a( reduced( price.( An( undated( and( anonymous( report( entitled( “For( a( Discussion( on( the( Housing( Policies( of( Maciel( OR( ‘Why( the( Dream( is( Ending’”( provides(an(indicting(commentary(on(the(multiple(ways(the(Foundation(aided(the( residential(eviction(process. 5 (In(addition,(the(report(describes(the(failures(of(the( artisanshipQtraining(program(as(a(result(of(the(Foundation’s(belief(in(the(tourism( market(supporting(the(residents(now(converted(into(“little(entrepreneurs.”((A(third( critique,( also( related( to( the( artisanship( program,( describes( the( Foundation( as( 136 creating(employment(opportunities(without(taking(into(account(who(the(residents( were(and(what(they(wanted. (( (As(the(author( of(Para#Uma#Discussão#states,(this(philosophy(of(action( stated( in(the(Development(Plan( was(“perfectly(functional(within(the( capitalist(system(as(it( offered(higher(returns(to(property(owners(and(intermediaries(who,(by(isolating(and,( restricting([properties],([allowed(the(Foundat ion](an(easier(and(m ore(reasonable( way([of](exercising (control.”((With(these(methods(implemented(by(the(Foundation,( one( portion( of( restoration( work( advanced —that( is,( the( social( and( economic( renovation( [of( the( area] —“without( compulsory( methods,”( reflected( i n( the( “population”(abandoning(the(buildings(for(other(areas(of(Salvador(or(areas(further( away(from(the(perimeter(of(renovation ((Para#Uma#Discussão#n.d.,(2).( In( addition( to( detailing( the( non Qcompulsory( methods( the( Foundation( employed( to( encourage( residents( to( move,( the( author( of(Para# Uma# Discusão( identified(the(failures(of(the(artisanship Qtraining(program(as(another(indication(of( the(Foundation’s(skewed(logic(for(how(to(improve(residents(living(and(working( conditions:(( ( In(the(case(of(training(artisans,(we([ the(Foundation](could((artificially)(turn( them(into(owners(of(their(means(of(production((and(we(have(some).((This( would(obligate(the(Foundation(in(providing(the(initial(invest ment,(at(the(least( providing(the( tools( of( production( and( primary( materials.( ( And( this( is( assuming(that(this(referred(artisan(has(a(location(to(work(from.((If(not,(the( investments(become(even(more (costly.((Hypothetically,(we(would(then(have( the(products(produced(from(these(artisans,(such(as(the(products([made(of]( leather,(natural(fibers ,(weaving,(ceramic,(etc.(((In(other(words,(given(the(type( of(artisanship(being(developed,(would(there(be(a(market(for(these(products?( Is(this(market(not(already(saturated? ((Para#Uma#Discussão#n.d.,(2)(( ( 137 In(addition(to( identifying(Maciel(residents(entering (an(already(oversaturated( artisan( craftwork( market,( the( author( believe d( that( the( entire( concept( of( transforming(residents(into(entrepreneurs(was(ill(conceived(from(the(onset,(given( that(the(capitalist(market(generates(wealth(by(exploiting(labor(on(some(leve l:(( “[For( example],( in( the( case( of( wood( [work]( and( book( binding,( we( [the( Foundation](would(have(to(finance(teaching(someone(to(become(essentially(a( capitalist(in(order(to(survive…Therefore,(is(it(worth(financing(an(artisan(to( become(a(capitalist,(exploitin g(the(work(force?” ((3)(( ( Further,(the(author(also(criticize d(the(Foundation(for(their(failure(to(provide( enough(employment(for(a (majority(female(work(force (and(argued(the(Foundation’s( emphasis(on( construction(work(privileged(a(male(work(force.((Given(the( structural( problems(of(a(capitalist(market,(the(Foundation(failed(to(generate(an(economy(for( the(residents.((As(a(consequence,(the(author(note d(that(Maciel(continued(to(be(a(site( of(poverty,(a(site(that(continued(to(“lack(employment(for(the(female(work(for ce,”(as( well(as(the(site(of(“the(buildings’(progressive(and(continuous(ruination”.( ( The(author(argue d(that(in(order(to(resolve(these(problems(and(ensure(that( the( Maciel( residents( could( stay( in( their( neighborhood( post Qrestoration,( the( Foundation(should(inve st(in(a( policy(of(housing(for(the(poor.((As(a(matter(of(priority( the(Foundation(would(“maintain(‘symbolic(rentals’”: ( being(aware(of(the(level(of(poverty(of(the(population,(these(rentals(would(at( the(minimum(provide(the(conservation(of(the(façades(and(commo n(areas(of( the( buildings.( ( While( this( would( be( developing( what( some( would( call( a( ‘paternalistic’(project,(we(would(call(this(the( policy(of(assistance.(We(would( continue(to(try(to(create(the(illusive(‘community(spirit’...[sic]…How(can(we( expect(the(populati on(to(conserve(their(buildings(if(they(do(not(even(have( enough(to(eat?((Obviously(the(answer(is(on(the(‘tip(of(the(tongue’(of(certain( 138 technocrats,( who( express( their( good( intentions( of( “[Maciel( residents]( creating(their(own(economy.( (4)( ( Rather(than(Moreira ’s(solution(of(ensuring(employment(for(Maciel(residents( by(seeding(local(business(into(Pelourinho,(this(author(advocates(a(housing(program( initiated(by(the(Foundation,(a(housing(program(that(would(fulfill(the(Foundation’s( promises(of(ensuring(Pelourinho(re main(a#place#of#life:(“In(order(to(maintain(a( Pelourinho(of(life,((as(stated(in(the([Foundation’s](article)(we(will(have(to(have( people(living(in(Pelourinho,(that(is,(to(maintain(certain(areas(as(predominantly( residential.((In(order(to(achieve(this(goal ,(it(is(fundamental(to(develop(a(housing( program”((4).( Social(scientist(Washington(Queiroz ((1984)(echoes(the(criticisms(described( by(the(previous(author.((Queiroz(notes(that(the(combination(of(lack(of(absorption(of( the(local(population(within(the(Pelourinho(m arket(and(the(nonexistence(of(a(social( environment(where(Maciel(could(reproduce(itself(led(to(the(abandonment(of(the( neighborhood(by(the(original(residents:( ( The(creation(of(goods(and(services(that(are(being(initiated(in(the(area(are( incompatible(with(the( standard(of(living(and(consumer(power(of(the(Maciel( population.((This(is(a(phenomenon(that(has(been(witnessed(in(practically(all( parts(of(the(world.((The(defined(areas,(the(historical(centers,(for(example((the( historical( centers( of( the( European( cities( as( i s( frequently( the( case),( are( reanimated(by(the(public(powers(who(invest(in(the(area(in(the(hopes(of( opening(new(markets.(In(the(process,(they(insert(the(cancer(of(speculation( and(the(first(material(effect(is(the(expulsion(of(the(local(population(who(are(ill ( equipped(to(respond(to(the(new(economic(demands(and(pressures… ((2)( (( As(Queiroz(and(the(anonymous(author(argue,(Maciel(residents(were(forced(to( gradually( move( away( as( a( result( of( lack( of( employment( opportunities( and( the( 139 encroachment(of(other(business(serv ices(within(their(neighborhood(that(did(not( assimilate(their(lifestyle(or(incomes.((As(their(social(world(disappeared,(the(resident( “will(look(for(an(environment(that(is(similar(to(the(one(that(had(previously(existed( when(she(looked(for(a(place(in(Pelourin ho/Maciel”((W.(Queiroz(1984,(5).( CONCLUSION(( Sociologists(were(involved(in(multiple(capacities (as(both(scholars(producing( work(in(their(respective(fields( on(the(Maciel(poor( as(well(as(Foundation (employees( responsible(for(implementing(various(housing,(employment,(health,(and(education( programs.((In(many(ways,(sociologists’(roles(as(advocates(for(the(Maciel(poor(both(as( scholars(and(as(Foundation(employees(were(always(blurred(to(some(extent.(Data( collected( on( behalf( of( the( Foundation( were( used( t o( produce( local( policy( recommendations( for( tourism( development,( the( reports( UNESCO( requested,( in( addition( to( being( analyzed( within( their( own( scholarship.( ( Data( included( interviewing(residents(individually(as(well(as(detailed(analysis(of(who(the(Maciel( poor(were,(what(types(of(employment(they(had,(what(their(educational(backgrounds( were,( and( what( problems( residents( mentioned( about( living( in( Maciel.( (Within( Bacelar’s(own(scholarship,(he (contested(the(idea(of(the(nuclear(family( by(arguing(the( prostitute(and(he r(children( constituted(a(family.((In(addition,(Bacelar(advocated(for( the(Maciel(resident Qworker(through(the(implementation(of(the(artisanship Qtraining( program(that(would(promote(the(worker’s(full(capacity(by(giving(her(the(necessary( social(conditions(for(h er(to(use(her(imagination(and(exert(her(own(will.((Moreira(also( 140 advocated(on(behalf(of(the(Maciel(poor(by(identifying(their(problems(as(indicative(of( the(larger(structural(problems(facing(the(population,(including(lack(of(educational( and(employment(opportunities,(stigmatization(by(the(press,(and(general(lack(of( institutional(resources(and(support.(( Espinheira’s(photographs(were(explicitly(bound(to(his(particular(institutional( position( and( authority( in( reshaping( the( social( and( urban( landscape( of( Maciel.(( Through( an( exploration( of( his( images( we( can( also( witness( the( influential( role( photography( played( in( representing( poverty,( health,( and( housing( as( matters( of( social(welfare.((In(addition,(this(method(of(imagery(was(increasingly(important(for( outside(sanitary(health(inspectors,(urban(housing(professionals,(and(a(range(of(local( government( officials( to( see( Maciel( without( ever( stepping( foot( inside( the( neighborhood.(( While(the(restoration(projects(realized(during(the(1970s(did(not(produce(the( desired( results( the( Foundation( had( anticipated( for( the( residents( of( PelourinhoQ Maciel,( the( programs( and( reports( indicate( the( radical( and( imaginative( ways( sociologists/Foundation(employees(were(advocating(for(Maciel(residents(to(remain.( Ultimately,(however,(the(original(Foundation(programs(implemented(were(criticized( by(the(early(1980s(for(being(unable(to(absorb(the(majority(of(inhabitants(within(a( Maciel( job( market.( ( As( a( critic( of( the( artisanshipQtraining( program( noted,( the( capitalist(ethos(guiding(the(training(of(the(poor(to(become(artisan(entrepreneurs( lacked(an(awareness(of(the(already(saturated(artisan(market(and(embraced(a(belief( that(the(market(would(“take(care”(of(the(residents.(Other(scholars,(including(Moreira( 141 advocated( the( Foundation( take( a( stronger( stance( against( foreign( businesses( exploiting(the(Pelourinho(tourism(market(and(instead(seed(local(businesses(as(a(way( to(keep(profits(circulating(locally.((In(addition,(Foundation(reports(advocated(for( housing(policies(to(directly(subsidize(rent(for(original(residents(in(order(to(include( both( entrepreneurs( and( residents( to( live( and( mutually( benefit( from( tourism( development.( As(this(chapter(argues,(sociologists(played(a(critical(role(in(advocating(for(the( Maciel(poor.(The(various(employment(and(housing(programs(sociologists(initiated( from(the(late(1960s(and(throughout(the(1970s(reflect(the(duration(and(impressive( amount( of( work( that( they( undertook.(( Despite( the( criticisms( these( earlier( Foundation(initiatives(received,(the(programs(reveal(how(sociologists,(restoration( specialists,(and(UNESCO(urban(planners(were(crafting(imaginative(solutions(for(the( Maciel(residents(to(remain(and(participate(in(the(economic(restructuring(of(their( neighborhood.((In(addition,(local(sociologists’(own(academic(research(on(the(Maciel( poor(indicate(their(own(personal(investment(and(identification(with(bridging(the( activist/scholar(divide(with(the(intention(of(bringing(residents(into(the(conversation( and( becoming( active( participants( in( how( their( neighborhoods( would( be( transformed.((( The(degree(to(which(local(sociologists(were(initiating(creative(and(radical( programs(for(the(Maciel(poor(is(perhaps(most(visible(by(the(simple(reflection(of(the( time(during(which(these(programs(were(being(initiated.