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Comparison of gerontology-specific organizations to the business sector in hiring personnel: An analysis of qualifications and characteristics

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Comparison of gerontology-specific organizations to the business sector in hiring personnel: An analysis of qualifications and characteristics

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COMPARISON OF GERONTOLOGY SPECIFIC ORGANIZATIONS
TO THE BUSINESS SECTOR IN HIRING PERSONNEL:
AN ANALYSIS OF QUALIFICATIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS
by
Marti Adine Klein
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE LEONARD DAVIS SCHOOL OF GERONTOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN GERONTOLOGY
May 1997
Copyright 1997 Marti Adine Klein
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
LEONARD DAVIS SCHOOL OF GERONTOLOGY
University Park
Los Angeles, CA 90089
This thesis, written by
Marti A. Klein
under the director of h er Thesis Committee and approved by all its
members has been presented to and accepted by the Dean of the Leonard
Davis School of Gerontology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of
Master of Science in Gerontology
Dean
Date
THESIS COMMITTEE
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hairman
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
L IS T O F T A B L E S ..........................................................................................................................................................................V
C H A P T E R 1: A N IN T R O D U C T IO N ....................................................................................................................................1
T h e P r o b l e m ..................................................................................................................................................................................l
Ad d r e s s in g t h e Pr o b l e m .......................................................................................................................................................2
C H A P T E R 2: L IT E R A T U R E R E V IE W ............................................................................................................................ 4
In t r o d u c t io n ................................................................................................................................................................................4
C o m b in in g G e r o n t o l o g y . and B u s in e s s ........................................................................................................................ 4
A G l im p s e In t o t h e Fu t u r e ................................................................................................................................................... 5
T h e Im p o r t a n c e o f T r a n sf e r a b l e S k il l s ......................................................................................................................6
Re c r u it in g N e w E m p l o y e e s ..................................................................................................................................................7
"E n t r e p r e n e u r ia l G e r o n t o l o g y : C r ea tiv e M a r k e t in g o f G e r o n t o l o g ic a l S k ills" ........................ 8
G e r o n t o l o g y as a P ro fe ssio n - T w o St u d ie s ...........................................................................................................10
C a r eer S u c c e s s in A g in g ...................................................................................................................................................... I I
T h e Un s u c c e s s f u l G e r o n t o l o g is t ? .............................................................................................................................. 13
C a r eer s in B u s in e s s.................................................................................................................................................................16
P u b l ic a n d P r iv a t e Se c t o r S k il l s - A C o m pa r a t iv e St u d y ..............................................................................18
O p p o r t u n it ie s a n d C o n st r a in t s fo r C o o pe r a t iv e V e n t u r e s .........................................................................20
E x a m p l e s o f a n Ind u strla l G e r o n t o l o g is t .............................................................................................................. 2 1
C o n c l u s io n ................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
C H A P T E R 3 : M E T H O D S ........................................................................................................................................................ 27
In t r o d u c t io n ............................................................................................................................................................................. 27
E x p e c t a t io n s o f t h e St u d y ................................................................................................................................................ 27
P r e d ic t io n s ................................................................................................................................................................................. 28
Re s e a r c h Q u e s t io n a n d W o r k in g H y p o t h e s is.........................................................................................................29
V a r ia b l e D e f in it io n s a n d M e a s u r e s ............................................................................................................................ 30
O r g a n iz a t io n a l In f o r m a t io n ........................................................................................................................................... 30
E d u c a t io n a n d W o r k E x p e r ie n c e................................................................................................................................. 31
C h a r a c t e r is t ic s.......................................................................................................................................................................33
Pe r s o n a l T r a it s .......................................................................................................................................................................35
S a m p l e ............................................................................................................................................................................................36
D a t a C o l l e c t io n a n d A n a l y s is.......................................................................................................................................37
C o n c l u s io n .................................................................................................................................................................................38
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CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS ........................................................................................................... 39
D e sc r ipt iv e T a b l e s.................................................................................................................................................................. 39
T a b les Ill u st r a t in g Q u a l if ic a t io n s............................................................................................................................41
C h a r a c t e r is t ic s....................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Q u a l ific a t io n s vs. C h a r a c t e r is t ic s............................................................................................................................. 48
CHAPTERS: CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................. 50
Im p l ic a t io n s ............................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Re c o m m e n d a t io n s....................................................................................................................................................................53
C o n c l u d in g Re m a r k s ............................................................................................................................................................. 54
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................56
APPENDIX A: SURVEY.......................................................................................................................58
APPENDIX B: TABLES........................................................................................................................61
Pr o fe ss io n a l Sk il l s ................................................................................................................................................................61
Pe r s o n a l T r a it s ........................................................................................................................................................................61
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V
LIST OF TABLES
T a b l e 1 - D e s c rip tiv e D a t a o n S a m p le (N = 5 9 ) ..............................................................................................................39
T a b l e 2 - D a t a b y T y p e o f Po p u la tio n Se r v e d ..............................................................................................................40
T a b l e 3 - Q u a l ific a t io n Preferen ces b y P o p u l a t io n S e r v e d ............................................................................... 42
T able 4 - De g r e e P r e f e r e n c e................................................................................................................................................. 45
T ab le 5 - Pr o fe ss io n a l S k il l s................................................................................................................................................ 46
T able 6 - Pe r so n a l T r a it s ........................................................................................................................................................4 7
T a b l e 7 - C r it e r ia W h e n Hir in g ............................................................................................................................................ 49
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CHAPTER 1: AN INTRODUCTION
"He or she who gets hired is not necessarily the one who can do that job best; but, the one
who knows the most about how to get hired." Bolles, 1977, p. 152
The Problem
Gerontology is gaining popularity as a degree program for undergraduate and
graduate students alike. One specialization within the aging field is "industrial
gerontology," which designates someone who works with the older population or on their
behalf, in a corporate or entrepreneurial setting utilizing business skills. Industrial
gerontologists might seek positions as retirement planners, marketers of products to
seniors, developers of new products for this market, job placement agents for older
workers, or as entrepreneurs starting up companies that cater to seniors and their families
such as private case management firms and home health care agencies. The fundamental
principle is that the focus of this type of gerontologist, one who studies aging and the
elderly, is on some aspect of business and the private, for-profit sector.
In comparison to business, gerontology is a very young field with degree programs
and industry standards still in the process of being established. The corporate world,
although consistently changing, has firm roots in the standards of business. These core
values have been adopted into educational institutions that typically teach them to
"business students" who hope to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to work in
such an environment. Gerontology, on the other hand, looks at aging from psychological,
biological, sociological, political, and economic viewpoints. Therefore, the core
knowledge base of a gerontologist is very well rounded and diverse, yet quite different
from business.
Regardless of this dissimilarity, the business world needs gerontologists. Savvy
business leaders are recognizing the potential of the older market, others are simply having
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to reposition their products and services to survive. The mature market is large in
numbers, will continue to grow and has the largest share of disposable income. Seniors
also need a wide array of products and services. In the past the older population may not
have been an attractive target market, but demographics are rapidly changing this.
Businesses in the past have not commonly tried to reach the older consumer, the
gerontologist is currently needed to define this population, their needs and desires,
purchase trends, and effective tactics for marketing to seniors. The gerontologist can thus
provide corporations with the knowledge and experience in this previously unexplored
area.
So how are business and gerontology coming together? This is the key issue and
basis for this thesis. At first glance, most would answer through the "industrial
gerontologist,” however that is only the tip of the iceberg. Many related questions arise
due to vast differences between the two disciplines of study and practice. For example,
how well is the industrial gerontologist doing out in corporate America? Are they getting
the skills and knowledge that they need? Are they being hired by the private sector?
What can be done to make the field of gerontology and those holding degrees marketable?
The search to explore these questions surrounding industrial gerontology will be the focal
point and problem researched for this thesis.
Addressing the Problem
The central issue, for the purpose of this study, will be addressed by comparing the
hiring practices of organizations (for profit and non-profit) in both the business and aging
sectors to determine what qualifications and characteristics are most desirable to obtain
employment as an industrial gerontologist. The formal research question posed is: Do
businesses and aging organizations require different qualifications and characteristics when
hiring personnel?
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By surveying and analyzing data from gerontology specific and corporate
structures this thesis attempts to better prepare industrial gerontologists for finding work
in corporate and entrepreneurial settings through the following objectives:
1 . Discover the qualifications necessary for hiring a job candidate
2. Identify which characteristics are sought after by potential employers
3. Determine implications for industrial gerontologists and gerontology degree
programs
To achieve these objectives, this study will utilize data from mailed surveys. Two separate
surveys will be formulated - one will be mailed to gerontology specific organizations and
the other to the business sector. The data to be acquired will provide information about
the organization, its job search methods, educational requirements, work experience
preferences, and finally the most desired professional skills and personal traits.
Utilizing the data listed above, this study will compare the gerontology specific
organizations to the business sector to determine their similarities and differences in hiring
personnel. The examination of these variables allows for distinction between these two
fields, discussion to compare and contrast the results, and lastly a foundation from which
to base further recommendations.
In summary, the issue and this study are determined to be a combination of
theoretical and practical. Theoretical in that a belief will emerge based on the data
examined to forge a clearer definition of industrial gerontology. An explanation and
philosophy for an industrial gerontologist to utilize will hopefully emerge. In addition to
being theoretical, this thesis is also practical because it also focuses on obtaining
employment and thus the actual practice of the industrial gerontologist. Lastly, the
implications for gerontology degree programs and advice for getting hired are practical in
nature as well. Thus theoretical and practical issues and relevance are to be studied,
addressed, and resolved.