((While(the(Foundation(was( a(state(entity(charged(with(implementing(tourism(development(and(restoration(for( 142 the(district,(including(implementing(UNESCO(recommendati ons,(Foundation(social( scientists( were( also( working( within( the( context( of( a( military( regime's( highly( repressive(and(authoritarian(direction.(Given(conservative(modernization(under(the( dictatorship(was(advanced(through(spurring(private(growth(and(investment (with( little(regard(for(the(poor,(sociologists(were(also(operating(under(the(direct(line(of( fire(for(advancing(strategies(quite(the(contrary. ( 1 ((Moreira’s(other(study(was(on(education(and(poverty(in(the(Maciel(neighborhood((1978). ( ( 2 (While(I(could(not(find(the(images(as(mapped(and(recorded(under(the(supervision(of(the(various( departments(included(within(the(Foundation(such(as(the(departments(of(Ho using(and(Public(Health,( one(can(imagine(a(number(of(other(public(officials(were(also(reviewing(images(like(the(ones( documented(in(Espinheira’s(study.( ( 3 (For(a(larger(context(and(more(detailed(history(of(Salvador(da(Bahia’s(sanitation(campaigns(at(the( turn(of(the(century(see(Aurajo((2006)(chapter(eight(“A(Casa(e(a(Rua:(Higenizando(os(Espaços,( Desafricanizando(os(Costumes”,(pages(201 Q228.#( 4 (In(addition(to(this(report,(Moreira’s(additional(report(considered(how(the(restoration(of(Pelourinho( could(be(identifi ed(as(a(social(project((Moreira(1978). ( ( 5 (It(is(significant(the(most(critical(report(written(by(someone(who(worked(for(the(Foundation(is( undated(and(anonymous.((What(we(can(infer(is(the(report(was(written(in(response(to(previous( programs(that(believed(the( market(could(provide(for(Maciel(residents.((Two(of(these(programs(the( author(could(be(referring(to(were(those(supported(by(Bacelar((1972)(and/or(Moreira((1979).((I(am( more(inclined(to(assume(he/she(is(referring(to(Bacelar(since(he(wrote(the(most(on(the(art isanQ training(program.(How(the(report(was(received(or(any(form(of(response(by(another(Foundation(social( scientist(could(not(be(found. ( 143$ CHAPTER(FIVE( ( TO(SAVE(THE(HEART(AND(SOUL(OF(BAHIA:( THE(CELEBRATION(OF(MESTIÇAGEM(AND(THE( MULATA(IN(THE(VISUAL(AND(IMAGINARY( PELOURINHO8MACIEL( Sugar&cane&in&the&region&of&the&Recôncavo,&diamonds&in&the&highlands,&the! tobacco& industry& in& Cachoeira,& foreign& trade,& among& many& other& factors,& created& for& us& moments& of& economic& scintillation& which& catalyzed& the& germination&of&an&architecture&of&good&quality,&in&some&cases&even&pompous&or& monumental,&and&which&today&constitutes&an&enviable&collection&of&cultural& assets&belonging&not&only&to&Bahians&or&Brazilians,&but&to&all&of&humanity.&&This& collection&is&appreciated&even&more&as&we&are&able&to&distinguish,&in&its&diverse& expressions,&a&whole&spectrum&of&shades&of&creative&conceptions,&going&from&the& most&simple&forms,&almost&ingenuous,&conceived&by&popular&artists,&passing&on& through&those&with&an&erudite&flavor,&with&backland&and&mulatto&mannerisms,& all&the&way&to&forms&of&the&purest&erudition,&echoing&the&great&schools&of&the& western& world.& & All& of& this,& or& more& exactly,& that& which& remains,& must& be& preserved.&&& Roberto!Figueira!Santos,!Bahia!State!Governor!(IPAC!1979)! ! ! As!a!foreword!to!an!FPACBa!report!celebrating!its!tenDyear!anniversary,! Bahia!State!Governor!Roberto!Figueira!Santos!provides!a!commemorative!summary! on!the!PelourinhoDMaciel!colonial!restoration!process.!!In!the!passage!cited!above,! Figueira!Santos!gives!the!reasons!why!the!restoration!of!PelourinhoDMaciel!was!an! urgent! necessity! and! describes! a! familiar! narrative! for! the! restoration! of! PelourinhoDMaciel—a!narrative!that,!having!been!repeated!for!so!long,!had!become! a!takenDforDgranted!truth!statement:!!PelourinhoDMaciel!is!the!heart!and!soul!of!a! mixedDrace! Brazil.! ! As! the! colonial! city! center! and! the! first! capital! of! Brazil,! PelourinhoDMaciel! holds! Bahia’s! rich! architectural! and! cultural! legacy.! ! Santos! 144$ provides!important!valuations!guiding!the!process!and!revalorization!of!the!colonial! buildings!of!the!original!plantation!and!slave!owning!Portuguese!oligarchy.!!Santos! categorizes!the!architecture!of!the!“backland!and!mulatto”!as!more!innocent!or! childlike!and!describes!these!forms!as!the!simplistic!architecture!of!the!“popular”! and! as! having! a! particularly! “erudite! flavor”.! ! At! the! other! spectrum! lies! the! architecture!exhibiting!“forms!of!the!purest!erudition”!of!the!Western!world.!!When! compared!alongside!the!more!simple!“backland!and!mulato”!architecture,!Figueira! Santos!demonstrates!the!material!proof!that!Salvador!da!Bahia!was!a!city!founded! upon!the!racial!mixing!of!European,!African,!and!indigenous!Indian!peoples!and! cultures.!!! Since! the! formal! abolition! of! slavery! in! 1888,! Brazilian! intellectuals! and! politicians!promoted!and!celebrated!Brazil!as!a!country!of!mixedDrace!people.!The! historical!circumstances!that!produced!this!narrative!were!drawn!directly!from!the! desire!to!assert!the!country!along!the!lines!of!a!modern!capitalist!nation!state.! Brazilian! intellectuals! and! politicians! were! particularly! invested! in! producing! a! national! subject! that! countered! the! prevailing! European! and! North! American! scientific! constructions! of! race! that! connected! civilization! to! whiteness! and! the! argument!that!miscegenation!produced!an!inferior!racial!type.!Thus,!in!order!for! Brazil!to!be!considered!as!a!modern!civilization,!the!narratives!crafting!the!Brazilian! national!subject!defended!miscegenation!as!the!successful!integration!of!peoples!of! different!race!and!cultures!through!a!whitening!(branqueamento)!of!the!population.! As!Silva!(1998)!states:! 145$ When! the! nineteenth! century! construction! of! race,! which! connected! civilization!building!to!whiteness,!provided!the!frame!for!constructing!the! being! of! multiracial! social! spaces,! the! celebration! of! miscegenation! presupposed!that!the!whitening!(branqueamento)!of!the!population!was!the! only! available! solution! for! conceiving! Brazil! as! a! modern! nationDstate.!! Subsequently,!when!the!building!of!a!modern!‘civilisation’!was!attached!to! the! successful! integration! of! peoples! of! different! race! and! cultures,! miscegenation!was!reconstructed!as!a!goal.!!In!that!movement,!the!main! categories!of!the!sociology!of!race!relations!were!articulated!in!the!writings! of!the!Brazilian!text,!where!the!difference!in!relation!to!the!United!States! provided!the!ground!for!producing!the!image!of!Brazil!as!a!more!developed! expression!of!a!modern!multiracial!nationDstate.!(216)! ! As!most!famously!depicted!by!the!sociologist!Gilberto!Freyre!in!the!early! 1930s!(1977),!the!elite!transformed!this!negative!identification!with!a!Black!and! indigenous!majority!into!an!asset!by!celebrating!the!racial!mixture!of!Brazil’s!three! civilizations—the!Portuguese,!African,!and!indigenous.!!Freyre!argued!that!racial! miscegenation!was!due!to!the!“superDcapacity”!of!the!white!colonial!elite!to!“mix!and! mingle”! (Marchant! 2005,! 303).! ! The! “natural”! warmth! of! Bahia’s! people,! the! celebration! of! AfroDBrazilian! cultural! syncretism! (including! the! religious! faith! candomblé),!the!religious!festivals!such!as!Carnaval!and!Senhor&do&Bonfim,!music! and!dance!such!as!samba,!and!the!martial!art!capoiera!have!become!sacred!to!the! making!and!marketing!of!an!identity!of!“Baianidade”!or!“Bahianess”!and!the!physical! embodiment!of!mestiçagem,!the!discourse!of!race!mixing!(Pinho,!O.!1998).! The!invention!of!the!sexual!mulata!as!an!object!of!medical,!anthropological,! and!literary!discourse!was!fundamental!in!the!production!of!the!racial!democracy! myth!(Hanciau!2008;!Gilliam!1996;!Corrêa!1996).!As!Corrêa!argues,!the!sexual! mulata!offers!ideological!resolution!for!the!opposing!Brazilian!categorizations!of! 146$ race!(as!along!a!continuum),!and!gender!(as!rigid!masculine/feminine).!!As!the! perfectly!brown,!sensual!woman,!the!sexual!mulata&provides!the!balance!between! these!two!conceptualizations!of!race!(as!fluid)!and!gender!(as!rigid)!by!becoming! the!embodied!extreme!of!both.!!The!myth!of!the!sexual!mulata!continues!to!be! reproduced!and!remains!fundamental!to!Salvador!da!Bahia’s!global!imaginary!and! material!consumption.!Just!as!the!myth!of!racial!democracy!was!used!to!prove! Brazil’s! modernity,! so! the! mythical! figure! of! the! mulata! proved! crucial! to! the! modernization!schema!and!strategies!of!a!burgeoning!tourism!economy!during!the! 1970s.!!!Similar!to!Figueira!Santos’!passage!above,!many!UNESCO,!Bahia!state,!and! Salvador!da!Bahia!city!reports!promoted!tourism!development!with!this!narrative!of! the!PelourinhoDMaciel!colonial!district!as!the!heart!and!soul!of!a!mixedDrace!Bahia.!! Yet,!as!this!chapter!demonstrates,!the!heart!and!soul!of!a!mixedDrace!Bahia!became! particularly!embodied!through!the!sexual!mulata.!!In!this!chapter,!I!examine!how! this!narrative!was!employed!by!UNESCO,!state,!and!city!personnel!as!positive!proof! that!PelourinhoDMaciel!needed!to!be!saved.!!I!argue!this!narrative!was!crucial!to!any! form!of!restoration!advocacy!for!PelourinhoDMaciel!and,!indeed,!can!be!documented! in!both!its!implicit!and!explicit!versions.! One!way!to!understand!how!PelourinhoDMaciel’s!restoration!became!justified! through!its!symbolic!value!as!the!heart!and!soul!of!Brazil!is!to!examine!the!role!of! the!visual!and!the!imaginary!mulata!in!representations!of!the!city!as!a!whole.!This! chapter! explores! the! visual! and! textual! representations! of! PelourinhoDMaciel! as! hyper/sexual!prostitute/mulata!both!reflected!and!became!implicated!within!the! 147$ making!and!marketing!of!PelourinhoDMaciel!as!the!symbolic!center!of!mestizo!Brazil! and!visually!marked!through!the!raced!and!sexed!body!of!the!Maciel!prostitute.!!I! examine!in!particular!two!artists,!novelist!Jorge!Amado!and!photographer!Miguel! Rio! Branco,! who! produced! a! number! of! influential! works! that! developed! this! association! internationally! during! the! 21 st ! century.! I! look! at! Jorge! Amado’s! guidebook!Bahia&de&Todos&os&Santos&([1945]!1961)!alongside!Miguel!Rio!Branco’s! photographs! of! PelourinhoDMaciel! during! the! late! 1970s! as! cultural! reflections! produced!during!two!of!the!most!significant!shifts!in!the!making!and!managing!of!a! modern!Salvador!identity!and!image.!!Specifically,!this!chapter!discusses!Amado!and! Rio!Branco’s!work!with!two!purposes!in!mind:!1)!to!see!and!recognize!the!residents! of!the!PelourinhoDMaciel!neighborhood!in!contrast!to!the!UNESCO,!city,!and!state! reports!and!surveys!of!the!area,!and!2)!to!explore!how!the!identity!of!PelourinhoD Maciel!became!increasingly!identified!as!the!authentic!and!true!identity!of!a!Black! Bahia—an!idea!that!only!became!further!entrenched!in!the!1970s.!!I!argue!that!their! work!provides!rich!evidence!for!how!the!reception!and!popularity!of!their!texts! were!developed!and!continue!to!be!produced!from!this!particular!feeling!or!“idea!of! Bahia”! that! becomes! prototyped! in! the! mulata! (O.! Pinho! 1998).! ! Through! this! historical!trajectory!I!highlight!the!ways!in!which!two!of!the!most!internationally! famous!artists!and!their!work!overlap,!and!the!types!of!cultural!representations!that! symbolically!worked!to!justify!the!validity!of!receiving!international!aid—to!restore! the!heart!and!soul!of!Bahia,!PelourinhoDMaciel.!!! 