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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
"The job market is not only a matter of supply and demand, but also the reactor to
planning and personal initiative." (Strugnell, 1982, p. 460)
Introduction
Business and aging, at first glance, seem an unlikely and incompatible combination
of theories, governing principles, educational preparation, and personnel management.
More and more, however, these seemingly diverse sectors are converging whether by
force of the marketplace or by the prospect of seizing a unique and profitable opportunity.
The business and aging sectors are finding the need and desire to combine their skills,
experience, and resources for use in existing organizations and services, as well as in
forging new mutual territories. Are gerontologists prepared to work in the business
world? Are corporations ready and willing to accept gerontologists into their
organizations? How can gerontology programs better prepare a gerontologist for an
“industrial” job search?
Combining Gerontology and Business
As expected, the review of literature has highlighted several pertinent factors to be
considered in this study. Firstly, the aspect of the real value of the "difference" between
the aging and business structures. As Silfvast and Quaglieri (1994) ponder, "Can it be the
public and private sectors are so different structurally, environmentally and philosophically
that the management skills required in one sector are not transferable to the other?" In
relation to this current project, I would strongly agree that there is a marked difference in
three aspects— structure, environment, and philosophy. Regardless of this difference or its
degree of severity, the management skills required in the aging sector are transferable to
the business sector and vice versa. I believe the core set of management skills to be
consistent among all fields, the key difference lies in Silfvast and Quaglieri's affirmation of
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these skills being "required." Such skills may be "required" for work in both sectors,
however, are these skills taught to gerontologists as part of their curriculum or through
their work experience. Furthermore, are gerontologists prepared for the business
structure, environment, and philosophy. I would argue that in most cases they are not.
Therefore the management skills mentioned by Silfvast and Quaglieri are definitely
transferable with regards to business and gerontology, if they are taught to gerontologists
in the first place.
A Glimpse Into the Future
In addition to transferable skills, Silfvast and Quaglieri also wonder, "whether such
a person can readily adapt to the rigors of a profit driven organization" when coming from
the public sector. This highlights that the trait of adaptability is definitely an important one
and is critical for working in either sector. Changes and shifts in the workplace will also
have a tremendous impact on the requirements for hiring personnel in both business and
aging. For instance, the workplace will be unfriendly to those lacking education and skills.
(Hines, 1993) Clearly, higher education is the key to obtaining the skills necessary to land
desirable jobs. In his article "Transferable Skills Land Future Jobs," Andy Hines points
out that education levels do and will continue to correlate with income. The more
education one has, the more one can earn. People without college degrees will see their
incomes drop. Furthermore, jobs that once did not require a college education, such as
acting and sports announcing, in the future are more likely to require a college degree.
The workplace will demand "skills" in addition to the necessary educational
qualifications. Although skills have always been a prerequisite for landing a job, the skills
of the future will be different. (Hines, 1993) Growth in science and technology have
made computer literacy a must. As we are living in the "information age" we need
workers who have the ability to analyze, apply, and disseminate information. The social
agenda of tomorrow will also change, thus translating into new opportunities for certain
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fields and closing doors for others. Another current trend of "self-help", personal
improvement and introspection, has affected the job market and hiring practices. All of
these trends may or may not parallel previous trends in the marketplace, and will come and
go, as is a trends nature. They do, however, clearly indicate an essential concept: the
single most desirable quality of tomorrow's workers is the ability to learn and adapt to
changing conditions. (Hines, 1993) The days of definite, stable, lucrative lifetime
employment are long gone, people change companies and change careers many times.
Therefore, the worker who can rapidly assimilate and transfer skills will be at a premium.
The Importance of Transferable Skills
The portfolio of transferable skills essentially consists of a combination of the basic
educational requirements (such as reading, writing, math, and computer literacy) with
social, interpersonal skills and specialized, specific job-related expertise and competence.
Transferable skills are somewhat abstract, not easily or consistently defined, and may or
may not actually be "taught" in an educational setting. At their core, transferable skills can
be broken down into "professional features" and "personal traits." Professional features
are aspects of the job candidate that would directly apply to his working capacity and
abilities. Such features enhance work performance and are obtained through higher
education or direct on the job training.
For example, writing ability, technical expertise, and problem solving skills would
be professional features. On the other hand, a personal trait would encompass one's
personality, disposition, beliefs, and individual talents. Creativity, interpersonal skills and
stress tolerance would all fall into the personal traits category. The main difference
between the two is that professional features can be taught to someone, they are a learned
trait while personal traits are the makeup of who one is inside independent of the working
environment. A well rounded candidate with a focused area of knowledge will be highly
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sought after. The main critical elements of success in any type of job, according to
(Ramsey, 1994) include the following:
• Ability to work with different and all types of people
• Willingness to give 101 percent
• Enthusiasm and commitment
• Broad interests and many experiences
• Capacity to change and learn new skills
• Excitement for growth and learning
• Problem solving skills
• Strong ability to communicate effectively
• Being a self-starter
• Competent working with minimal direction
• Dedicated to a high quality of customer service
Recruiting New Employees
This study will also determine the most common means for employers to reach
potential new workers and how persons seeking employment can find out about available
positions and company openings. It is important for industrial gerontologists who might
be searching for employment to know the popular venues of advertisement for the
business sector, which may be different from the field of aging. Knowing where to look
for the largest number of leads is obviously critical to a successful job search.
Popular venues for businesses to recruit new employees to include utilizing
university placement services, hiring professional job placement specialists, advertising in
newspapers or professional/field publications, using current employee referrals, or utilizing
employment agencies. As Martell and Carroll found in a 1994 study for HR Magazine,
"Recruitment and selection practices should be tailored to fit the individual managerial job,
and different selection criteria should be emphasized for different positions."
From a gerontology point of view, AGHE explains that the job search can either
be approached by exploring the aging network (those organizations that primarily work
with older clients) or seeking a position in a more generic organization (in which older
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persons are only part of the clientele served.) Gerontology graduates also report that
internships are the best source of a job. Referrals from faculty members or network
colleagues are useful. The importance of cultivating a network during the educational
period and throughout all work experience cannot be emphasized enough. Contacts are
often made via attending annual meetings of professional associations, participating in
workshops, visiting agencies, and volunteering for an organization and result in job leads
and strong references. Therefore, depending on the type of company and the job
description, various avenues of marketing the open position will be utilized and knowing
where to look will be critical to the potential job candidate.
"Entrepreneurial Gerontology: Creative Marketing of Gerontological Skills"
A 1985 article by Jean Coyle, explores the significant issue of what it takes for a
gerontologist to succeed in today's work force. She states that "in order to operate
successfully in today's work force, gerontologists need to learn, and to utilize, marketing
of their gerontological skills." An innovative approach, "Entrepreneurial Gerontology," is
defined as creative marketing for the individual gerontologist who wants to create
gerontological positions within new or existing organizations and the person who seeks to
develop a gerontology related business.
The development and use of self-marketing techniques is undoubtedly a skill that is
vital to gerontology students, professionals, and job seekers alike. Coyle explains that it is
essential to approach creatively the assessment of the skills necessary in the field and then
to identify or create new types of positions. The concept of self-marketing techniques
would naturally include business as well as fields not previously employing full time
gerontologists. The absolute need to analyze job opportunities and find potential in them
while strongly marketing one's self cannot be emphasized enough. The other option,
which limits opportunities, is simply to focus only on those current job openings that are
obviously recognized as gerontology positions. New work options will be cultivated as
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well as new perspectives on the utilization of gerontology skills. Integrating greater
knowledge of aging in the practice of professional areas such as health, law, banking,
architecture, and business would be beneficial and eliminate creating entirely separate
services and institutions for the elderly. Coyle lists personal characteristics that are known
to be associated with entrepreneurial success such as problem solving, risk taking, taking
initiative and responsibility, creativity, and team building.
Looking at the above issues while defining potential clients, organizations, service
needs, and competition will undoubtedly lead to carving out a marketing niche for all
gerontologists. The success of self-marketing depends entirely upon the prospect's
perception. What you actually are is not the deciding factor. The deciding factor is what
the employer thinks you are and how they perceive you as a potential employee or
provider of services. (Holtz, 1984) In fact, potential employees may have difficulty
developing guidelines for gerontologists, since there are no established standards for
education and training in the field. This current lack of specificity, however, actually
provides entrepreneurial opportunities. Furthermore, this quality is a rather attractive
attribute of gerontology for those interested in unexplored areas and business ventures. In
summary, this "entrepreneurial gerontology" concept is one that involves the traditional
venues of determining individual career objectives through introspection, investigating the
field, practice networking, and looking at jobs that would creatively combine gerontology
and business skills. The added features of this approach is self-marketing, which also
entails promoting one's capabilities skillfully, portraying originality, and projecting a
positive image. Entrepreneurial gerontology would undoubtedly enhance successful job
searches for all gerontologists, but the industrial gerontologist in particular would benefit
greatly from this business minded strategy.
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Gerontology as a Profession - Two Studies
For over twenty years, formal education in gerontology has very rapidly expanded.