148$ JUSTIFYING*NARRATIVES"FOR"THE"RESTORATION"OF"PELOURINHO8MACIEL'( Statements!from!UNESCO,!state!and!city!internal!correspondence,!and!public! reports! describing! PelourinhoD Maciel! residents! and! Salvador! da! Bahia! history! provide!evidence!of!how!Brazil’s!foundational!myth!and!the!exoticism!of!mestiçagem! were!used!to!justify!the!restoration!of!PelourinhoD Maciel.!!While!some!statements! are!more!implicit!in!their!reference!to!mestiçagem,!when!taken!as!a!whole,!the! statements!work!as!a!scaffolding!structure,!supplementing!the!one!before!with!new! vigor.!!Reports!by!foreign!UNDP!authors!describe!PelourinhoD Maciel’s!majority!poor! AfroD Brazilian!residents!generally!as!prostitutes,!and!then!argue,!on!the!basis!of! these!descriptions,!that!the!residents!must!be!evicted!in!order!for!the!creation!of!a! tourist!area!to!be!successful.!Yet,!in!order!for!PelourinhoD Maciel!to!retain!proof!of!a! mestizo! Brazil! as! part! of! its! landscape,! the! African! folkloric! crafts! and! cultural! traditions!would!be!offered!for!the!tourist’s!purchase.!!In!reports!by!nativeD born! authors,!the!AfroD Brazilian!residents!are!still!generalized!as!sex!workers,!yet!with!a! more!positive!spin!as!proof!of!a!mixedD race!Brazil.!!! ! Rescue!Narrative!One:! ! In!a!letter!to!Carlos!Vegega!(UNDP!Regional!Bureau!of!Latin!America!OfficerD inD Charge),&dated!July!9,!1971,!UNESCO!Director!of!the!Office!of!Relations!with! member!States,!Manuel!Jimenez,!explicitly!cites!the!need!for!the!PelourinhoD Maciel! restoration! project! to! evict! of! the! poor! AfroD Brazilian! residents! (generalized! as! 149$ prostitutes)!and!gentrify!the!area!with!the!settlement!of!an!“active”!professional! class:!! [Pelourinho]!renovation!implies!social!consequences!through!the!settling!of! active!populations!and!the!eviction!of!undesirable!social!strata!(prostitution)! as!well!as!through!the!maintaining!and!encouragement!of!crafts,!folklore,!and! traditions,!which!are!usually!African.! ! Jimenez! believes! that! in! order! for! PelourinhoDMaciel! restoration! to! be! a! successful! tourist! endeavor,! tourists! need! to! be! able! to! see! the! history! of! mestiçagem,! through! purchasing! folkloric! artifacts! and! witnessing! cultural! traditions! such! as! capoeira& performed! in! the! street.! ! Indeed,! tourists! could! appreciate!the!mansions!and!state!buildings!built!for!the!colonial!elite!while!also! experiencing!the!neighborhood’s!“local!charm”.!!Yet!for!Jimenez,!it!was!also!obvious! that!the!tourist!would!not!be!able!to!fully!appreciate!the!colonial!city!center!if!the! “inactive”!were!part!of!the!landscape.!!In!other!words,!Jimenez!calls!for!a!form!of! social!anesthesia!to!take!place,!dislocating!the!AfroDBrazilian!subject!while!leaving! the!imprint!of!a!mixed!race!people!behind!through!the!selling!of!AfroDBrazilian! folkloric!objects.!! ! Rescue!Narrative!Two:! A!more!positive!description!of!the!PelourinhoDMaciel!residents!is!provided!in! the!nomination!for!Salvador!da!Bahia!to!become!an!UNESCO!World!Heritage!Site.!!In! the!1983!Nomination!to!the!World!Heritage!List!Report,!Joaquim!I.A.!Macdowell! 150$ (UNESCO! Minister! Counselor,! Acting! Charge! d'Affaires,! Delegation! of! Brazil)! provides!the!following!statement:! To!this!description!of!Salvador!should!be!added!the!noisy,!restless!population! in! the! streets,! lightly! clad! in! brightlyDcoloured! clothes.! The! blacks! and! mestizos!of!Bahia!are!typical!elements!in!this!human!landscape,!emphasizing! the! links! with! African! lands! and! their! key! role! in! the! formation! of! the! Brazilian!people.!!!(UNESCO!1983)! & Unlike! Macdowell,! Jimenez,! identifies! the! residents! and! not! their! representative!folkloric!craft!objects!as!providing!the!neighborhood’s!local!charm.!!! A!“noisy![and]!restless!population!in!the!streets,”!who!are!“lightly!clad!in!brightlyD coloured!clothes”!are!celebrated!as!proving!the!link!“with!African!lands!and!their! key!role!in!the!formation!of!the!Brazilian!people”.!Indeed,!the!“black!and!mestizo”! prostitutes!(“typical!elements!in!this!human!landscape”)!become!the!living!symbol! of!colonialism.!!As!“typical!elements”!the!AfroDBrazilian!resident!becomes!part!of!the! “charm”!of!the!exotic!landscape!while!being!“noisy”!and!“restless”!evokes!a!sense!of! childish!and!immature!behavior.!!!! Macdowell!goes!on!to!describe!the!physical!landscape!of!Salvador!to!explain! why!the!city!became!the!colonial!capital:! The!site!where!Salvador!was!to!be!founded!was!required!not!only!to!possess! strategic!qualities!but!also!to!be!healthy!and!wellDaired!and!to!have!enough! water,! and! a! harbour! for! the! mooring! of! vessels.! ! These! requirements! combined!with!as!regular!a!layout!as!was!possible!on!the!site!chosen,!and! above!all!with!the!sumptuousness!of!the!whole!design,!made!this!first!"royal! city"! established! in! Brazil! by! the! Portuguese! Crown,! both! a! typically! Portuguese! city! and! a! symbol! of! colonialism,! while! at! the! same! time! reflecting!the!Portuguese!experience!of!tropical!climates!gained!on!African! soil!in!the!15th!century.! & 151$ Rather!than!define!the!colonial!history!and!profits!of!Salvador!da!Bahia!as!the! principal!port!for!the!slave!ships!and!the!final!destination!for!the!millions!of!Africans! having! travelled! the! Middle! Passage! to! become! the! enslaved! throughout! the! Americas,!Macdowell!highlights!the!colonial!capital’s!physical!qualities!as!“healthy! and!wellDaired”.!!What!is!also!indicative!about!this!passage!is!the!ease!with!which! Macdowell!erased!the!history!of!enslavement!by!substituting!the!Atlantic!slave!trade! for!the!“tropical!climates!gained!on!African!soil.”!Macdowell!chooses!his!words! carefully! to! describe! the! first! slave! port! for! the! Portuguese! empire.! ! Indeed,! Macdowell! conveniently! avoids! referencing! the! following! four! centuries! of! the! Atlantic!slave!trade!by!only!referencing!the!“Portuguese!experience”!in!the!15 th ! century.!! The! UNESCO! Advisory! Body! Evaluation! for! the! Recommendations! of! the! World!Heritage!List!(UNESCO!1983)!also!describes!more!obtusely!the!principal! trade!of!the!Portuguese!Crown!(the!trafficking!of!the!enslaved):! There!are!also!many!streets!which!are!characteristic!of!the!colonial!city,!and! which!are!lined!with!bright!multiDcoloured!houses,!which!in!some!cases!are! decorated!with!stucco!of!high!quality…Salvador!is!one!of!the!major!points!of! convergence!of!European,!African!and!American!Indian!cultures!of!the!16th! to!18th!century.!!Its!founding!and!historic!role!as!capital!of!Brazil!quite! naturally!associate!it!with!the!theme!of!the!discovery!of!the!universe…! ! The!author!of!the!UNESCO!Advisory!Body!Evaluation!describes!Brazil’s!racial! democracy!in!the!physical!landscape!of!the!colonial!city.!!The!“bright!multiDcoloured! houses,!which!in!some!cases!are!decorated!with!stucco!of!high!quality,”!provides! proof!of!Salvador!as!the!“major!points!of!convergence!of!European,!African!and! American!Indian!cultures!of!the!16 th !to!18 th !century”.!!The!centuries!are!again! slightly!off!if!we!consider!that!the!slave!trade!existed!from!the!16 th !to!the!19 th ! 152$ century,!thereby!reflecting!the!author’s!dismissal!of!the!slave!trade!as!the!principal! reason!for!why!the!colonial!capital!existed.!!Instead,!it!is!because!of!Salvador!da! Bahia’s!“quite!natural”!association!with!“the!theme!of!the!discovery!of!the!universe”! that!it!was!necessary!to!include!it!as!an!UNESCO!World!Heritage!Site.!! ! TRACES!OF#“AFRICA”#IN#PELOURINHO8MACIEL( From! the! 1920s! to! the! 1950s,! Bahian! culture! became! marketed! as! an! authentic!site!to!experience,!through!AfroD Bahian!cuisine!and!cultural!traditions,!the! traces!of!Africanisms!in!the!Americas.!Largely!through!the!works!of!anthropologist! Melville! Herkovits! and! other! wellD known! anthropologists! and! sociologists,! who! were!fascinated!with!the!“African”!traces!in!the!AfroD Brazilian!religion!candomblé,! Bahia!gained!international!recognition!as!a!key!site!where!(supposedly)!the!traces! of! Africanisms! were! most! retained! (Herskovits! 1941,! 27;! Sansone! 2000).! ! The! supposed!centrality!of!candomblé&was!given!additional!support!by!the!Museu&AfroG Brasileiro&da&Bahia,&founded!in!1974.!!Situated!on!one!of!Pelourinho’s!main!plazas,! the! “Praça! da! Se,”! the! museum’s! collection! largely! consisted! (and! continues! to! consist!to!this!day)!of!images!and!statues!of!orixas,!and!the!dresses,!accessories,!and! musical! instruments! used! in! candomblé&ritual! ceremonies.! ! These! objects! were! exhibited!beside!their!correlatives!from!West!Africa!(of!the!Yoruba!sect),!selected!in! Dahomey! (today! Benin)! by! French! ethnoD photographer! Pierre! Verger,! who! established!himself!in!Bahia!in!1942,!and!who!had!already!curated!two!museums!of! a!very!similar!genre!in!Ouidah,!Benin!(Sansone!2000).!!Verger!took!on!a!formal! 153$ position!in!a!wellD known!candomblé!center!and!became!the!key!person!to!establish! the!cultural!exchange!between!Brazil!and!West!Africa!in!the!academy!(Fry!1984).!! Before! him,! various! wellD known! anthropologists! and! sociologists! had! already! become!fascinated!by!this!Black!Rome:!Donald!Pierson!(1942),!Ruth!Landes!(1947),! Franklin!Frazier!(1942;!1968),!and!Melville!Herskovits!(1941;!1943)—all!of!whom,! while! having! different! perspectives,! had! left! Bahia! profoundly! affected! by! the! “African”!traces!in!candomblé.! In! addition! to! these! wellD known! candomblé! traces! of! Africa,! a! less! wellD known,!but!just!as!important,!representation!of!traditional!Black!Bahia!material! culture!became!figured!in!the!women!who!sell!sweets!and!AfroD Bahian!foods!in!the! streets!of!PelourinhoD Maciel.!!Simply!called!Baianas,!the!women!who!sell&acarajé! generally!have!a!dark!complexion,!are!very!large,!and!wear!full!white!dresses!typical! of!the!dress!worn!during! candomblé!ceremonies.!In!the!past,!the! Baianas!were! considered! to! be! dangerous! to! society! and! spiteful! with! their! black! magic,! in! addition!to!being!viewed!as!gossips!and!a!cause!for!worry!over!public!hygiene! (Sansone!2000).!However,!from!the!1940s!on,!the!Baianas&became!more!celebrated! as!the!most!visible!icon!of!“Africanism”!in!public!life,!and!became!central!characters! in!the!romances!of!Jorge!Amado!and!in!the!ethnographic!works!of!Pierre!Verger.!! Foreign!visitors,!anthropologists,!photographers,!and!tourists!have!all!been!taken!by! these!women,!dressed!in!their!sophisticated!and!expensive!white!cotton!cloth!and! known!for!their!relationship!with!candomblé.!!So!visible!and!so!genuinely!African!is! the!Baiana’s!traditional!dress!that!it!is!said!that!you!no!longer!can!find!it!in!modern! 154$ Africa!(Sansone!2000).!!The!most!“authentic”!Baianas!display!their!cords,!with!the! specific!colors!of!their!deity,!and!a!bit!of!food!separated!on!the!table!for!their! “santos”!or!personal!orixás.!!By!1965,!the!Baianas&were!so!well!known!that!the! municipal!tourism!board!SUTURSA!mandated!that!any!Bahiana&who!wished!to!sell! acarajé!in!the!streets!would!have!to!wear!her!traditional!garments!of!the!white! smock,! full! round! skirt,! and! jewelry.! ! Yet,! in! wanting! to! revive! the! Baiana’s& traditional!garb!in!the!streets,!SUTURSA!met!resistance!from!these!same!women,! who!did!not!want!to!walk!around!the!city!in!their!traditional!dress.!!As!a!way!to! resolve!the!issue,!the!city!decided!to!provide!the!vendors!of!acarajé!the!typical!dress! so!that!they!would!not!have!to!leave!their!houses!in!their!traditional!outfits!(A&Tarde! January! 4,! 1965;! A& Tarde&January! 5,! 1965;! A& Tarde&January! 21,! 1965;! A& Tarde& January!29,!1965).! ! JORGE!AMADO’S'PELOURINHO8MACIEL:(A(MONTAGE(OF!PLEASURE(AND( PAIN( Jorge!Amado!is!Brazil’s!most!recognized!and!prolific!author.!!His!works!have! been!translated!into!over!fifty!languages,!with!many!also!made!popular!through! film,! theater! productions,! and! television! programs.! Raised! in! the! coastal! city! of! Ilhéus,!and!having!attended!high!school!in!Salvador,!Amado!dedicated!his!literary! work!