With more universities offering more courses and degree programs, in gerontology, Karen
Roberto and John BenshofF from the University of Northern Colorado completed "A
Comparison o f Graduates with Bachelor's and Master's Degrees in Gerontology" in
1988. They found that both the Bachelor’s and Master’s degree groups had similar
career paths. The salaries for individuals with a master’ s degree were higher, but the job
titles and responsibilities between the two groups did not differ. Most importantly, the
majority of the respondents in both groups attributed acquiring their current position to
obtaining a degree in gerontology, and cited their internship experience as being the most
useful in pursuing their careers. Eighty percent of undergraduate alumni were employed
full time, although twenty percent of them said that they would not choose a degree in
gerontology again. The two reasons cited for not choosing gerontology were a need for a
better business background and the feeling that gerontology is not accepted as a
professional degree. Roberto and BenshofF found that of the master’s level alumni about
seventy percent were employed full time, and twelve percent were unemployed. The
remaining respondents worked part time, did not work outside of the home, or were in a
doctoral program. Their mean salary per month was $1708.50, compared to $1369.00 at
the bachelor's level. Over twenty percent of the master's level alumni said that they would
not choose gerontology for their graduate program again, their reasons being lack of jobs,
poor salaries, and choosing a more traditional field.
In 1990 another study conducted by David Peterson and Pamela Wendt surveyed
professionals, whose job required a knowledge of aging, working in State Units on Aging
(SUA) and Area Agencies on Aging (AAA), whose job required a knowledge of aging.
Previous studies provided limited information on professional personnel characteristics,
and this study by Peterson and Wendt wanted to examine professionals in the aging
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network whose jobs required knowledge of aging. Their purpose was to provide
educators in gerontology with insight about the employment market that would affect
program development. Looking at their model, the professional staff at SUA's and AAA's
are responsible for developing a wide variety of services at the local level. The three
categories of jobs that exist: directors, program planners, and program specialists all
demand skill levels critical in determining the quality of efficiency of these services to
older Americans and their caregivers. Professionals surveyed typically had a bachelor’ s
degree and almost forty percent had completed a graduate degree. The agency directors
were the segment most likely to hold graduate level credentials. Coincidentally, the
dominant majors found were not gerontology, but rather behavioral and social sciences,
administration, and law. Over 60% of SUA and AAA jobs required at least an
undergraduate degree, while a graduate degree was required for approximately 17%. The
responding aging network professionals had educational backgrounds that exceeded the
formal requirements for initial employment. The relationship between the type of degree
and job level supported the conclusion that higher education levels lead to higher levels of
employment, which in turn leads to higher salary. Finally, in comparing the educational
and salary levels between those working in aging and those working with other
populations, there was no substantial difference shown.
Career Success in Aaina
The graying of America is only one factor in anticipating job growth within the
field of gerontology, equally important is the explosion of new services, products, and
programs designed to address the needs of an older population. (Kahl, 1989) According
to the article “What Predicts Career Success in Gerontology?” in Aging News Network,
the unconventional predictor is "apparent motivation." (DeRenzo, 1989) This conclusion
was based from a study done at the University of South Florida to create the
"Gerontological Job Embeddedness Index." For this study by DeRenzo, information was
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obtained from recent master’ s graduates of their program who were given a composite
score derived from four equally weighted factors: employment after graduation, salary,
relatedness of job to field of aging, and job satisfaction. The study's predictor variables
included standard demographic data, scores on the Graduate Record Examination and
undergraduate major. The unconventional predictor was an "apparent motivation" score,
a subjective measure based on questions asked of the gerontology program's full time
faculty. The motivation score was the only significant predictor of career success. The
article further states that the qualities and attributes that presuppose success in
gerontology are desire, warmth, interpersonal communication skills, sensitivity to the
needs and values of others, maturity, and commitment. This is one particular study that
strengthens the argument that not only do the same personal traits predict career success
in both aging and business, but that these are sought after by employers and are
transferable.
Gerontological specialists possess a unique knowledge base and set of skills.
Success in obtaining a job often depends on making the employer familiar with the
distinctive features of gerontological training. AGHE (Association of Gerontology in
Higher Education) has listed the strengths of gerontologists to be the following:
• Knowledge of the conditions of older people in contemporary society
• Familiarity with the diversity of older persons
• Awareness of the interrelationships of physical, emotional, and social aspects
of aging
• Ability to distinguish between usual aging and diseases of later life
• Familiarity with the special service delivery system for the elderly
• Skills in designing, implementing, managing, and evaluating community based
programs
• Skills in adapting current treatment procedures to fit the needs of older clients
• Skills that facilitate successful communication with middle aged and the elderly
• A commitment to a career working in the field of aging
• Attitudes and beliefs which encourage continuing growth of the older client
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The above list of strengths provides an excellent way to articulate the unique
features that a job candidate with formal education in aging can “self market” for any type
of gerontology employment. AGHE’s list, however, has not broken this list into
specialties, such as business and social work. Nevertheless this list can be a powerful tool
in communicating how a gerontology degree would be an asset to a potential new
employer.
The Unsuccessful Gerontologist?
Naturally, for every positive argument is presented, there exists an opposing point
of view. Daniel Krause argues that graduates of gerontology programs are not as solidly
prepared for their careers as people perceive. His article, "Careers in Gerontology:
Occupational Fact or Academic Fancy? " expresses reservations about the growth of
graduate programs in gerontology and critiques the literature that commonly assumes that
career preparation is accomplished in these programs. Krause found previous work
history to be a critical factor. He contends that the graduates who are doing well and are
happy with their training, had previous work experience, but those graduates without
work experience are not doing well. The three factors which Krause believes contribute
to this negative employment situation are: the amorphous nature of the gerontology job
market; ignorance on the part of potential employers about what gerontology is and what
kinds of skills and knowledge these graduates have; and a lack of training in specific job
skills.
Krause's argument is not to be taken lightly, but should not set off any false alarms
either. As for the "amorphous" nature of the gerontology job market, the job market as a
whole today can be considered nebulous. The current downsizing, layoffs, budget cuts,
and displacement by technology is widespread and creates an environment of uncertainty
for many fields. More importantly, gerontology is a new and developing area of study and
practice. By its nature it is quite diverse and dynamic and is in a constant forward thrust
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and state of change - it has to be. All new fields endure a starting period that is shaky.
Looking at predictors and demographics, it appears that gerontology is headed for
growth. As is the case with any new product, a time curve is necessary for the general
public to know that it is out there, how to use it, and the benefits. Gerontology is simply in
that time curve right now, which is natural and not a cause for alarm as Daniel Krause
argues.
The one argument that does, however, have some merit is that there is not enough
awareness on the part of employers about what gerontology is and the function of a
gerontologist in the work place. A large effort is being made to educate the general public
and articulate the value of gerontology as a profession and the merits of a career in
gerontology. Attitudes and appreciation of gerontology are slowly improving, particularly
as the baby boom generation forces many issues to be resolved. With this in mind, finding
employment as a specialist in aging is often challenging. A large role as a gerontologist
involves educating individuals and the public as a whole. This situation is not likely to
change soon and one necessary step is for degree programs to give its students the
necessary tools and capability of to articulate about the field of gerontology and the role a
gerontologist might play in the workplace. As previously mentioned, selling yourself and
selling the field are critical in career success.
Another factor that Daniel Krause cites is a "lack of training in specific job skills."
This may or may not be valid, depending on the training program and the area of work.
Gerontology is such a broad field, with students exploring many work and study options.
For example, the Master of Science program in Gerontology at the Leonard Davis
School/University of Southern California offers a specialization in direct service,
administration, policy, and industrial gerontology, not to mention several dual degrees
with business administration, social work, public administration, and urban and regional
planning. Needless to say, students also need a strong foundation in core gerontology
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classes, in addition to their chosen area of specialization. It would not be unusual for
someone to have training in one area, but only find employment in another. In which case
they might not be as prepared. No academic program can be all things to all people and
students also must take some responsibility. For example, electives can be taken in
management through a business department, computer classes are also available - if the
students take advantage of them. Moreover, the concept of "job skills" is undoubtedly an
important theory of this thesis as it relates to gerontology graduates gaining employment
in the corporate sector, where such skills are necessary to compete in the job market.
Other literature has confirmed that transferable skills are critical and that what the person
hiring is looking for will encompass professional proficiency and personal traits. Such
preparation undoubtedly should be a part of any degree program, and there is evidence
that many gerontology programs attempt this via internship requirements, workshops,
mentor programs, and professional issues courses. The real question to pose is: Are
gerontology programs doing enough, given the market conditions, to train future
professionals for their actual tasks on the job?
In response to Krause’s finding about work experience, it would seem fairly
obvious that work experience is a factor in job success and that this is not solely inherent
to the field of gerontology. The literature has consistently made a positive correlation
between the amount of experience and the rate of success in a job search. Such reasons as
a more extensive network, supervisory and management training, a cultivated reputation
in the field, and a wider variety of skills and knowledge come with work experience. Any
job search or career transition would undoubtedly be aided and have a higher success rate
by anyone who possessed extensive work experience and the skills that go along with it.
While all of Daniel Krause’s argument and his findings have relevant points, it is
not necessarily a quick halt to the growth in gerontology programs. His assertions are
ones that need to be addressed, and without a doubt are relevant to the future prosperity
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of the field. If some of these issues are not given attention it will hurt gerontology
graduates chances of finding employment. Perhaps a better lesson to learn from this study
is that the field of gerontology is in acute need of some positive public relations and it
would be better to take a proactive stance now.