(over!twentyDfive!books!written!over!the!course!of!his!life)!to!the!poor!Black! and!mestiço!communities!of!Bahia.!!At!the!age!of!18,!Amado!wrote!his!first!book,!O& País&do&Carnaval&(1930;!Carnival!Country).!!In!1933,!Amado!published!and!gained! more!popularity!with!his!second!novel,!Cacau&(1933;!Cocoa). i !!Amado’s!life!as!a! 155$ communist!activist!became!increasingly!difficult!under!the!military!dictatorship!of! Getulio!Vargas.!!He!was!arrested!for!the!first!time!in!1935,!and!two!years!later!his! books!were!publicly!burned.!!Amado!lived!in!Pelourinho!for!many!years!as!a!student! during!his!early!twenties!(R.!Williams!2007,!95).!!Bahia&de&Todos&os&Santos:&!Guia&das& Ruas&e&Dos&Mistérios&da&Cidade&do&Salvador,!first!written!in!1945,!is!perhaps!one!of! the!most!wellDknown!literary!works!in!a!long!list!dedicated!to!describing!the!place! of!Bahia.!!As!de!Araujo!Pinho!(1998)!notes,!this!genre,!what!he!calls!“guias&de& baianidade,”!(or,!“guides!of!Bahianess”)!has!been!well!circulated!since!the!1940s,! and!includes!authors!such!as!Goés!(1961),!Torres!(1961),!and!Peixoto!(1945).!!What! remains!significant!is!how!Jorge!Amado!or!Carybé,!both!white!and!already!famous,! wrote! books! meditating! over! the! cultural! specificity! of! the! Cidade&da&Bahia,! as! Salvador! was! then! popularly! known.! ! These! guidebooks! presented! a! similar! structure,!comprising!“side!by!side![sic]!characters,!folkloric!festivals,!a!little!history,! natural!beauty!and!culture,!and!pseudoDanthropologist!reflections!on!the!state!of! race!relations”!(Pinho!1998,!n.p.).!!! Amado’s!international!recognition!made!his!guidebook!Bahia&de&Todos&os& Santos,&and!specifically!his!treatment!of!PelourinhoDMaciel,!a!key!source!for!the! construction! of! PelourinhoDMaciel! in! the! imaginary! of! the! international! tourists! visiting!the!neighborhood.!!Today,!Amado’s!importance!for!international!tourists!is! not!lost.!!Indeed,!a!tourist!having!read!one!of!Amado’s!novels!will!feel!an!instant! familiarity!by!visiting!the!Jorge!Amado!museum,!or!while!walking!the!streets!of! 156$ PelourinhoD Maciel,!their!names!changed!to!the!characters!in!his!most!famous!books! (Marchant!2005).! Amado!describes!PelourinhoD Maciel!as!a!place!of!contradictions—there!are! no!distinctions!between!the!misery!and!the!brilliance!born!from!the!struggles!of!the! poor,!urban,!and!Black:!“Toda&a&riqueza&do&baiano,&em&graça&e&civilização,&toda&a& pobreza& infinita,& drama& e& magia& nascem& e& estão& presente& nessa& antiga& parte& da& cidade”!(All!the!riches!of!the!Bahian,!grace!and!civilization,!all!the!endless!poverty,! drama!and!magic!are!born!and!are!present!in!this!old!part!of!the!city).!!Its!tactile! presence!drips!in!the!air!and!is!pulled!up!from!the!ground.!Grace,!civilization,!and! endless&poverty!also!hold!Pelourinho’s!drama!and!magic.!!As!the!reader’s!guide!to! the!city,!Amado!writes&Bahia&de&Todos&os&Santos!as!if!he!is!to!vindicate!the!true!spirit! of! the! people.! ! He! writes! inD between! exalting! and! denouncing! the! life! of! the! dispossessed,! the! prostitutes,! and! the! drunkards! as! the! “heart! of! the! Bahian! quotidian!life”.!!How!they!make!a!home!within!the!filth!and!squalor!of!those!grand! crumbling! mansions! with! no! proper! system! for! sewage,! water,! or! electricity! is! romanticized!and!helps!to!define!a!particular!ideological!discourse!surrounding!the! “Idea!of!Bahia”.!!! By!becoming!the!reader’s!guide,!Amado!describes!Salvador!da!Bahia!as!the! sexual!mulata!inviting!you!to!!taste!her!exotic!and!mysterious!beauty:!! Do!not!try!to!explain!it.!!!Well!its!mystery!is!like!a!smell!that!runs!off!from!the! sky!and!the!ocean!and!surrounds!everything!around!you,!body,!soul!and! heart.!([1945]!1961,!38)! ! Amado!introduces!PelourinhoD Maciel!with!the!following!passage:! 157$ In! one! of! these! very! tall! buildings,! where! in! past! times! lived! the! rich! gentlemen,!the!slave!masters,!the!owners!of!farms!and!mills,!I!situated!the! action!of!one!of!my!first!romances:!Suor.!!I!lived!in!this!same!place,!here!in! my!adolescence,!in!this!mansion!that!is!the!largest!of!the!street!and!at!some! time!was!the!pride!of!any!landowner.!!Afterwards!a!wise!Arab!transformed!it! into!a!slum!tenement.!!There!are!one!hundred!and!some!rooms!and!in!them! live!six!hundred!unhappy!people.!!A!little!more!below,!in!the!Plaza,!was!the! whipping!post!where!the!blacks!were!punished.!!The!big!stones!that!fit!the! hills!must!keep!terrible!secrets,!filled!with!the!tortured!slave’s!screams!of! pain.!!From!the!windows!of!the!enormous!mansions!the!young!women!watch! the! whipping! with! a! certain! [sic]! pleasure,! of! witnessing! pain,! of! black! torture.!([1945]!1961,!103)! ! Amado’s!narration!of!the!enslaved!screams!“that!fill!the!sky”!is!described! from!the!perspective!of!the!witness:!the!young!woman!who!“watches!the!whipping! with!a!certain![sic]!pleasure,!of!witnessing!pain,!of!black!torture”!from!the!large! windows! of! one! of! the! many! colonial! mansions! that! overlook! the! Pelourinho.!! Amado’s!reader!then!bears!witness!to!the!witness,!a!double!witnessing!that!perhaps! makes!the!spectacle!of!black!suffering!even!more!spectacular.!!Saidiya!Hartman! (1997)!calls!attention!to!the!ease!with!which!scenes!of!Black!suffering!are!usually! circulated!and!reiterated!and!asks!how!the!reader!is!called!upon!to!participate!in! these!scenes:!! Are!we!witnesses!who!confirm!the!truth!of!what!happened!in!the!face!of!the!! worldDdestroying! capacities! of! pain,! the! distortions! of! torture,! the! sheer! unrepresentability!of!terror,!and!the!repression!of!the!dominant!accounts?! Or!are!we!voyeurs!fascinated!with!and!repelled!by!exhibitions!of!terror!and! sufferance?!What!does!the!exposure!of!the!violated!body!yield?!Proof!of!black! sentience!or!the!inhumanity!of!the!‘peculiar!institution’?!Or!does!the!pain!of! the!other!merely!provide!us!with!the!opportunity!for!selfDreflection?! ! In! a! similar! scene,! Amado! invites! the! reader! to! also! participate! in! the! witnessing!as!voyeurs!through!the!ease!with!which!the!reader!moves!from!the! 158$ whipping!post!to!the!woman!enjoying!the!scene!of!torture.!!Saidiya!Hartman!argue! the!originary!moment!of!witnessing!the!violence!that!transforms!a!person!into!a! slave:!“…the!centrality!of!violence!to!the!making!of!the!slave![sic]!(i)s!an!original! generative!act!equivalent!to!the!statement!‘I!was!born”!(3).!When!the!reader!is! called!upon!to!bear!witness!to!scenes!of!torture,!such!as!the!one!Amado!describes,! the!reader!participates!in!reinforcing!the!“spectacular!character!of!black!suffering’! (3).! By! reproducing! the! “tortured! slave’s! screams! of! pain,”! Amado! introduces! Pelourinho!by!exploiting!the!shocking!spectacle!and!reinforcing!a!scene!that!has! become!already!too!familiar.!! ! MIGUEL'RIO'BRANCO’S'PELOURINHO8MACIEL( In!the!late!1970s,!Miguel!Rio!Branco!came!upon!the!same!PelourinhoDMaciel! Jorge!Amado!had!described!fifty!years!ago.!One!of!Miguel!Rio!Branco’s!most!famous! photographic! series! is! of! the! prostitutes! that! lived! in! the! PelourinhoDMaciel! neighborhoods!that!are!included!within!the!larger!body!of!work!on!Salvador!da! Bahia,!Dulce&Sudor&Amargo&(1985;!Sweet!Bitter!Sweat).!!A!significant!portion!of!this! manuscript!is!dedicated!to!representations!of!the!poor!living!in!PelourinhoDMaciel,! depicts!scenes!of!daily!life!in!Salvador!da!Bahia.!!As!a!photographer,!his!work!can!be! read! with! multiple! intentions! and! these! intentions! can! also! be! read! alongside! interviews!he!has!given!on!making!his!book!Dulce&Sudor&Amargo&(1985;!Sweet!Bitter! Sweat).!!Rio!Branco!attempts!to!produce!alternative!landscapes!with!the!possibility! of!transforming!seemingly!concrete!binary!oppositions!such!as!the!visible/invisible,! 159$ real/imaginary,!dead/alive,!past/present,!truth/fiction.!Rio!Branco’s!work!then!can! be!understood!as!producing!scenes!that!can!be!experienced!as!a!consciousness! “both! fluid! and! maddening”! (Gordon! 1997,! 42).! Walter! Benjamin’s! idea! of! the! dialectical!image!is!also!conducive!to!finding!the!form!of!consciousness!Rio!Branco! presents! in! his! representations! of! the! people! and! places! of! PelourinhoDMaciel.!! Similar!to!how!Benjamin!uses!literary!montage!to!convey!the!dialectical!image!in!the! Arcades!Project,!Rio!Branco!also!relies!on!montage!to!create!his!own!dialectical! image!(BuckDMorss!1991;!Schwartz!2001).!!Rio!Branco!assembles!image!writing! that!depends!on!detour!and!digression—his!images!take!on!their!own!logic!by! interrupting!the!images!and!composing!them!as!neither!following!nor!leading.!!! Miguel!Rio!Branco’s!images!pop!with!vivid!color!and,!when!viewed!together,! capture!a!form!of!transgressive!terror!and!the!beautiful!erotic.!!His!photoDessays!are! made!of!disparate!fragments,!the!images!that!become!a!montage!filled!with!scenes! of!daily!life!in!PelourinhoDMaciel,!Salvador!da!Bahia.!!Anonymous!biographies!of! women!and!men!in!a!time!now!past:!what!do!we!make!of!the!ethnographic!image,!an! image!of!a!life!no!more,!in!a!place!now!transformed?!!Miguel!Rio!Branco!creates! work!that!provides!different!evidence!for!how!the!residents!of!the!PelourinhoD Maciel!neighborhood!can!be!seen!and!recognized.!!Which!is!to!say,!despite!the!social! scientific!detail!of!the!charts,!maps,!surveys,!and!written!reports!of!the!local!press,! UNESCO!professionals,!politicians,!and!intellectuals,!Miguel!Rio!Branco!attempts!to! attend!also!to!the!“ghostly!matters”!thick!in!the!midst!of!PelourinhoDMaciel!(Gordon! 1997).!!When!read!alongside!the!UNESCO!reports!and!newspaper!debates!(Chapters! 160$ Two!and!Three),!Rio!Branco’s!photography!turns!out!both!similar!and!different! historical!evidence!to!that!produced!by!the!social!sciences!and!the!media.!!Rio! Branco’s! imagistic! evidence! of! the! poor,! landscape,! color,! and! emotion! of! PelourinhoDMaciel!communicates!a!residual!life!that!remains!part!of!the!colonial! landscape!today.!!! His!work!shares!with!earlier!portraits!a!concern!with!portraying,!idealizing,! and!manipulating!the!fluid!racial,!cultural,!and!ethnic!boundaries!through!which! identity!was!constituted!in!1970s!PelourinhoDMaciel.!!Yet!Rio!Branco!cannot!write!of! the!beauty!of!PelourinhoDMaciel!without!invoking!the!misery!that!lies!within!and! beneath! PelourinhoDMaciel’s! past! and! present.! ! Yet! this! residual! life! and! its! representations!must!also!be!situated!within!the!historical!and!ideological!narrative! of!Bahia!that!both!precedes!them,!and,!I!argue,!is!precisely!what!makes!his!work!so! popular! (O.! Pinho! 1998).! ! It! is! this! cultural! logic! at! work,! the! prototype! of! “Bahianess”!represented!within!the!literature!and!ideology!of!the!sexual!mulata!that! supersedes!Rio!Branco’s!work.!!It!is!this!already!entrenched!idea!of!Bahia!and!the! hyperDsexualized!mulata!that!complicate!how!his!artistic!renditions!of!Salvador!da! Bahia’s!people!are!circulated.!!!! Yet!if!we!understand!photography!as!Ariella!Azoula!(2008)!does,!then!the! photograph! of! the! hypersexualized! mulata/prostitute! must! be! viewed! as! also! allowing!the!photographed!and!viewer!to!produce!something!outside!of!what!the! photographer!produced!or!even!imagined.!!Rather!than!view!the!photograph!as!a! 161$ spectator!of!violence,!by!recognizing!the!photographDasDevent,!we,!as!viewers,!have! the!potential!to!be!a!civil!witness!to!others’!pain.!! ! TO#MAKE#PELOURINHO8MACIEL'A'COLOR( ( !“Salvador!de!Bahía:!Sudores!dulces!y!amargos.!A!veces!lo!dulce!no!lo!es! tanto;!quizá!lo!amargo!tampoco!lo!sea!siempre”!! ! “Salvador!da!Bahia:!Sweet!and!bitter!sweat.!!Sometimes!the!sweet!is!not!that! sweet;!maybe!the!bitter!won’t!always!be!so!bitter”!