Careers in Business
"Stress the Functional Skills When Hiring Top Managers" is a 1994 study by
Kathryn Martell and Stephen Carroll which surveyed Fortune 500 companies. The
companies in their survey shared the important common characteristic of being large and
established. Recognizing that a top management team is critical to a company's success or
failure, identifying which skills and characteristics influence managerial effectiveness is
important in selecting and training managers. The skills and personal characteristics you
seek in a manager depend on the type of department to be managed. (Martell and Carroll,
1994) Also according to Martell and Carroll, the skills and personal traits preferred for
particular functional areas do not vary by industry, but the functional or technical skills are
more important than general management skills. These statements are the major findings
in their survey which tracked the recruiting preferences of general managers for top-level
managers in the areas of research and development, marketing and production.
This study, then is not in agreement with Ramsey's theories of transferable skills -
the idea that these skills will get you ahead everywhere. To the contrary, one main
conclusion of the Martell and Carroll study is that "different skills are valued in different
types of management jobs." In fact, they found that general managers value the same
skills and traits differently, depending on which job you were asking about. For example,
technical expertise was the most important skill of R&D managers, while the most
important personality characteristic was creativity. For marketing managers,
communication skills and initiative ranked the highest and for production managers
problem solving and mental toughness were imperative. It is meaningful to note that these
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skills and characteristics are common to the Ramsey study, only they are seen as universal
and not exclusive to particular types of industries and managers. Such a finding suggests
that a strong production or marketing manager might be effective in the same type of job
in many different settings. The same mangers, however, may prove ineffective if
transferred to other departments, even within the same company.
The Martell and Caroll study also found that functional skills were ranked above
management skills, even in executive positions. In fact, when evaluating corporate top
management, the survey respondents emphasized functional expertise more than
managerial skills such as strategic planning, goal setting and time management. Although
the respondents agreed that senior-level managers are leading and motivating others to
perform rather than making personal contributions to product design, production or sales -
nonetheless the functional skills still received the greatest emphasis. The theory behind
this being that "a manager must be highly proficient in his or her functional area in order to
be an effective leader." (Martell and Carroll, 1994) This is quite contradictory to the
popular belief that management is a profession and once people were had the tools
necessary to be a manager they could be effective in any senior management position.
Another important conclusion of this study was a preference for senior managers to move
up from the ranks having developed strong technical skills in their functional area along
the way. Therefore, even for executive positions this study found a greater emphasis on
technical skills. What general managers are seeking when they recruit for executive
openings are people who are at the top of their particular functional fields, and they are
assumed to be good managers too. The recent trend for CEO's, however, is to hire from
outside of the company and in some cases even outside of the industry, which obviously is
not consistent with general management.
Lastly, although this particular study basically contradicts the other studies, one
important similarity should be noted. This likeness that "the definition of a good manager
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seems to be rather universal." In different working environments and industries the
emphasis on managerial skills and personal characteristics did not change. The
respondents agreed on their preferences for the most desirable skills and characteristics of
functional managers.
Public and Private Sector Skills - A Comparative Study
"To define the managerial skills that managers need in both the private and public
sectors, to ascertain which skills are transferable, which are used more in each sector, and
to assess the biases that managers have towards their counterparts in the opposite sector"
were the goals of a study conducted by Roger Silfvast and Philip Quaglieri in 1994. Their
study involved 131 individuals, who were divided into respondents from the private sector
who spent one year in the public sector and respondents from the public sector who spent
one year in the private sector. The age range of the subjects was 25 to 48 years and they
had between 5 to 15 years of work experience. The range of education was from
Bachelor of Arts to Doctorate in both groups. One difference between the group was that
more individuals in the public sector had a Master of Arts or Master of Science, while the
private sector individuals had more Master of Business Administration or Master of Public
Administration respondents.
Nine skills were selected for the study that were identified as necessary for
accomplishing managerial tasks. These skills are classified and defined as:
1 . Communication Skills - the ability to articulate effectively, information, in
writing and orally in order to make a statement or get one's point across
2. Interpersonal skills - the ability to attend to other's needs, i.e. listen, encourage,
and motivate participation from others
3. Adaptive-like skills - the ability to change roles across, or to address, different
groups in the course of a short period of time
4. Negotiation skills - the ability to persuade, compromise and defend
5. Planning skills - the ability to determine strategy, interpret problems and arrive
at conclusions
6. Conceptual skills - the ability to understand complex abstract ideas and convert
the abstract to concrete terms
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7. Group skills - the ability to work with groups within a system as well as with
external, competing and diverse groups
8. Decision-making skills - the ability to be decisive, take the lead and follow
through with a decision once it has been made
9. Organizational skills - the ability to orchestrate a system, select personnel, set
priorities, and implement programmatic functions
The question posed was, "In which skill areas do the public and private sector
managers differ in their perceptions of skill importance in the two settings?" The results
showed that each group rated themselves high in the use of negotiation, decision making
and organization skills within their own settings. When rating the use of these same three
skills in their sector, they rated the importance of the skill lower. In other words, the
private sector group indicated that these skills were seen as being relied upon much less
while they were in the public sector, while the public sector group indicated that these
were used much less while in the private sector. Some would also argue that the skills of
the private sector manager are of little use in a bureaucratic organization. These results
definitely indicate that a private/public sector bias most definitely does exist in terms of
each group believing that particular skills are used more only within their sectors and not
in the opposing sectors. It appeared that private sector managers believe that within the
public sector, business oriented skills are less important, i.e. decision making,
organizational, communication, conceptual, and planning skills. They also believe that
public managers are relatively lacking in their actual use of managerial skills. Most
importantly, however, despite a bias, the actual results show evidence that in fact a
uniform set of skills is common to both sectors, and that any differences are more
contrived than real. In addition, on a scale rating the importance and frequency of use, all
of the above skills were ranked at least a 5 .5 or higher on the scale of seven indicating that
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all are used frequently and very important to both groups. The information from the study
indicates the following skills for each group in the order ranked:
In summary, many skill sets are common to the public and private sector. The
main area of differences between the private and public sectors are decision making,
negotiation, and group. The private sector ranks decision as the number one desired
skill, whereas in the public sector it is actually ranked last. Negotiation is much lower in
the private sector and group was ranked at the top for the public sector, but the bottom
for the public sector. The most common rankings include communication, adaptive,
conceptual, interpersonal, and planning. Communication ranked second for both sectors
and adaptive ranked seventh.
Opportunities and Constraints for Cooperative Ventures
Forging a new coalition between the corporate world and academic gerontology
naturally presents both opportunities and constraints. As private industry is becoming
more sensitive to the marketing implications of an aging population, academic gerontology
has much to offer them. For example, gerontology programs could offer research and
training programs to corporations. Industry would benefit from research projects such as
demographic studies, market analyses, needs assessments, impact analysis, projective
studies dealing with pensions and retirements, and evaluation research. (Doka and Smith,
1989) Making the corporate world aware of areas of expertise in gerontology and how
this would benefit and facilitate corporate tasks might mean that gerontology departments
Private Sector Public Sector
Decision Making
Communication
Planning
Interpersonal
Conceptual
Organizational
Adaptive
Negotiation
Group
Group
Communication
Conceptual
Negotiation
Interpersonal
Planning
Adaptive
Organizational
Decision Making
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should commit resources for promotional materials and proposals to businesses. Breaking
down those barriers, increasing awareness, and marketing gerontology is one constraint
that could be surpassed on the gerontology side. There may also be an attitudinal barrier
that exists. (Doka and Smith, 1989) Gerontologists may view involvement in the
corporate world as less altruistic than public sector employment. Within the gerontology
curriculum there is often resistance to integrating administrative and business management
courses, perhaps thinking that this type of work would not make as much of an impact as
one in direct service to older persons. According to Doka and Smith, the recommended
course of action to take to overcome the practical barriers and highlight the opportunities
for business and gerontology to work together might include gerontologists cultivating a
private sector network, publishing opportunities in trade journals, attending conferences
and trying to develop themes around corporate issues in gerontology and gerontology
issues within corporations.
Examples of an Industrial Gerontologist
One job description that would undoubtedly merge business with aging would be
the position of a retirement planner. A need for this occupation arose out of companies
observing that most of their employees had not adequately planned for retirement, in terms
of recreation and finance. Corporations also found that those who do not adjust well after
retirement have higher health care and insurance claims. Therefore, the cost of retirement
planning for employees amounted to much less than paying higher health care costs.
Such an occupation requires knowledge of the biological, sociological, economic,
and political aspects of the older person. In addition, a business background provides the
financial planning necessary for a successful retirement. The responsibility of the
retirement planner is to find ways to help retirees implement their plans to meet the
individual's goals for a successful retirement - whether that means a second career, travel,
volunteering, or acquiring hobbies. Financial plans and budgeting based on retirement
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income are also a critical function. Retirement planners often find employment
opportunities in corporations for every industry, self-employment and consulting,
government agencies, and private retirement planning firms. By the year 2000, it is
anticipated that many more companies will employ either in-house retirement planners or
consultants. The annual salary for a retirement planner ranges from approximately
$23,000 to $55,000 or more depending on their level of responsibility, experience,
education, and location. Career advancement takes place by movement to larger, more
prestigious firms or moving up into supervisory roles and management positions. Many
planners also become independent consultants or open up their own retirement planning
company.
Since the job of a retirement planner is a relatively new career, educational
requirements vary from job to job. It is recommended that individuals have at least a
bachelor’ s degree, although a master's or Ph.D. may be preferred. Majors of study might
also include social work, business, gerontology, psychology, and recreational therapy.
The required qualifications also vary, however, any background dealing with elderly
people and counseling experience are helpful.
Marketing is a recently developed employment area which deals with the
advertising and sale of products and services for the elderly. Personnel working in
marketing identify the needs of the older population and help hospitals, nursing homes,
social service agencies, banks, securities dealers, hotels, travel companies, and others
become more effective in selling to older people. (AGHE)
Self-employment has become relatively common in the field of aging. (AGHE) As
consultants, these professionals typically have extensive experience as well as education in
gerontology. The services they could offer include program evaluation, management
assistance, oral and written communications on aging topics, and proposal writing.
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Conclusion
An extensive review of business and gerontology literature has lead to the
discovery of many valid points, as well as raised several questions for further study in this
thesis. The literature has clearly confirmed the idea and importance of “transferable
skills.” Acknowledging the fact that as an employee moves from job to job, and even
from industry to industry, they take skills with them that are applicable and relevant in the
hiring process. The Silfvast and Quaglieri article resolved that the difference between the
public and private sectors is not so vast that the skills utilized in one sector are irrelevant
in the other sector. For example, they clearly highlighted adaptability as a critical trait,
which is very consistent with other literature. Their idea, however, that the same skills are
“required” in both sectors differs from other articles and studies.
Adaptability was confirmed as an important transferable skill by the Hines article.
Hines further tied together the relationship between the future workplace, transferable
skills, and education. Education and skills are an absolute necessity for obtaining a job.
The article also points out the reciprocal relationship between the three factors. To
qualify as a job candidate, one needs an education and the education provides one with the
skills to land that job. Hines also explains that since the skills are constantly changing, one
highly desirable quality is the ability to learn in different situations. Transferable skills
were extensively defined by Ramsey to include basic educational requirements,
interpersonal skills, and job-related expertise, all of which will be explored in this thesis as
they relate to hiring practices. Three main elements of success pointed out by Ramsey are
strong skills in the areas of teamwork, problem solving, and communication, all of which
were included in our survey as well. The Ramsey article resulted in the division of two
categories for the survey: professional features and personal traits. Professional features
directly apply to work performance, whereas a personal trait relates to one’s personality
independent of a working environment.
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The previous literature alludes to what business and gerontology might have in
common when studied independent of each other and defines a desirable employee in the
business or gerontology sector. The purpose of this thesis, however, is ultimately to
combine the two sectors and see how an industrial gerontologist would fare in the job
market. Jean Coyle’s article focused on an entrepreneurial approach to gerontology,
which is a much needed study of what it takes to succeed as a gerontologist in today’s job
market. One clear concept to come out of this article was that gerontologists need to
market their skills. Moreover, through “entrepreneurial gerontology” one can create a job
within existing industries or develop their own business. The personal characteristics that
Coyle has found to be associated with success are problem solving, risk taking, taking
initiative and responsibility, creativity, and team building. These clearly correlate with
other literature on characteristics allied to job success and will serve as personal traits to
be asked about on this thesis survey.
Not surprisingly, educational level and degree type proved relevant. The study by
Roberto and BenshofFcompared bachelor’s and master’s degrees in gerontology. Their
main findings were that salaries are higher for those with a graduate degree, but the career
path is similar. The respondents did attribute gaining their present job to their degree in
gerontology, with their internship experience being most valuable. Most were employed
full time, but twenty percent would not choose to get a degree in gerontology. They felt
that gerontology is not accepted as a professional degree and that they needed a better
business background. The Peterson and Wendt study observed professionals in a
gerontological setting. Most of their respondents did not have a gerontology degree, but
the majority did have a graduate level education. In fact, the degree level these
professional gerontologists had far exceeded their job requirement. Between those with
gerontology degrees and those with similar educational levels, no difference was shown in
job placement. The main difference was in the level of education, not the area, thus those
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with graduate degrees had higher salaries and managerial positions. Our survey will
compare the relationship between degree levels for entry level and managerial positions as
well as preferred areas of education in hiring.
To examine other predictors of success as a gerontologist, the study from the
University of Florida proved interesting. The only clear predictor was “apparent
motivation.” Motivation is utilized on our survey, as well as interpersonal communication
skills, which DeRenzo also cites as one indicator. Certainly this study proves a connection
to the business literature pointing out the exact same characteristics. The AGHE listing of
gerontological specific strengths are important, however none of these skills are
transferable outside of gerontology. Furthermore, there is no mention of a connection
between business and aging. In firm disagreement with AGHE is Krause’s study on
careers in gerontology. Krause certainly believes that gerontology graduates are not
solidly prepared. The factors he attributes to this are amount of work experience, the job
market, ignorance of potential employers, and a lack of training. The role work
experience plays in obtaining employment will be a part our study, as will the apparent
willingness of businesses to hire gerontologists. Training will be measured more
objectively, noting which skills are most important to potential employers and
recommending changes in gerontology curriculum.
After researching gerontology, the business literature had some discrepancies as
well as some parallels. A survey of Fortune 500 companies by Martell and Carroll found
the characteristics sought in a manger are dependent on what they are managing. This
finding clearly differs from the previous idea of transferable skills, which can go anywhere.
In addition, this study found functional, technical skills to be more important than general
management skills. This finding contradicts other literature and studies cited in this thesis.
The survey section on skills and traits should shed some light, particularly examining the
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business responses. Martell and Carroll did find the definition of a good manager to be
universal within certain areas, but they differed between areas.
A basis for comparing private and public sectors can be seen through Silfvast and
Quaglieri’s study that separately asked each sector about the same skills. The self rated
results were the same: both groups rated the use of negotiation, decision making and
organizational skills very high in their own settings. In ranking these skills for the opposite
sector the results were lower. It therefore appears that private sector workers think
business oriented skills are less important in the public sector, when in fact they are not,
according to public sector workers. When rating the opposing group, the results were
similar in that both gave high scores to communication, adaptive, conceptual,
interpersonal, and planning. As these skills and traits were found by this study to be
important to both the public and private sectors, these will also be part of the thesis
survey.
An exhaustive review of business and gerontology writings has yielded the final
conclusion that they have more similarities than differences in the area of hiring
employees. Overall, it appears as though they value many of the same personal traits and
professional features and view them as transferable in most circumstances. This is not to
say that their philosophies, working environments, and organizational structures are the
same. What can be concluded is that given the right qualifications and strong
characteristics, the industrial gerontologist has a good chance of finding a job.
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CHAPTER 3: METHODS
Introduction
This study will compare two working environments: business and gerontology.
The comparison process will involve analyzing the distinctive and descriptive categories of
business and gerontology individually. These findings will then be contrasted to the
results of a parallel investigation of the opposing category to form conclusions, which
finally lead to recommendations. This method of comparison inevitably produces
distinguishing features for each subject of study that may then be analyzed to find
similarities and differences. The goal of this study is to find out more about gerontology
and business hiring practices as separate entities in order to make recommendations to
persons who would like to find opportunities combining the two disciplines, namely the
industrial gerontologist.
Expectations of the Study
The literature provides evidence of particular properties inherent to the fields of
business and gerontology. Some properties correlate, while others are in disagreement.
Transferable skills were a common denominator and felt to be of the utmost importance,
particularly the trait of adaptability. Education and job skills were also found to be critical
and tied closely to a successful job search. Furthermore, higher education levels were
linked to management level positions. In the gerontology sector, problem solving, risk
taking, initiative, responsibility, team building, motivation, and creativity were all found to
be associated with success. As for the business sector, one study found functional,
technical skills to be more important than general management skills. In another survey,
however, the use of negotiation, decision making and organizational skills were ranked
highly by public and private sector respondents.
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Therefore, the literature provides evidence that business and gerontology have more
similarities than differences in terms of hiring practices.
Predictions
It is anticipated that this comparative study will also find more similarities than
differences in researching the qualifications and characteristics possessed by employment
applicants and preferred by hiring personnel for aging organizations and businesses. For
example, it is predicted that the preferred degree level for employing entry level workers
will be a Bachelor’s degree and a Master’s degree for management level for gerontology
and business organizations. The length of work experience required for business should
also resemble gerontology requirements. For both sectors, the length of work experience
is likely to be one year for entry level and two years for management. Highly desirable
traits for both business and gerontology, include adaptability, team player and
interpersonal skills. It is predicted that overall professional skills will receive the highest
ranking, followed by education, personal traits and work experience.
Several points of distinction are also expected to be found, including degree
preferences for gerontology and business organizations. Gerontology is more likely to
hire those with social work, psychology, or gerontology degrees, businesses should favor
hiring persons with business, economics, communications, or public administration
degrees. Just as the area of education will differ, it is anticipated that the type of work
experience preferred will also differ. Businesses are more likely to favor corporate
experience, whereas gerontology will lean towards non-profit experience. Desired
professional skills and their level of importance between gerontology and business will not
coincide: management, leadership, and marketing skills lend themselves to higher business
rankings, whereas oral communication, decision making, and problem solving are likelier
to be ranked higher by gerontology specific organizations. Furthermore, distinguishing
significant personal traits for gerontology will receive a higher rating of creativity, while
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for business, initiative will be given a higher ranking. Lastly, business will probably
allocate higher scores to professional skills in general, while gerontology will rank
personal traits higher overall.