–!Miguel!Rio!Branco,!Dulce& Sudor&Amargo&&(1985,!1)! Miguel!Rio!Branco!begins!his!photographic!exploration!of!Salvador!da!Bahia,! Dulce&Sudor&Amargo!(1985;!Sweet!Bitter!Sweat),!with!the!following!quote!from! nineteenthDcentury!philosopher!Goethe:!“El!color!es!la!expresión!y!el!sufrimiento!de! la!luz”!(Color&is&the&expression&and&the&suffering&of&the&light).!!In!his!book!on!color,! Theory&of&Colors&(1840),!Goethe!also!wrote,!“Men!in!a!state!of!nature,!uncivilized! nations!and!children,!have!a!great!fondness!for!colours!in!their!utmost!brightness”! (qtd.!in!Taussig!2009,!3).!!“People!of!refinement,”!as!Goethe!called!them,!“seem! inclined!to!banish!vivid!colors!altogether!from!their!presence”!(10).!Michael! Taussig’s!book,!What&Color&is&the&Sacred?&(2009),!examines!how!color!functions!to! demarcate!the!world,!as!the!visible!marker!of!places!civilized!and!uncivilized,! modern!and!primitive.!!If!we!recognize!this!role!color!has!played,!or!the!play!of!color! in!structuring!the!world,!Taussig!argues,!we!must!recognize!those!most!desired! colors,!“like!spices!and!fur,!gold!and!silver,!lapis!lazuli,!slaves,!and!feathers,”!came! 162$ from!places!outside!of!Europe,!those!places!we!name!exotic,!“meaning!colored& places”!(160).!!! As!a!place!of!color!produced!through!the!photograph!we!can!perhaps!make!! the!links!between!the!erotic!zones!of!pleasure!and!pain,!the!“sexualized!body!of!the! world!and!the!human!body!within”!as!portrayed!within!PelourinhoDMaciel!during! the!1980s!(Taussig!2009,!158).!!This!section!is!a!meditation!written!in!response!to! Michael!Taussig’s!book!on!the!color!of!history,!What&Color&is&the&Sacred?&(2009).!!I! take!up!his!insistence!that!we!think!about!how!to!redeem!the!sacred!and!obscene!as! an!exercise!of!working!through!color,!what!is!seen!and!not!seen.!!In!my!case,!I! explore!how!this!exercise!of!redemption!can!work!in!the!photographs!of!Miguel!Rio! Branco,!as!an!examination!of!color!play!in!“the!lasting!instant”!of!the!photograph! (Moreno!1997).! If!color!is!the!subtext!for!visually!marking!Western!expansion,!is!it!possible! to!recognize!color!as!playing!such!a!significant!role!in!producing!1970s!PelourinhoD Maciel?!At!the!same!time,!how!do!Rio!Branco’s!photoDessays!of!PelourinhoDMaciel! make!the!place!participate!in!its!own!haunting!or,!as!Avery!Gordon!describes:!when! the!place!creates!“a!compelling!astonishment!with!reality”!(Gordon!1997,!107)?! What,!if!any,!are!the!dangers!and/or!possibilities!of!reading!the!photograph!as! something!that!reflects!the!inner!life!of!layered!histories,!without!replicating!this! imageDtext!as!ruin?!! 163$ ON#THE#PHOTOGRAPH#AS!RUIN( Carlos! Jimenez! Moreno! (1997)! describes! ethnographic! photography! as! inherently!presenting!the!viewer!with!an!image!as!an!already!conceived!“ruin.”!!! According!to!Moreno,!the!ethnographic!image!is!essentially!an!image!of!ruin!since! the!images!are!made!of!a!past!that!the!contemporary!viewer!can!only!read!as! “intangible”!given!their!physical!and!temporal!distance!from!the!time!and!place!of! the! given! photograph.! The! viewer,! Moreno! argues,! can! only! relate! to! the! ethnographic! photo! “through! the! elegiac! forms! of! nostalgia,! melancholy,! contemplation,! and! reverence”! (79).! ! Thus! the! photograph! is! by! definition! something! eternal! because! it! “captures”! one! moment:! “…For! photography,! the! instant&is&eternity,!in!as!much!as!it!is!that!ideal!measure!that!captures!reality!under! the!condition!of!depriving!what!is!real!of!its!duration—from!its!before!and!its!after:! from!its!arrow!of!time”!(80).!Moreno!argues!that!Rio!Branco’s!work,!specifically!his! photographic!essay!on!the!‘gorotireDkayapó’!tribe!from!the!Pará!state!in!Brazil,! produces!photographs!that!are!already!presented!as!ruins:!!“When!one!looks!at![the! photos],! there! is! little! doubt! that! they! are! unconsciously! presented! to! us! as! anticipated!ruins,!or!ruins!that!are!deliberately!produced,!in!front!of!which!the! spectator’s! predictable! responses! hardly! escape! (nostalgia,! melancholy,! contemplation,!and!reverence)”!(79).!! Rather!than!viewing!the!photograph!as!“ruin”,!or!as!the!material!product!of!a! mediated!“insideDoutside”!relationship!of!the!viewer!to!the!viewed,!Ariella!Azoulay! (2008)!proposes!an!alternative!framework.!!For!Azoulay,!the!photograph!is!the!seal! 164$ that! marks! the! photographic! event! between! a! range! of! actors! including,! the! photographer,! the! photographed,! and! the! viewer.! For! Azoulay,! reading! the! photographD asD event!allows!for!a!productive!critique!of!what!we!see!and!how!the! spectator!of!violence!can!become!a!civil!witness!to!others’!pain.!!! As!David!Levi!Strauss!reminds!us,!Brazil!was!a!color!before!it!was!a!country! Medieval! European! painters! extracted! the! rich! red! dye! made! from! brazilwood! (Caesalpina)! to! create! the! translucent! purpleD reds! and! the! roseD pink! inks! used! during!the!Italian!Renaissance!(1998,!8).!!!Color!made!the!journey!along!with!the! enslaved.!!Rio!Branco’s!Brazil!is!also!made!from!color,!from!the!golden!flowered! sheet!strung!on!a!line!in!an!open!tent,!its!transparent!folds!drinking!in!the!colors!of! sunset!(its!washes!of!light!and!color!play!with!tide!and!wind),!to!the!bright!piercing! blue!of!the!sky!at!midday,!its!heat!reflecting!in!the!aqua!blues!of!the!water!as!we! watch,! level! with! the! sea,! two! boys! floating! along! with! one! oar! on! a! wooden! makeshift!raft.!Like!the!rich!red!dyes!made!from!brazilwood,!the!colors!of!Miguel! Rio!Branco’s!images!become!saturated!with!the!shades!and!hues!of!what!lies!around! them.!!Similar!to!the!brazilwood!extracted!for!its!deep!red!hues,!many!of!Taussig’s! images!are!also!centrally!themed!around!different!shades!of!red.!!Red!is!the!color!of! passion!and!authority.!!We!see!a!man’s!bare!torso!fill!the!frame—he!is!outside!and! his!crimson!red!shorts!complement!the!two!redD violet!heads!of!the!fighting!cocks!he! holds,!each!one!held!on!either!side!of!his!torso.!!! Taussig!asks!“…colors!glow!from!within,!might!we!not!therefore!reserve! some!portion!of!our!regard,!no!matter!how!small,!for!the!layered!history!of!Western! 165$ expansion!into!the!lands!of!colored!people,!home!to!all!manner!of!bright!colors!and! wondrous!varnishes?”!(Tausig!2009)!!We!might!also!ask!something!similar:!how! does!color!structure!Rio!Branco’s!photographs—to!demarcate!those!colored&places! of!PelourinhoDMaciel?!!He!is!perhaps!best!known!for!his!work!with!color.!!As!Rio! Branco! mentions! in! an! interview,! his! use! of! color! allowed! him! to! capture! the! “sensuality!and!emotion”!of!Salvador!da!Bahia.!!Yet,!in!a!telling!moment,!Rio!Branco! also!shares!when!color!is!not!approved!by!the!international!photographic!agency! and!the!kinds!of!effects!this!can!have!upon!a!photographer’s!professional!success.!!In! an!interview,!Rio!Branco!shares!his!experiences!with!Magnum:!! I!was!in!Paris!in!1981!and!1982,!photographing!the!neighborhoods!where! there!were!“okupas,”!Africans!and!West!Indians!living!in!densely!occupied! areas,!especially!in!the!fourteenth!arrondissement,!a!neighborhood!that!was! literally!falling!apart.!!This!essay!had!a!very!intense!aesthetic!part!in!color,! but!it!was!also!a!very!dramatic!story!of!real!people!in!the!midst!of!a!real! struggle.!!There!was!an!organization!made!up!of!West!Indians!who!offered! assistance!to!the!black!children!of!the!neighborhood.!!These!people!were! doing!very!important!social!work!at!the!time.!!It!was!a!project!I!liked!very! much,!but!I!never!published!it.!!I!was!at!Magnum,!and!they!didn’t!distribute!it! to!any!magazines.!!They!didn’t!want!to,!because!it!wasn’t!a!subject!that!dealt! with!the!exoticism!of!other!countries.!!The!situation!was!right!there!(in!Paris)! which!bothered!them,!and!my!pictures!were!in!color!which!bothered!them! even!more.!(Siza!2005,!157)! ! Since!1978,!Rio!Branco!had!been!a!Magnum!correspondent.!!Founded!in! 1947,!Magnum!is!considered!one!of!the!most!prestigious!international!photographic! agencies.! The! agency! also! acts! as! a! cooperative! owned! by! the! photographerD members.!!The!agencyDasDcooperative!allows!members!to!have!more!flexibility!and! control!over!what!projects!they!choose!to!cover!and!can!work!on!them!for!longer! periods!of!time!without!the!constraints!of!magazine!journalism!demands.!While!Rio! 166$ Branco!was!allowed!to!choose!his!own!projects,!his!frustration!demonstrates!an! internal! tension! between! what! Magnum! celebrates! as! a! core! quality! of! its! cooperative! structure! and! photographers’! financial! need! to! have! their! work! distributed!to!magazines.!!Rio!Branco’s!frustration!with!Magnum!acknowledges!this! tension!between!working!on!one’s!own!projects!but!also!ultimately!working!as!a! member!of!Magnum!as!a!way!to!ensure!one’s!work!is!being!distributed!more!widely.! Rio!Branco’s!comment!provides!a!snapshot!of!one!photographer!and!his!experiences! with!working!in!color!and!the!subjects!he!chose!to!photograph.!!His!claim!about!why! his!pictures!in!color!were!not!chosen!does!not!discount!the!existence!of!other! photographs!of!Paris!and!its!surrounding!neighborhoods!in!color.!!What!remains! significant!is!how!color!operated!in!his!pictures,!and!what!color!signified!for!him!in! relation!to!the!sensuous!and!the!exotic!of!the!Global!South!it!purports!to!signify!for& Rio&Branco.!!Magnum’s!choice!not!to!use!Rio!Branco’s!photographs!of!this!poorer! neighborhood!on!the!outskirts!of!Paris,!based!on!his!use!of!color,!ultimately!decided! how!his!photographs!would!be!marketed.! For!Magnum,!color!could!only!be!used!to!convey!the!exoticism!of!those!Other! countries.!!!The!colored!pictures!Rio!Branco!took!in!a!poor!Black!and!West!Indian! neighborhood!in!Paris!were!deemed!unacceptable!by!Magnum.!!In!fact,!Magnum!was! bothered&because!the!pictures!of!poverty!were!produced!within!the!very!heart!of! French!civilization,!Paris.!!Indeed,!what!bothered!Magnum!even&more&was!the!fact! that!his!pictures!were!in!color.!!This!paradox!of!when!and!where!color!can!be!used! speaks!to!the!ideological!function!Michael!Taussig!makes!explicit—that!color!is!the! 167$ subtext! for! visually! marking! the! Global! South! as! exotic/underdeveloped/Third! World.!!Thus,!the!exoticization!of!color!renders!color!as!an!alibi,!and,!in!effect,! produces! forms! of! relations! to! people! that! cover! poverty! and! disinheritance.! If! colored!pictures!of!poverty!existed!of!Paris!then!color!could!no!longer!be!solely! associated!with!“the!exoticism!of!other!countries”.!!!Yet!using!color!in!Paris!still!is!a! marker!of!Otherness,!even!if!in!Paris.!! In!contrast,!Rio!Branco!identifies!his!project!in!PelourinhoDMaciel!as!“not! anything!exotic”!for!him.!!In!fact,!he!says,!!“I!was!considered!one!of!them,!as!I!never! had!money”:!! The! people! I! photographed! there! were! absolutely! beautiful! to! me—they! were!real,!authentic,!strong;!they!had!their!own!kind!of!wealth.!!The!women! especially!were!very!generous.!!They!had!character,!we!created!a!dialogue! between!us!and!there!was!plenty!of!empathy.!!I!had!no!desire!to!do!any!kind! of!project!on!prostitution.!!I!was!seduced!by!the!place,!by!the!women,!by!the! textures!and!rhythms.!!I!always!felt!the!rhythms.!!I!felt!pretty!much!at!home! there;!there!had!always!been!lots!of!children!running!around!and!I!have! many!photos!of!them.!(Siza!2005,!157)! ! Rio! Branco’s! identification! with! the! exotic! changes! with! context.! ! When! describing!why!Magnum!did!not!accept!his!photo!project!on!the!Black!and!West! Indian!neighborhood!in!Paris,!Rio!Branco!emphasizes!the!exotic!as!defined!by!the! pictures!done! in& color!that!rendered!the!association!of!color!with!Global!South! poverty.! Yet,! when! describing! the! pictures! in! color! he! took! within! PelourinhoD Maciel,!he!insists!that!these!pictures!were!nothing!exotic!for!him.!Given!Rio!Branco’s! portraits!of!the!prostitutes!living!within!PelourinhoDMaciel!are!arguably!his!most! famous!pictures,!makes,!by!definition!the!exotic!mulata![i.e.,!poor,!Black,!nude,!color]! 168$ as!imperative!to!why!this!series!became!so!famous.!Rio!Branco!admits!he!was! “seduced!by!the!place,!by!the!women,!by!the!textures!and!rhythms”!(157),!even! though!to!be!seduced!is!also!to!identify!with!the!exotic.!To!be!seduced!is!to!be! overwhelmed,! to! feel! drawn! in! with! no! defenses.! ! His! ability! to! claim! he! was! “considered!one!of!them”!at!the!exact!same!moment!he!also!disidentifies!with!them! by! articulating! his! seduction! makes! explicit! how! privilege! operates! (i.e.! as! photographer,!male,!white).!!! Acknowledging!his!privilege,!however,!does!not!discount!his!work’s!objective! to!make!PelourinhoDMaciel!lifeDinDruin!visible!to!the!public.!!In!an!interview!with! Tereza! Siza! (2005),! Rio! Branco! reflects! on! what! he! wanted! to! produce! when! Aperture&asked!him!to!produce!a!book!on!the!prostitutes!of!PelourinhoDMaciel:! ! [I!wanted!to]!present!the!harder!side!of!the!prostitutes!without!surrendering,! without! sacrificing! or! obscuring,! their! sensuality.! ! I! wanted! to! juxtapose! these!two!aspects!of!the!prostitutes…and!the!act!of!mixing!both!stories!was!a! way!of!deconstructing!a!straightforward!subject!into!a!more!subtle!and!fluid! form.!!I!wasn’t!interested!in!doing!a!book!exclusively!focused!on!the!terrible! aspects!of!prostitution.!!In!Sweet&Bitter&Sweat,!I!focused!on!the!themes!of!pain! and!pleasure.!I!like!to!explore!these!contradictions.!(151)! ! Rio! Branco! wanted! to! produce! a! “thematic! subversion”! of! the! text—to! represent!the!prostitutes!without!deception!or!voyeurism,!to!play!with!distance!and! immediacy,!light!and!shadow,!to!color!the!shameless!with!another!shade!of!beauty.!!! Yet!as!Susan!Sontag!(2004)!reminds!us,!it!is!not!possible!to!photograph!without! voyeurism,!for!the!very!act!requires!a!form!of!voyeurism!in!itself.!!For!Benjamin,!the! image!of!the!prostitute!expresses!perhaps!most!clearly!the!commodity&as&fetish!as! 169$ “seller!and!sold!in!one”.!!The!image!of!the!prostitute!allows!Benjamin!to!further! elaborate!what!the!dialectic!is,!what!the!law!of!dialectics!is!if!the!image!could!be! frozen!in!a!moment:!!! ! “Ambiguity!is!the!manifest!imaging!of!dialectic,!the!law!of!dialectics!at!a! standstill.!!This!standstill!is!utopia!and!the!dialectical!image,!therefore,!dream! image.!!Such!an!image!is!afforded!by!the!commodity!per!se:!as!fetish.!!Such!an! image!is!presented!by!the!arcades,!which!are!house!no!less!than!street.!!Such! an!image!is!the!prostitute—seller!and!sold!in!one”!(Benjamin!1999,!10).!!! ! Rio!Branco!attempts!to!manifest!another!dialectal!image!by!producing!different! sketches!of!the!prostitutes!as!sensuous,!provocative,!and!beautiful!women.!!!Like! Benjamin,!Rio!Branco!photographs!the!prostitutes!in!color!to!enable!the!presence!of! the!dream!image:! ! [T]he!most!appealing!series!to!me!is!the!one!of!the!prostitutes.!!They!are!all! outdoor! colors! from! Salvador,! so! special,! with! moments! of! absolutely! captivating!light.!For!me,!they!allude!to!another!era,!or!a!more!contemplative! attitude,! like! when! you! smoke! a! joint,! then,! continuing! to! smoke,! you! contemplate!the!light—something!like!that.!(Siza!2005,!151)! ! Photographing!the!prostitutes!in!the!“captivating!light”!of!the!outdoor!colors! allows! Rio! Branco! to! articulate! the! harder! side! of! the! prostitutes! without! “surrendering,!without!sacrificing!or!obscuring,!their!beauty”!(151).!!!Indeed,!Rio! Branco!asserts!that!the!colors!allow!for!a!different!vision,!a!vision!that!“alludes!to! another!era.”!!The!colors!allow!for!the!movement!and!texture!of!another!time.!!Time! stands! still—as! if! “when! you! smoke! a! joint,! then! continuing! to! smoke,! you! contemplate!the!light”!(151).!!This!contemplative!moment!Rio!Branco!describes!as! what!color!allows!for—another!vision!of!another!place!and!time—is!perhaps!what! 170$ Michael!Taussig!calls!“the!opiation!of!the!visual!field,!meaning!the!color!effect,! inducing!trance!states!and!doppelganger!switchbacks!of!being”!(2009,!168).!!Rio! Branco!describes!photographing!the!prostitutes!in!the!outdoor!color!as!allowing!for! the!recognition!or!perception!of!another!vision.!!A!portrait!of!two!prostitutes!then! becomes!something!else.!It!can!no!longer!be!seen!as!just!a!simple!representation!of! “seller!and!sold!in!one”!(Benjamin)—rather!“the!ghosts!are!there,!as!well!as!the! bodies”!(Siza,!156).!!! As!Rio!Branco!defines!the!subject!for!the!artist,!it!“is!merely!a!pretext!for! expressing!a!much!more!profound!internal!framework,!a!framework!that!transcends! time”!(Siza!2005,!150).!For!the!artist,!as!with!montage,!the!subject!and!the!color! effect!induces!a!form!of!witnessing!the!“ghostly!matters”!(Gordon!1997).!!This!form! of!witnessing!allows!art!to!create!extraordinary!life!where!the!perception!of!another! vision!also!becomes!an!attempt!to!transform!it.!Rio!Branco!describes!the!inner! layers!of!his!work!as!the!“tendency!to!want!to!transform!the!subject!into!something! that!it’s!not,!into!something!that!in!some!way!offers!ideas!that!transcend!itself,!into! an!image!that!carries!you!to!another!time”!(Siza!2005,!156).!!Thus,!for!Rio!Branco,!a! dialogue! is! established! between! the! series! of! photographs! and! the! viewer! that! creates! a! different! set! of! possibilities! and! imaginings! based! on! the! particular! viewer’s!response.!!! What! Rio! Branco! does! not! address! are! the! historical! imageDmaking! conditions!under!which!the!photographs!were!made.!!Rio!Branco’s!idea!of!the!image! transcending!itself!is!predicated!on!a!response!that!is!primarily!aesthetic.!In!order! 171$ to!address!more!difficult!subjects,!including!the!ethical!role!and!responsibility!of!the! spectator,!the!artistic!discourse!Ariella!Azoulay!outlines!in! The&Civil&Contract&of& Photography&(2008)!is!useful.!!She!contends!one!must!address!the!photograph!as! event!in!order!to!recognize!the!civil!contract!brought!about!through!and!around!the! photograph—in! particular,! the! encounter! between! the! photographer,! the! photographed!subject,!the!camera,!and!the!spectator.!!!!While!Azoulay!acknowledges! the!more!privileged!position!of!the!photographer,!she!contends!that!the!photograph! must!still!be!understood!as!a!scene!with!multiple!subjects,!and!that!their!dynamic! relations,!constituted!within!the!photograph,!can!be!identified!as!a!contract!between! all!participants.! Yet!the!spectator!who!views!Rio!Branco’s!images!can!also!react!in!direct! opposition!to!how!Rio!Branco!envisioned!his!work!to!be!understood.!!In!the!midD 1980s,!the!City!Council!of!Salvador!asked!Rio!Branco!to!create!an!exhibit!on!the! “crumbling!architectural!decadence”!of!Pelourinho!for!the!President!of!the!Republic,! José! Sarney.! ! When! Rio! Branco! produced! a! rather! dark! and! grim! audiovisual! presentation!of!PelourinhoDMaciel,!the!governor!and!the!archbishop!left!the!exhibit! furious:!! I!incorporated!an!excerpt!from!Mahler!about!opulent!churches!in!the!midst! of!poverty!and!misery;!it!was!pretty!dark.!!The!governor!at!the!time,!Antonio! Carlos!Magalhães,!and!the!archbishop!both!left!the!place!fuming.!!About!one! year!later,!they!initiated!a!“cleanDup”!project!in!Pelourinho!and!in!the!entire! region.!!Some!of!the!girls!were!left!there,!but!many!others!were!transferred! to!other!neighborhoods.!(Siza!2005,!152)! ! 172$ Rio! Branco! created! an! exhibit! for! the! President! of! Brazil! that! highlighted! the! contrast! between! the! lavish! wealth! of! the! PelourinhoDMaciel! churches! and! the! conditions!of!poverty!for!the!majority!of!PelourinhoDMaciel!residents!living!next! door.!!There!is!a!common!myth!that!there!are!365!churches!within!Pelourinho,!one! for!every!day!of!the!year.!!While!this!is!an!exaggeration,!Rio!Branco!captures!the! sheer! amount! of! wealth! within! the! churches! and! recognizes! the! irony! of! the! churches’!possessing!massive!collections!of!gold!while!those!residents!living!next! door!are!barely!surviving!within!the!decaying!mansions!and!palaces.! Rio!Branco!admits!regret!with!the!implications!of!what!his!work!might!have! caused.! The! mayor! and! archbishop! were! furious! with! Rio! Branco! for! drawing! awareness!to!the!conditions!of!violence!and!poverty!the!residents!were!forced!to! live!in.!!Rather!than!improve!the!living!conditions!for!the!poor!whom!Rio!Branco!had! photographed!living!in!the!dilapidated!colonial!buildings,!the!government!forced! many!residents!to!move!to!different!neighborhoods!soon!after!the!exhibit:!! Photography!can!do!that:!you!denounce!something!and!you!believe!that!it! will!help!people,!but!sometimes!the!result!is!exactly!the!opposite!of!what!you! hoped!for.!!I!think!that,!instead!of!helping,!I!ended!up!hurting!those!who!were! forced!to!move!(Siza!2005,!158).! ! Making!art!and!observations!about!the!state!of!decay,!about!the!themes!of! time!and!the!body,!also!allowed!Rio!Branco!to!make!a!statement!about!the!beauty! that!lives!within!people!living!on!the!edge.!!Yet,!as!Rio!Branco!reflects,!depending!on! who!bears!witness!to!a!work!of!art,!there!will!always!be!different!consequences—in! his!case!the!mayor!and!archbishop!viewed!his!exhibit,!and!within!the!year!had! 173$ initiated!one!of!the!first!stages!of!ethnic!cleansing!to!the!area!of!PelourinhoDMaciel.!! Given!this!experience!Rio!Branco!reflects!further:!! Nowadays,!I!would!feel!much!more!inhibited!in!a!place!like!that.!!At!the!time,! I! believed! that! my! work! could! actually! help! people,! but! I! don’t! feel! so! comfortable!photographing!certain!situations!anymore.”!(Siza!2005,!158)! ! CONCLUSION( This! chapter! highlights! the! ways! in! which! representations! of! the! sexual! mulata!performed!the!myth!of!racial!democracy!in!the!making!and!marketing!of! PelourinhoDMaciel! for! the! tourist.! I! argue! the! imaginary! and! the! visual! were! fundamental! to! the! restoration! of! PelourinhoDMaciel.! ! In! order! to! explore! the! imaginary! and! visual! codings! used! so! easily! in! the! narratives! of! Pelourinho! produced!by!UNESCO!reports!and!state!descriptions!of!the!Pelourinho!restoration,!I! turned!to!two!creative!artists,!writer!Jorge!Amado!and!photographer!Miguel!Rio! Branco,!who!identified!with!and!produced!significant!amounts!of!creative!work!on! the!residents!of!PelourinhoDMaciel.!!In!the!case!of!fiction!author!Jorge!Amado,!I! examine!his!“guidebook”!Bahia&de&Todos&os&Santos&and!highlight!how,!in!reproducing! the!“terrible!spectacle”!and!the!ease!with!which!black!pain!is!described!within!his! narrative!of!PelourinhoDMaciel,!Amado!dramatizes!the!originary!moment!of!a!slave.! The!ease!with!which!he!slips!between!pleasure!(descriptions!of!the!sexual!mulata)! and!pain!(descriptions!of!the!tortured!slave)!highlight!the!power!and!authority!of! language!in!the!production!of!place.!!! Similarly,!in!turning!to!photographer!Miguel!Rio!Branco,!I!explore!how!the! historical!weight!of!the!PelourinhoDMaciel!prostitute!both!overrides!and!provides! 