Research Question and Working Hypothesis
The research question to be investigated by this thesis is: Do businesses and aging
organizations require different qualifications and characteristics of persons being hired? In
order to resolve this query, several other inquiries must be made. Firstly, hiring occurs at
different levels - entry level and managerial. It is important to separate the qualifications
for these two levels as they will inherently differ, regardless of the field.
This survey will seek information about hiring practices based on length of work
experience and education level when hiring for management level versus entry level. Once
differentiated by level, it will then be possible to compare business and gerontology
specific organizations. Second to degree level, degree type is also a critical factor. The
preference of degree type is to be explored as another factor in hiring job candidates. A
third factor to be probed is the type of work experience preferred. Employers in business
may prefer experience in different areas than a gerontology specific organization would. It
is essential to determine if such a division exists, and if it does exactly what type of
experience is preferred. As the concept of “transferable skills” was a predominant finding
in the literature, this may be a critical question to pose in the study of hiring practices.
The overall importance of professional skills as well as the hierarchy of certain skills, and
what role such skills may play in hiring gerontologists or businesspersons will be
determined. The two vocations may have similar needs in terms of professional skill
requirements or the needs could be quite diverse.
Along with professional skills, the significance of personal traits is yet another area
of inquiry. As in the study of professional skills there is need to investigate the
significance of personal traits as well as a rank order of certain qualities in particular.
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After examining the variables, the similarities and differences between hiring practices in
gerontology and business can then be resolved. Finally, after posing all of these
hypothesis related to work experience, education, professional skills, and personal traits
the bottom line comes down to: What is ultimately the most important factor when hiring
a new employee?
Variable Definitions and Measures
Hiring new employees is an arduous task for any executive, manager, supervisor,
or human resource worker. Certain professional, organizational, and individual standards
must be factored into the final choice, which results from evaluating certain variables
associated with competitive job candidates. The elements to be considered for this study
are organizational information, qualifications, and characteristics of potential personnel in
businesses as compared to aging organizations.
Organizational Information
To begin, it is important to classify the organization into certain categories that
will help to determine the parameters for comparison. The survey seeks information about
the type of organization, the clientele, size of the organization, and number of new
employees hired per year. The type of organization will be defined as for-profit or non
profit; for-profit meaning that the goal of the organization is making a monetary return on
investments by charging fees for goods purchased and services rendered. On the other
hand, non-profit status denotes that the organization does not require additional monetary
compensation over the need to cover expenses involved in dispensing their goods or
services. For a non-profit organization fees may or may not be charged, but only to cover
the actual costs of doing business. Any profits are then channeled back into the
organization for services or improvements.
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The clientele served is critical to this study and will be the defining variable by
which to separate gerontology specific organizations and businesses for the sake of
comparison. Clientele is defined as the body of customers or target group which the
organization serves. This survey breaks clientele into the general population and primarily
the older population. The business group constitutes those who serve the general
population, meaning that anyone can utilize and may have a need for the service or
product. The aging organization will be defined as an organization whose clientele is
primarily the older population-meaning that their products or services are specifically
targeted to or for senior citizens.
The size of the organization, measured in terms of number of employees is also
important for this survey. The approximate size of the organization, for this survey, is
broken down into measures of 1 -10 employees, 1 1 - 25 employees, 26 - 50 employees,
51-150 employees, 151 - 500 employees, and over 500 employees. This breakdown will
indicate if the establishment is very small (1-10 employees), small (11 - 25 employees),
medium (26 - 150 employees), large (151 - 500 employees) or extremely large (over 500
employees). The number of employees hired per year, measured in increments of 5 or
less, 6 - 15, 16 - 50, and 51 or more is another critical determinant. In summary, to form
a description of the organizations who respond to the survey tool, information will be
sought regarding type of organization, clientele served, size of the organization, and the
number of new employees hired. Organization type will be the defining factor between
gerontology specific organizations and the business sector. Those whose clientele is the
general population will make up the business sector, whereas those who serve primarily
the older population will define a gerontology specific organization.
Education and Work Experience
For the purpose of this study, the term “qualifications” will encompass education
and work experience backgrounds. Much of our survey focuses on determining necessary
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qualifications. The level of education and the length of work experience is segmented into
entry and management hiring requirements. The minimum education level for entry and
management positions is measured by degree credential: high school diploma, bachelor’s
degree, master’s degree, and doctorate. A high school diploma represents education
through the twelfth grade. A bachelor’s degree is the equivalent of four years of college.
A master’s degree is graduate work and a doctorate denotes possessing a Ph.D.
Requirements for length of work experience is also separated by entry level and
management positions. The survey asks about a minimum amount of work experience
required and breaks the prerequisite down into categories of no minimum requirement,
less than one year, one to two years, and more than two years for both managerial and
entry level jobs. Work experience is then broken down into seven, rank ordered
categories, which are to be rank ordered with one being “highly preferred” and seven
being the “least” kind of experience preferred when hiring a job candidate. The seven
types of work experience include non-profit, corporate, volunteer, military, education,
homemaker, and internship. The type of degree is also an important factor and this survey
has sample rank order, from one through nine, the following nine different degree types:
business, economics, psychology, gerontology, liberal arts, social work, communications,
public administration and “other.” Some of these degrees directly relate to business or
gerontology, while others are more general. As this thesis is a comparative study of
qualifications and characteristics, the qualifications will be defined as educational
background and work experience. Examination of these variables will result in knowledge
concerning the differences in hiring for management versus entry level positions, as well as
the type of degree, degree level, length of work experience and area of work experience
preferred by businesses and aging organizations.
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Characteristics
In addition to qualifications (education and work experience), an analysis of
characteristics will complete the body of information necessary for this study.
Characteristics, for the sake of this thesis, are to be defined as professional skills and
personal traits. Professional skills are transferable, learned, and directly related to
functional on-the job knowledge. Personal traits are inherent, individual, and the results
of life experience. Essentially, professional skills describe what a person knows, personal
characteristics describe who a person is. Characteristics will then be compared with
qualifications to find variations and commonality between business and gerontology
specific organizations.
Fourteen professional skills are noted on the survey and the respondent is asked to
rank order the relative importance of each of them. Scoring is between one and five, one
is the least important and five is the most important. The first skill is oral communication,
which is defined as one’s ability to transfer knowledge and information verbally, whether
formally or informally. Written communication is the ability to communicate effectively in
writing, such as memos, reports, correspondence etc. Strategic planning, another
professional skill to be ranked on the survey, involves mapping out and implementing
tactics to accomplish organizational goals. Closely related to strategic planning is problem
solving, which can be defined as recognizing an issue, finding an answer, and preventing
future uncertainties.
The importance of general management will also be scored. General management,
a very comprehensive term, basically entails one’s ability to administer, guide, and regulate
others. General managers, who are often in supervisory positions to lead, train, and attend
to subordinate employees, are an integral component to the organizational structure and
assist at all levels to create a prosperous enterprise. Yet another capacity to be judged in a
job candidate is negotiation, which entails the art and skill of compromise. Negotiation is
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the ability to mediate an issue in order to reach a settlement that is in one’s best interest,
but is also acceptable to both parties.
Closely associated to the concept of efficiency, productivity, and effectiveness are
time management and organizational skills. Time management is the capacity to budget
time periods in order to handle multiple priorities, a hectic schedule, and meet deadlines.
Organization relates to the notion of structure in the work place. Those with
organizational abilities create a divisive working environment. All of the information
needed is easily accessible to the organized person and their work is highly coordinated.
Appointments are noted, agendas followed, and the office arrangement is tidy.
Technical expertise, such as computer proficiency is a must. Job roles often
require the use of computers and their program capabilities. Technical expertise describes
the degree of knowledge in computers, their use, and applications. As information is
spread, the world is becoming interconnected. As cities, workplaces, and services are
becoming multicultural, it is necessary to reach out to diverse populations. One way to
have successful outreach is to hire bilingual employees, someone who is bilingual can
communicate in two or more languages via oral and written venues. In this survey,
marketing means the art of selling and advertising of a service or product to a specified
segment. Common venues for marketing include direct mail campaigns, television
commercials, and promotions through various locations.
Planning is yet another professional skill to be reviewed. The ability to make
proposal, implement action, and see results is the essence of planning. As opposed to
strategic planning, this definition pertains to the act of following through an agenda and
carrying out the task at hand. Decision making occurs at all levels of employment, which
is one reason it was selected for this study. In order to make a decision one needs to
gather knowledge, utilize resources, and analyze potential outcomes. Inevitably what a
strong decision maker has is good judgment. Lastly, leadership ability is the final skill
measured for this thesis. Leadership incorporates many of the previous skills mentioned as
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well. Leadership ability is the endowment of effectively handling authority to guide
others. All of the above skills were mentioned in the literature review and will be tested in
terms of their relative importance in selecting a new employee to hire.
Personal Traits
Eleven personal traits are listed on the survey for the respondent to rate
individually on a scale of one through five. The scoring for this scale sets one as the least
important and five as the most important. These personal traits, which are stated below
are rated on the assumption of their context in choosing a new employee to hire.
Firstly, creativity and innovation will be evaluated. Creativity describes one’s
capacity to work in a unique manner, as well as find new, imaginative approaches to the
process or outcome of the job. Likewise, an innovative person is inventive and advocates
modem modes within the organization. Another personal trait to be appraised is charisma.
A person who is charismatic has an astounding presence and positive affect on those
around them. This power of winning devotion with personal magnetism describes
charisma.
Adaptability will be another personal trait to be closely observed, as the literature
review highlighted it as a critical trait for the modem worker. Adaptability represents the
capacity to adjust to different situations and perform several functions. Mental toughness
and stress tolerance are similar in that both involve cerebral depth. As a formal definition
of mental toughness for use in this survey it will encompass one’s might in exerting high
self esteem and job focus in the face of adversity and triumph. In addition, stress tolerance
entails maintaining a composure, handling multiple priorities, and skillfully coping with
demanding people and situations. Formally, initiative is defined as taking the first step.
Persons who have initiative are motivated, self-starters, and ambitious.
Team player is yet another trait often mentioned in the literature. If someone is
involved in group projects, a team player will contribute to the assignment in a
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cooperative manner. They will also be responsible and dependable for their portion of the
project. Being a strong team player is also closely associated with possessing
interpersonal skills. Interpersonal skills encompass how a person relates to others and if
they would be considered a “people person”. A reliable person would likely be a
conscientious worker. Reliability, as used on this survey, denotes a person who can be
depended upon to complete the job in a satisfactory manner. They would also have a very
high attendance record, be punctual, and come through in emergencies. On the other
hand, a risk taker is defined as someone who takes chances, ventures out, and naturally
faces uncertainty and even danger. This might seem a negative and undesirable trait, but
there are also those who believe that nothing ventured is nothing gained. A risk could
involve extending money, making purchases, or a radical and new marketing concept.
Ethics is the last personal trait to be asked about on this survey tool. Ethics
involve being honest, maintaining a high moral standard, following legal obligations, and
obeying company policies. Many of these traits were found in the literature review, so this
study seeks to determine their relative importance to each other and to professional skills,
education and work experience.
Sample
The sample is indeed a crucial factor for producing a sound research project. The
sample population surveyed for this thesis consisted of two groups: one gerontology
specific and the other business related. By dividing the sample, it allowed for response
from those serving the general population and primarily the older population, as well as
for profit and non-profit agencies. An equal number of surveys, seventy five, were mailed
to organizations that were likely to fall into those two categories.
The gerontology specific organizations were found through the internship
placement files at the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology at the University of Southern
California. This database contains a variety of organizations that students would choose
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to work in for internship credit. The other seventy five surveys were randomly picked
from a database at the Marshall School of Business, also at the University of Southern
California. Their database is accessible to business students who are conducting a job
search and contains diverse company types in the business sector. Some of the companies
were entrepreneurial, others were Fortune 500, and many were in between. An effort was
made to choose a balanced number of companies from each category. As both the
gerontology and business databases composing this sample were obtained from the
University of Southern California, most organizations were located in Los Angeles or
adjoining regions.
Data Collection and Analysis
The data utilized in this study was collected by sending out 150 surveys by mail.
Fifty nine surveys were returned, which makes the response rate thirty nine percent.
Responses from the surveys were then entered in to the computer program SPSS for
Windows. A descriptive analysis observed frequencies of the variables to be used in
specifying organization characteristics.
Cross tabulations were calculated to gather information and formulate answers to
the research question. Table One exhibits organizational information that is descriptive in
nature, such as the for profit or non-profit status, size of the organization, the number of
new employees hired, and the population served. It was necessary to differentiate business
from aging organizations, as shown in Table One, for most of the cross tabulations. This
distinction of sectors is related to most of the survey questions.
Furthermore, to determine the contrast in the number of new employees hired per
year, Table Two was produced by separating business from gerontology responses. Table
Two also illustrates the size of the organization, separated by the population served. As
qualifications (education and work experience), are a determinant for hiring new
employees, it is necessary to see how business and gerontology differ in their
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requirements. Thus, Table Three has calculated minimum education and work experience
levels for management and entry positions. For the sake of comparison, these total values
are then sorted into the population served - general or older population.
The degree preference table, Table Four, was first grouped into categories. The
categories are business (business, public administration, and economics), general
education (liberal arts and communications), and social service (gerontology, psychology,
and social work). Each response given a ranking of one, meaning most preferred, was
assigned a category. The categories were then cross tabulated by those organizations
serving the general population versus the older population to produce Table Four.
The ranking of professional skills is exhibited in Table Five. Each skill has been
computed based on all of the responses, and then divided into the mean scores in the
general population versus aging organization categories. The personal traits, which
appear in Table Six follow this identical format, but utilize the eleven traits listed on the
survey. The critical question of which of the four variables, (education, work experience,
professional skills, or personal traits) is ultimately the most important when hiring
someone was also cross tabulated by business specific responses compared with
gerontology organizations in Table Seven. This analysis thus provides tables, which
illustrate the findings, answer the research question and hypothesis, and assist in forming
recommendations.
Conclusion
In order to answer the research question and hypothesis a survey has been
formulated, distributed, and tabulated. The tables compiled for analysis which will
comprise the next chapter, Findings, are a result of these calculations. As information has
been gathered, this will lead to answers to the pertinent questions raised by this thesis and
literature review.
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CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS
After examining existing literature, formulating the research question, creating a
survey tool, and gathering and tabulating data, a discussion of the findings for this
research endeavor will be presented. The descriptive tables will further evaluate the
respondents in our survey sample. In addition, the preferred qualifications (education and
work experience) will be assessed. Following qualifications, characteristics (personal
traits and professional skills) will be reviewed. Finally, the question of ultimate preference
in hiring new personnel will be determined. All of the above areas will also be investigated
for similarities and differences in preferences by business and gerontologists. Seven tables
are presented and interpreted as they relate to the research question: Do businesses and
aging organizations require different qualifications and characteristics of persons being
hired? These findings will then lead to conclusive assertions on this topic, as well as
implications and recommendations.
Descriptive Tables
Table One describes the survey sample and provides the background information
necessary to form an idea of who responded and what types of organizations they
represent. As the data accumulated is closely tied to the attributes of the survey
respondents, such clarity enhances the understanding of the findings within this study. The
background information includes the type (non-profit or profit), size, and clientele of the
total survey sample.
Table 1 - Descriptive Data on Sample (N=59)
Organization Type Percent
Profit 37.9
Non-Profit 62.1
Organization Size Percent
I-10 employees 20.3
I I-25 employees 18.6
26-50 employees 10.2
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51-150 employees
151-500 employees
Over 500 employees
Type of Population Served
General
Older
13.6
11.9
25.4
Percent
34.5
65.5
Table One offers clarifying information on the survey respondents. Firstly, the
type of organization is discussed in terms of for profit or non-profit status. Almost two-
thirds of the survey respondents were non-profit organizations, leaving slightly over one
third that were for profit. Secondly, organizations that serve older persons comprise our
gerontology specific organizations for use in cross tabulations. The older population
accounted for 65 .5% of the surveys returned, whereas the general population was 34.5%.
The general population responses are utilized as the business sector for cross tabulations
as well. Thirdly, the size of organizations was broadly distributed in the sample.
Although the majority of respondents (25 .4%) were very large companies, the second
largest category was in very small companies (20.3%). It is also evident that an equitable
number of respondents were spread out over the small, medium, and large organizations.
Organization Size Total General Older
Very Small (1-10) 20.7 16.7 83.3
Small (11-25) 17.2 30.0 70.0
Medium (26-150) 24.1 7.1 92.9
Large (151-500) 12.1 14.3 85.7
Verv Laree (Over 500) 25.9 86.7 13.3
N 59 20 38
New Employees Hired Total General Older
5 or less 45.6 19.2 80.8
5-16 14.0 25.0 75.0
16-50 21.1 16.7 83.3
over 50 19.3 100.0 0.0
N 59 20 38
Table Two describes the number of new employees hired and the total number of
employees segmented by gerontology and business organizations. For the total sample
population, the organization size is fairly distributed between categories. It is evident that
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the aging organizations responding to this survey are smaller than the business sample, by
the number of employees. For the very small population, which was 20.7% of the total
responses, 83 .3% of them were gerontology organizations. In the small category, which
totaled 17.2%, 70% of those were also gerontology organizations. For medium size
respondents, which consist of 24.1% of our survey sample, 92.9% of that category were
aging specific organizations. Furthermore, of the total sample, 12.1% were large
organizations, and 85.7% of those were also gerontology. The overwhelming majority of
business organizations in the sample are very large, meaning they employ over 500 people.
The very large segment was the highest percentage of the total sample at 25 .9%. Of this
largest category, a high majority (86.7%) were businesses. This parallels the findings of
the number of new employees hired.
The number of new employees hired is clearly related to the size of the
organization as well. The usual number of new employees hired, according to 45 .6% of
the total sample, is 5 or less. Of this 45 .6%, an overwhelming 80.8% were from aging
organizations. The categories of 16 - 50 and over 50 new employees hired were very
close, 21.1% and 19.3% respectively. Most significantly, in the over 50 new employees
hired category, 100% of the responses were from business. In the range of 16 - 50 new
employees hired, however, 83 .3% of the answers were from gerontology organizations.
Clearly, gerontology organizations are much more likely to hire between zero and 50 new
employees, whereas businesses more frequently hire over fifty. This also confirms the
finding that generally, businesses are larger in the number of persons employed and do hire
a greater number of new employees.
Tables Illustrating Qualifications
Table Three depicts data related to the qualifications required by organizations
hiring new employees. As previously stated, qualifications in this study are comprised of
education and work experience. Table 3 examines the differences between aging
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organizations and business, in addition to entry level versus management requirements.
The area of education had mixed results according to the industry.