174$ new!meanings!to!be!developed!through!his!photographs.!His!most!famous!series!of! PelourinhoDMaciel! were! of! the! prostitutes! in! the! area.! ! Given! that! Miguel! Rio! Branco’s!photography!takes!up!both!a!PelourinhoDMaciel!already!saturated!by!the! images! and! words! of! Jorge! Amado,! and! a! nation’s! history! founded! upon! the! celebration! of! the! sexual! mulata,! Miguel! Rio! Branco’s! photographs! of! the! PelourinhoDMaciel!prostitute!must!be!read!within!this!context.!Is!the!reproduction! of!Rio!Branco’s!images!similar!to!the!ease!with!which!narratives!of!black!suffering! Hartman!has!alerted!us!to?!How!do!we!resolve!the!very!precariousness!of!empathy! and!the!uncertain!line!between!witness!and!spectator?!We!must!ask!why!these! photographs!became!his!most!famous.!!Rio!Branco!could!be!easily!charged!with!also! exploiting!further!the!already!exploited.!!Azoulay!argues!photography!might!provide! an!emancipatory!moment!if!we!attend!to!the!photographDasDevent!and!open!up!the! possibility!to!recognize!the!agency!and!power!of!the!photographed!and!the!viewer.! Bearing! Hartman’s! question! in! mind,! Azoulay! makes! the! important! distinction! between!where!lies!the!balance!between!witness!and!spectator!by!taking!account! the!agency!of!the!person!being!photographed!and!the!viewer!of!the!photo.!!!! ! ! 175$ Figure!24:"(Rio"Branco"1985,"40)"" " Figure!25:"(Rio"Branco"1985,"41)! 176$ i !For!a!more!inDdepth!exploration!on!the!significance!of!Jorge!Amado’s!novels!and!representations!of! race,!sexuality!and!class!see!Moutinho!2004.!!For!a!reading!of!Jorge!Amado’s!representations!of! African!culture!see!Nunes!1973.!!For!analysis!on!Amado’s!representations!of!the!sexual!mulata&see! Nunes!1985;!Hunsaker!1994;!Bennet!1999;!Hanciau!2008.!! ! 177 CHAPTER&SIX! ! CONCLUSION! ! At#its#broadest#scope,#this#thesis#was#built#around#a#simple#task:#to#figure#out# the#conditions#under#which#a#working#class#Afro9Brazilian#neighborhood#became# what# it# is# today;# one# of# the# most# touristed# destinations# in# Brazil.# A# more# complicated#picture#emerged#as#we#zoomed#in#more#closely#to#the#details#of#its# inception#and#looked#at#the#restoration#and#tourism#development#plans#for#the# colonial# complex,# Pelourinho9Maciel,# from# the# late# 1960s# to# early# 1980s.# # One# question#that#guided#this#research#in#particular#was#why#development#strategies# prioritizing#Pelourinho9Maciel#residents’#ability#to#remain,#once#at#the#center#of#city# and#state#planning,#were#largely#deemed#to#have#failed#by#those#who#had#crafted# these#programs#by#the#early#1980s.##As#socio9economic#surveys#taken#over#this# fifteen9year#period#tell#us,#the#ability#for#residents#to#stay#dramatically#decreased.# The#first#stage#of#restoration#alone,#initiated#in#1969,#caused#432#families#to#be# dislocated#with#only#22#able#to#return#(Jornal'do'Brasil,#February#14,#1993).## Chapter# Two# provides# our# most# expansive# vantage# point# from# which# to# situate#this#question#and#asks#why#tourism#development#strategies#for#Pelourinho9 Maciel#occurred#at#the#particular#moment#they#did#in#the#late#1960s.##As#the#poorest# state#in#Brazil,#Bahia#was#particularly#attentive#to#the#economic#prospects#tourism# development#could#offer.##Like#many#Latin#American#countries,#Bahia#state#and# Salvador#da#Bahia#city#managers#initiated#industrialization#strategies#during#the#late# 178 1950s#in#the#hopes#of#gaining#significant#economic#profit#in#addition#to#producing# much# needed# jobs# for# the# state’s# poorest# citizens.# # Yet,# similar# to# other# Latin# American#countries,#the#outcomes#of#Bahia’s#industrialization#projects#largely#failed# to#deliver#on#promises#of#improving#incomes#for#Bahia’s#poorest#citizens.##In#fact,#as# already#noted#by#Peter#Evans#(1979) ,#the#poor#became#poorer#and#the#rich#became# richer#with#the#difference#in#income#distribution#being#the#second#largest#of#any# country#in#the#world#between.##It#is#during#this#time#that#many#of#Bahia’s#poorest# rural#residents#began#moving#to#Salvador#in#the#hopes#of#joining#an#industrialized# work#force.##Yet#the#number#of#industrial#jobs#available#was#far#fewer#than#the# number#of#rural#migrants#moving#into#Salvador.##As#one#of#the#closest#working9class# neighborhoods#to#the#city#center,#this#massive#shift#in#demographics#had#important# consequences#for#Pelourinho9Maciel#as#it#too#experienced#a#surge#in#residents.#A# neighborhood# already# abandoned# by# city# infrastructure# including# such# basic# services#as#trash#removal,#access#to#potable#water,#sewage#lines,#and#safe#electricity,# became#even#more#precarious#with#this#significant#increase#in#residents.# It#is#no#coincidence#that#just#as#Pelourinho9Maciel#became#home#to#more# impoverished#residents,#Pelourinho9Maciel#also#became#the#target#of#a#city#and#state# tourism#development#campaign.#While#industrialization#had#not#provided#the#profit# state#and#city#managers#had#expected,#regional#tourism#development#was#identified# as#not#only#a#profitable#venture#for#the#city#but#was#promoted#as#also#creating#jobs# for# the# poorest# residents# living# in# Pelourinho9Maciel.# Largely# influenced# by# an# already#successful#tourism#industry#in#Rio#de#Janeiro,#local#Salvador#city#and#state# 179 planners#were#convinced#both#national#and#international#tourists#would#be#drawn# to#Salvador’s#beaches,#colonial#architecture#and#Afro9Brazilian#traditions.#Given#its# status#as#the#largest#colonial#complex#in#the#Americas,#city#and#state#managers#were# quick#to#identify#the#restoration#of#Pelourinho9Maciel#as#one#of#the#most#important# projects#for#tourism#development.##As#I#have#argued,#Salvador#da#Bahia#city#and# Bahia#state#managers#wanted#to#produce#a#restoration#and#tourism#development# schema#for#Pelourinho9Maciel#that#would#be#approved#by#UNESCO#and#thus#build#a# successful#bid#for#becoming#an#UNESCO#World#Heritage#Site.##And,#perhaps#even# more#importantly,#city#and#state#managers#wanted#UNESCO#approval#in#order#for# Pelourinho9Maciel#colonial#restoration#projects#to#be#eligible#for#UNDP#funding.####As# a#result,#visiting#UNESCO#officials#and#their#recommendations#for#ensuring#Maciel# residents#be#considered#an#integral#part#of#tourism#development#strategies#were# incorporated#within#city#strategies#for#Pelourinho9Maciel#restoration#plans#from#the# outset.##As#also#noted#in#the#newspaper#press,#the#local#conservative#elite#were# further#angered#when#expected#UNDP#funds#failed#to#appear.#Changes#in#UNDP# funding#structure#culminated#in#not#providing#expected#funds#for#Pelourinho9Maciel# restoration#projects#ultimately#made#UNESCO#recommendations#more#difficult#to# justify#as#city#and#state#managers#were#forced#to#further#rely#on#private#investments# for#development#initiatives.# Yet,# this# is# not# to# say# visiting# UNESCO# officials# wholly# determined# how# restoration#for#Pelourinho9Maciel#would#be#conceived.##As#noted#in#Chapter#Three,# the# local# Salvador# da# Bahia# newspaper# press# roundly# rejected# UNESCO# 180 recommendations# and# immediately# discounted# them# as# illogical# and# ignorant.## UNESCO#advice#and#local#social#scientists#invested#in#ensuring#residents#remain# entered# an# embattled# field# given# the# much# longer# history# of# Maciel# residents# criminalized# by# the# newspaper# press# as# worthless,# violent,# and# immoral.# Thus,# rather#than#understanding#foreign#aid#as#dictating#local#strategies,#it#is#important#to# remember#UNESCO#recommendations#as#entering#an#already#contested#site.##The# local#press#asked#how#it#could#be#possible#for#an#illegitimate#class#of#residents#to# remain#if#the#area#was#to#be#marketed#as#a#place#for#visiting#foreign#tourists.##As# the# local#debates#within#the#press#made#painfully#clear,#gender,#sexuality,#race,#and#class# largely#marked#the#stakes#for#residents’#ability#to#remain.##The#public#debates#within# the# newspaper# press# figured# around# conflicting# narratives# of# who# belonged# as# rightful#heirs#of#the#nation9state.##As#Chapter#Three#argues,#the#newspaper#press# played#a#significant#role#in#determining#the#hostile#living#conditions#imposed#upon# Maciel#residents#throughout#the#1970s.#The#press#openly#ridiculed#transvestites#and# prostitutes# as# thieves,# which# translated# into# encouragement# for# further# police# persecution#and#unchecked#aggression#upon#neighborhood#residents.#Through#a# closer#look#at#the#newspaper#press,#we#can#also#recognize#the#multiple#ways#in# which#residents#fought#back.##From#fighting#a#neighborhood#curfew#to#organizing# safer# housing# conditions,# residents# demanded# FPACBa# recognize# their# right# to# remain.##I#argue#a#shift#in#the#newspaper#press#discussing#Maciel#crime#to#a#focus#on# residents’#struggles#to#remain#must#be#understood#as#a#reflection#of#the#insistent# voice#of#the#residents#and#their#multiple#campaigns#waged#throughout#the#1970s.# 181 What#we#can#also#identify#from#analyzing#the#newspaper#press#over#a#fifteen9 year#time#span#is#how#differently#the#category#of#“the#Maciel#poor”#was#mobilized#by# the#newspaper#press#in#comparison#to#narratives#of#“the#Maciel#community”#by# social# scientists# invested# in# ensuring# Maciel# residents# remain.# In# short,# just# as# development#had#become#a#legitimate#private#capital#enterprise,#development#was# also#being#used#by#Maciel#residents#and#local#sociologists#to#strategize#how#best# residents#could#benefit#economically#from#tourism#development#and#initiate#needed# medical,#educational#and#social#programs#and#services.## Given#this#project’s#emphasis#on#place#and#personhood,#my#final#chapter#took# seriously#the#work#of#the#visual#image#as#well#as#the#literary#narratives#constructed# on#the#colonial#landscape#and#its#residents.##Both#the#visual#image#as#well#as#the# written#accounts#of#the#landscape#either#explicitly#or#implicitly#relied#on#celebratory# narratives# of# an# Afro9Brazilian# past# in# addition# to# romanticizing# Afro9Brazilian# poverty# and# prostitution# in# Pelourinho9Maciel.# In# particular# this# chapter# was# informed#by#the#narrative#of#Pelourinho9Maciel#as#the#foundational#site#of#Brazilian# civilization;#a#civilizational#discourse#crafted#from#the#myth#of#racial#democracy#and# the# perfect# melding# of# the# African,# Indigenous# and# Portuguese# peoples.# # This# narrative#of#racial#democracy#was#repeatedly#invoked#as#physically#represented# within#the#colonial#architecture#(in#its#“erudite”#European#form#as#well#as#in#its# “backland#and#mulatto”#mannerisms)#but#also#in#the#celebration#of#Afro9Brazilian# folkloric#traditions#such#as#samba,#capoeira#and#candomblé.##As#narratives#crafted#by# international,#city#and#state#entities#demonstrate,#Pelourinho9Maciel#was#just#as# 182 much#justified#as#an#UNESCO#World#Heritage#Site#based#on#the#site#as#central#to# Brazil’s#“African”#past#as#much#as#it#was#on#the#colonial#Portuguese#architecture.##In# the#process,#residents#were#both#symbolically#disfigured#as#in#the#past#and#thereby# rendered#invisible#in#the#present.#In#short,#the#imaginative#and#visual#narratives# guiding#Pelourinho9Maciel#development#is#explored#as#fundamental#in#cementing#a# common#narrative#of#Pelourinho9Maciel#as#the#foundational#site#of#racial#democracy.## This#narrative#is#further#explored#by#examining#the#literary#works#of#Jorge#Amado# given#his#international#status#as#one#of#the#greatest#Brazilian#fiction#author#and#the# number#of#novels#he#situated#within#the#Pelourinho9Maciel#landscape.### In# addition,# the# photographic# images# of# Miguel# Rio# Branco# expose# the# complicated# relationship# between# viewer# and# viewed# given# the# images# of# prostitutes#naked#in#their#places#of#work#became#his#most#famous#series.##It#is#too# easy#of#a#comparison#to#posit#UNESCO/state/city#narratives#of#Pelourinho9Maciel#as# “utopic”# (romanticizing# Afro9Brazilian# residents# as# exotic,# colorful,# noisy,# and# “scantily# dressed”)# while# positing# the# explicit# nude# photographs# of# poor# Black# prostitutes# as# the# “dystopic”# version# of# Pelourinho9Maciel# life.