Table 3 - Qualification Preferences bv Population Served
Minimum Education - Entry Level Total General Older
Other 17.0 0.0 100.0
High School 20.3 25.0 75.0
Bachelors 57.6 42.4 57.6
Masters 20.3 25.0 75.0
N 59 20 38
Minimum Education - Management Total General Older
High School 10.3 50.0 50.0
Bachelors 43.1 44.0 56.0
Masters 46.6 22.2 77.8
N 59 20 38
Minimum Experience - Entry Level Total General Older
Other 36.0 50.0 50.0
None 21.4 41.7 58.3
Less than one year 17.6 60.0 40.0
One to two years 51.8 17.2 82.8
More than two vears 46.6 22.2 77.8
N 59 20 38
Minimum Experience - Management Total General Older
None 1.7 1.7 0.0
Less than one year 1.7 0.0 1.7
One to two years 28.1 25.0 75.0
Two to four years 49.1 39.3 60.7
More than four vears 19.3 36.4 63.6
N 59 20 38
For entry level workers, the minimum education required by the overall sample
was equally 20.3% for high school and master’s degrees, with the majority (57.6%)
requiring a bachelor’s degree. When this is divided into business and aging specific
organizations, the contrast is much greater. Clearly, those working in gerontology often
prefer a master’s degree even for entry level positions. In proportion to the number of
survey responses, keeping in mind that the majority are aging specific, business and
gerontology are very comparable in needing at least a bachelor’s degree for an entry level
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job. More gerontology organizations, nonetheless, are willing to accept a high school
degree.
Comparing entry level and management educational requirements for aging and
business also produces interesting differences. The sample, as a whole, preferred a
master’s degree for management positions by 46.6%, which was close to the figure of
43.1% for a bachelor’s degree. Out of the 46.6% who preferred the graduate level
degree, 77.8% of them were from an aging specific organization. Hence, taking all of the
figures into account, a Bachelor’s degree is a common prerequisite for being hired at the
management level. Gerontology and business organizations have rated this preference in
the same way, 56% and 44% respectively. The visible distinction is at the Master’s level,
where gerontology has indicated a higher preference for a graduate degree in those hired
at the management level. A high school degree is evidently not the route to a management
position, as this was acceptable to only 10.3% of the respondents and evenly split between
aging and business.
In addition to education level, the length of work experience was investigated
under the area of qualifications. Work experience was examined for comparison on the
basis of entry level and management workers. For the total survey, most respondents
preferred one to two years of work experience for entry level workers (51.8%). This was
followed by “other” (36%), which might mean longer work experience or a different type
of training. Although very close, no work experience was rated slightly higher than less
than one year.
For entry level, the category of more than two years was preferred by only 5 .4% of
the sample. Gerontology and business responded similarly in the category of no work
experience. They were, nonetheless, quite different in the other areas. Of the 21.4% who
responded that no work experience is the minimum level for being hired at the entry level,
58.3% were gerontology organizations. However, sixty percent of the responses for less
than one year of experience were attributed to businesses. This indicates that those hiring
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personnel in business generally prefer some experience, but ultimately not as much as
aging organizations.
In the highest rated response category of one to two years (51.8% of the total
responses), an overwhelming 82.8% were from gerontology work places. It appears that
at least one to two years of work experience is the typical requirement for an entry level
worker in gerontology. For business, less than one year or no work experience is more
acceptable. A minimal 5 .4% preferred more than two years of work experience for entry
level workers, most of the respondents in that category served the general population.
Compared to the minimum work experience for entry level workers, the
preferences for management level produced clear results for both gerontology and
business organizations. For the survey total, less than two percent preferred no work
experience or less than one year for hiring management level employees. The majority of
respondents, both business and gerontology preferred two to four years, followed by one
to two years, and more than four years of experience respectively. In the category of two
to four years, the gerontology population was higher (60.7%) compared to business,
which was 39.3%. This difference is not so great as there were more gerontology
respondents to the survey.
In contrast, the preference for management of one to two years of experience was
significant because 75% of the responses in that category were gerontology specific.
Lastly, the category of more than four years experience was very similar for gerontology
and business for hiring at the managerial level. The work experience preferences for entry
level and management workers were clearly different for the total survey population, but
rarely different by gerontology and business. For entry level workers, between none and
two years of work experience is preferred, whereas for management level a minimum of
one to two years is required and two to four years preferred. For entry level, gerontology
is more apt to prefer one to two years of work experience, while business prefers none or
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less than one year. At the management level, there are fewer marked differences, aside
from gerontology also preferring one to two years of experience.
Table 4 - Degree Preference
Business Social General
Degree Degree Degree
General Population 86.7 8.3 20.0
Gerontology Population__________ 13J________ 91.7_______ 80.0
N 15 5 24
As education is one of the qualifications explored in this study, the type of degree
preferred by employers when hiring new employees is examined in addition to level of
education and length of work experience. Table four illustrates these findings, divided by
aging and business responses. The largest number of respondents rated a general degree
highest. The general degrees consist of communications and liberal arts. Of those who
rated the general category highest, 80% were gerontology specific organizations. The
second highest category ranked was business degrees. This category encompassed public
administration, business, and economics. The business population strongly dominated this
response category by 86.7%. Conversely, the social related degree category was cited as
the most preferred for hiring new personnel by only five survey respondents. The social
related degrees encompassed social work, gerontology, and psychology. Of the few
respondents, 91.7% were from aging specific organizations. Evidently, business
organizations strongly prefer business related degrees. Gerontology organizations clearly
prefer a general degree, followed by a social related degree.
Characteristics
Characteristics, as previously defined, are a combination of professional skills and
personal traits which are transferable and one criteria utilized for the selection of new
employees. The key difference is that skills are directly related to work performance and
require learning. Personal skills, on the other hand, are related more to personality and
individual enhancement. The characteristics are divided into specific attributes, which
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were ranked from one through five (five being the most important). Therefore, within
each category there will be a basis of comparison and hierarchy established.
Table Five shows the mean scores for professional skills divided into general and
gerontology specific responses. For the sake of comparison, they can be ranked as
follows:
Table S - Professional Skills
Business______________________________ Gerontology
1 . Oral Skills 1 . Oral Skills
2. Problem Solving 2. Problem Solving
3. Written Communication 3. Written Communication
4. Leadership 4. Decision Making
5. Decision Making 5. Organization
6. Time Management 6. Time Management
7. Organization 7. Leadership Ability
8. Planning 8. Planning
9. General Management 9. General Management
10. Technological Experience 10. Technological Experience
11. Strategic Planning 11. Strategic Planning
12. Negotiation 12. Negotiation
13. Marketing 13. Marketing
14. Bilingual 14. Bilingual
As seen, the highest rated three professional skills are identical for business and
gerontology. Oral skills is the first, problem solving is second, and written communication
is third. Furthermore, the mean scores for oral skills were virtually identical, 4.65 and
4.64 respectively for the general and age specific populations. Problem solving and
written communication mean scores were further apart for the two categories and got
considerably lower scores. Leadership ability tied for third as well, among business
respondents while it ranked seventh for gerontologists.
Decision making was also highly rated, fourth for gerontology and fifth for
business. Time management was also perceived similarly by the two groups of
respondents. Organization, scored substantially higher by the gerontology group (4.29)
ranked fifth. For the business group the mean was 3 .70 and it ranked seventh. This
distinguished difference in mean scores signifies a higher score and thus more importance
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placed on that particular skill. The same is true for planning, which was scored by
business as 3.60 and for gerontology as 4.17. Despite this difference in mean score for
their respective population, they both ranked eighth when arranged by category. The last
six professional skills, numbered nine through fourteen were also consistent in rank order
by category, based on the mean scores. The skills of general management, technical
expertise, strategic planning, negotiation, marketing, and bilingual all fell below a 3 .7 on
the scale.
Overall, the gerontology respondents did rank each skill slightly higher, the most
significant of which was bilingual. Although bilingual was ranked last for both business
and gerontology, gerontology respondents did score it higher in importance by almost one
full point. Therefore, the top three and bottom six skills were found to be very similar in
importance to business and aging organizations. Oral skills, problem solving, and written
communication were the most widely influential in being hired. Negotiation, marketing,
and being bilingual are clearly not as relevant.
The mean scores and rankings for personal traits offered more differences between
businesses and aging specific organizations than professional skills. The hierarchy of
rankings for personal traits in categories of business and gerontology are shown below:
Table 6 - Personal Traits
Business Gerontoloev
1 . Reliability I. Ethics
2. Ethics 2. Reliability
3. Team Player 3. Interpersonal Skills
4. Interpersonal Skills 4. Adaptability
5. Initiative 5. Team Player
6. Adaptability 6. Initiative
7. Stress Tolerance 7. Creativity
8. Mental Toughness 8. Stress Tolerance
9. Creativity 9. Mental Toughness
10. Risk Taber 10. Charisma
11. Charisma 11. Risk Taker
The top two personal traits for business are reliability and ethics, the reverse order
is true for gerontology. The top traits were rated nearly equally important by each
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category. For business, reliability received a mean score of 4.75, for gerontology 4.76
was the mean score for the top ranked ethics. In addition, interpersonal was ordered third
by gerontology respondents, with a very high mean score of 4.66. By business,
interpersonal was ranked fourth, below team player whose score tied with ethics at 4.65
for second. Team player shows discrepancy in its ranking when compared to aging
organizations, who rated it fifth and only .01 away from adaptability, which was sixth.
Business ranked initiative and adaptability fifth