# # This# simplistic# comparison,# while# easy# to# make,# only# serves# to# produce# further# violent# representations# of# Black# life.# # If# we# can# think# of# this# comparison# as# dialectic,# mutually# informing# each# other# then# the# comparison# serves# a# more# productive# purpose.### Perhaps#this#conclusion#can#be#thought#of#as#a#final#exercise#in#articulation.# As#my#chapters#attempted#to#demonstrate,#the#definition#of#development#was#highly# 183 contested#across#multiple#scales#and#registers.##While#the#racialized#public#discourse# produced# within# the# censored# newspaper# press# regularly# declared# Black# life# unworthy#of#remaining#within#the#restored#colonial#mansions,#a#quite#different# narrative# appeared# within# the# debates# between# local# sociologists,# Foundation# directors# and# international# development# experts.# # Rather# than# define# Maciel# residents#as#criminal,#immoral#and#sexually#deviant,#sociologists#and#UNESCO#urban# planners# were# taking# on# the# impressive# task# of# how# to# ensure# original# Maciel# residents# could# engage# and# benefit# from# the# economic# restructuring# in# their# neighborhood.# Despite# a# highly# repressive# authoritarian# regime’s# emphasis# on# spurring#private#growth,#the#UNESCO#mandate#to#ensure#original#residents#benefit# from#tourism#development#gave#leverage#for#Foundation#social#scientists#to#initiate# radical#strategies#quite#the#contrary#to#the#regime’s#conservative#modernization# mandates.#It#was#in#this#context#that#social#welfare#and#the#lives#of#Pelourinho9 Maciel#residents#became#rearticulated#in#the#space#of#the#local#state. 1 ## We#can#also#think#of#each#chapter#as#a#layering#of#realist#aesthetics#upholding# certain#truth#claims#taken#from#the#particular#vantage#point#of#the#chapter’s#subject.## From#ethnographic#depiction#to#criminal#photography#and#the#visual#imagery#of# Miguel#Rio#Branco,#Conditions'of'Belonging'maps#a#genealogy#of#visual#realism#and# establishes#the#specific#historical#circumstances#and#institutional#contexts#through# which#Pelourinho9Maciel#became#seen'as#an#appropriate#target#for#incorporation# into#the#city#as#well#as#“primed”#for#city,#state,#and#international#aid.##A#plurality#of# realisms#also#focuses#our#inquiry#into#the#function#of#realist#aesthetics#as#politicized# 184 vision# particular# to# narratives# of# development.# # Thus,# we# can# approach# realist# aesthetics#on#a#social#landscape#as#upholding#certain#truth#claims#not#only#about#the# rationality#and#efficacy#of#Pelourinho9Maciel#development#but#also#how#Pelourinho9 Maciel#residents#used#these#same#narratives#to#shift#the#frame#of#debate#and#place# demands#on#the#local#state#to#stop#police#brutality#and#improve#housing#conditions.## The# photographs# and# narratives# examined# throughout# this# study# are# patterned# across#such#shifts#and#crises#in#the#discursive#order.#### How# development# became# a# contested# category# in# the# crafting# of# a# Pelourinho9Maciel# tourism# economy# therefore# powerfully# demonstrates# the# construction#of#scale#and#the#radical#potentialities#held#within. 2 ##Just#as#conservative# Bahia#elite#and#government#officials#were#thinking#how#Pelourinho9Maciel#tourism# development#could#provide#maximum#private#economic#growth,#Maciel#residents# alongside# Foundation# officials# and# UNESCO# urban# planners,# were# also# thinking# strategically#about#how#development#defined#their#right#to#remain#and#benefit#from# tourism#development.##Rather#than#define#development#simply#as#the#material#result# of#contested#social#forces,#I#describe#its#creative#uses#to#underscore#the#politics#of# scale#through#which#social'contest#also#takes#place.##As#Neil#Smith#(1992)#argues:## The# construction# of# scale# is# not# simply# a# spatial# solidification# or# materialization#of#contested#social#forces#and#processes;#the#corollary#also# holds.##Scale#is#an#active#progenitor#of#specific#social#processes.##In#a#literal#as# much#as#a#metaphorical#way,#scale#both#contains'social#activity,#and#at#the# same#time#provides#an#already#partitioned#geography#within#which#social# activity#takes'place.##Scale#demarcates#the#sites#of#social#contest,#the#object#as# well#as#the#resolution#of#contest.### # 185 # In#reflecting#on#the#passing#of#the#great#Latin#American#anthropologist#and# postcolonial#theorist,#Fernando#Coronil,#I#re9read#his#essay#“Beyond#Occidentalism:# Toward#Nonimperial#Geohistorical#Categories”#(1996).##He#expresses#an#excitement# and# hope# in# his# intimidating# and# exhaustive# analysis# of# the# discursive# effects# produced#by#our#use#of#binary#terms#to#define#areas#of#our#world#as#the#“West,”#the# “Occident,”#the#“first#world,”#the#“East,”#the#“orient,”#the#“periphery,”#and#the#“third# world.”#Coronil#challenges#this#way#of#understanding#the#world#and#recognizes# there# is# a# simultaneous# “historicization# of# territories”# just# as# there# is# a# “territorialization#of#histories”.##The#first#describes#the#ways#in#which#history#is# obscured#in#the#process#of#territories#becoming#the#fixed,#natural#ground#of#local# histories.# # The# latter,# obscured# through# the# processes# of# fixing# histories# into# nonhistorical,#bounded#territories.##He#writes,#“The#illusion#is#created#that#their# identities# are# the# result# of# independent# histories# other# than# the# outcome# of# historical#relations.##There#is#a#dual#obscuring.##The#histories#of#various#spaces#are# hidden,#and#the#historical#relations#among#social#actors#or#units#are#severed”#(77).## # Coronil’s#reflections#on#the#inner#workings#of#unequal#relations#of#power# help#me#to#close#this#extended#treatise#on#the#discursive#formations,#projections,# and#imaginings#of#development#and#the#particular#ways#each#played#out#in#the# making#of#Pelourinho9Maciel.#Like#Coronil,#my#objective#has#not#been#to#create#a# transparent#vision#of#the#when#and#where#of#Pelourinho9Maciel’s#residents#from# 196591985.##Rather,#Conditions'of'Belonging#has#been#my#attempt#to#destabilize#our# own#recognitions#and#representations#of#this#place,#people#and#time.#As#Coronil# 186 reminded#me,#if#we#are#to#succeed#in#our#scholarship#we#must#also#recognize#the# stakes#of#our#own#involvement#in#history:#“At#stake#is#the#accountability#of#accounts,# a#matter#of#politics#rather#than#of#metaphysics,#of#alterable#historical#consequences# rather#than#unavoidable#transhistorical#effects,#or#more#precisely,#the#politics#of# epistemology#and#the#epistemology#of#politics”#(73).##This#is#our#historical#present# and#future.## # 1 #I#write#spatial#structure#of#the#state#in#the#sense#described#by#Gregory#and#Ury#(1985):#“Spatial# 2 ##The#politics#of#scale#and#its#radical#potential#is#described#similarly#by#Neil#Smith#(1992):#“ by#setting# boundaries,#scale#can#be#constructed#as#a#means#of#constraint#and#exclusion,#a#means#of#imposing# identity,#but#a#politics#of#scale#can#also#become#a#weapon#of#expansion#and#inclusion,#a#means#of# enlarging# identities.# # Scale# offers# guideposts# in# the# recovery# of# space# from# annihilation# and# a# language#via#which#the#redifferentiation#of#space#can#be#pioneered#on#freely#argued#and#agreed9upon# social#grounds#rather#than#according#to#the#economic#logic#of#capital#and#the#political#interests#of# class#(78).# # ! 187$ REFERENCES' ' A"Semana.!1967.!“Uma!Chaga!Humana.”!November!12.! ! 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Telles,!Edward!E.!2006.!Race"in"Another"America:"The"Significance"of"Skin"Color"in " Brazil.!Princeton:!Princeton!University!Press.! ! Torres,!Carlos.!1961.!Bahia,"Cidade"Feitiço.!Salvador:!Imprensa!Oficial!da!Bahia.! ! Toye,!John,!and!Richard!Toye.!2003.!“The!Origins!and!Interpretation!of!the!Prebisch ! Singer!Thesis.”!History"of"Political"Economy"35!(3):!437b67.! ! Tribuna"da"Bahia.!1971.!“O!Pelourinho!(Sem!Prostitutas)!em!Questão.”!March!23.! ! ———.!1971.!“Bloqueio!de!Cr$100,00.”!August!20.! ! ———.!1972.!“Polícia!Fixa!Normas!Para!Prostituição!não!Perturbar.”!April!19.! ! ———.!1984.!“Revicentro!Cria!Grupo!de!Debate!na!Comunidade.”!September!5.! ! Trouillot,!MichelbRolph.!1994.!!Silencing"the"Past:"Power"and"the"Production"of " History.!Boston:!Beacon!Press.! ! UNDP.!1968.!!“Report!of!the!Governing!Counci!Sixth!Session,!June!11b28!,!1968.” ! Accessed!June!8,!2012.! http://web.undp.org/execbrd/archives/bluebooks/1960s/E b4545.PDF! ! UNESCO.!1968.!“Report!by!the!DirectorbGeneral!on!the!activities!of!the!Organization, ! 1!Januaryb30!June!1968.”!Report!presented!at!the!UNESCO!General ! Conference,!15 th !session.!Accessed!October!6,!2010. ! http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0016/001608/160898eb.pdf! ! UNESCO.!1983.!Nomination!to!the!“World!Heritage!List”!submitted!by!Brazil; ! historic!centre!of!the!City!of!Salvador.!!Accessed!October!8,!2010. ! http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0005/000583/058301eb.pdf! ! UNESCO!Advisory!Body!Evaluation.!1983.!UNESCO!Archives.! ! Urry,!John.!2002.!The"Tourist"Gaze."London:!Sage.! ! ! 202$ Villanueva,!A.S.,!and!Felipe!Gallardo.!2004.!“Centros!Históricos:!El!Auténtico!AND!de ! las!Ciudades.”!Revista"Invi"V!(19):!9b30.! ! Williams,!Daryle.!2001.!Culture"Wars"in"Brazil:"The"First"Vargas"Regime,"1930 W1945. ! Durham:!Duke!University!Press.!! ! Williams,!Raymond."2007.!The"Columbia"Guide"to"the"Latin"American"Novel"since " 1945.!New!York:!Columbia!University!Press.!! ! Zanirato,!Sílvia!Helena.!2007.!“A!Restauração!do!Pelourinho!no!Centro!Histórico!de ! Salvador,!Bahia,!Brasil.!Potencialidades,!Limites!e!Dilemas!da!Conservação!de ! Áreas!Degradadas,!História,!Cultura!e!Cidade.”!Historia"Actual"Online,! "no.!14:35b47.!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 203$ APPENDIX'A.'CREATIVE'COMMONS'LICENSE' ! ! This!is!the!text!of!Creative!Commons’!AttributionbNonCommercialbNoDerivs! License,!version!3.0. !1 ! 213$ THE!WORK!(AS!DEFINED!BELOW)!IS!PROVIDED!UNDER!THE!TERMS!OF!THIS! CREATIVE!COMMONS!PUBLIC!LICENSE!("CCPL"!OR!"LICENSE").!THE!WORK! IS!PROTECTED!BY!COPYRIGHT!AND/OR!OTHER!APPLICABLE!LAW.!ANY!USE! OF!THE!WORK!OTHER!THAN!AS!AUTHORIZED!UNDER!THIS!LICENSE!OR! COPYRIGHT!LAW!IS!PROHIBITED.! BY!EXERCISING!ANY!RIGHTS!TO!THE!WORK!PROVIDED!HERE,!YOU!ACCEPT! AND! AGREE! TO! BE! BOUND! BY! THE! TERMS! OF! THIS! LICENSE.! TO! THE! EXTENT! THIS! LICENSE! MAY! BE! CONSIDERED! TO! BE! A! CONTRACT,! THE! 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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Smith, Micaela Alicia (author)

Core Title Conditions of belonging: life, historical preservation and tourism development in the making of Pelourinho-Maciel, Salvador da Bahia, 1965-1985

School College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program American Studies and Ethnicity

Publication Date 08/06/2012

Defense Date 08/02/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 20th century,Afro-Brazil,history,Latin American development,OAI-PMH Harvest,Pelourinho,Salvador da Bahia,UNESCO world heritage preservation,urban renewal

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Gilmore, Ruth Wilson (committee chair), Gómez-Barris, Macarena (committee member), Lloyd, David C. (committee member), Sanchez, George J. (committee member)

Creator Email micaelas@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-88532

Unique identifier UC11289852

Identifier usctheses-c3-88532 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-SmithMicae-1127.pdf

Dmrecord 88532

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Smith, Micaela Alicia

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA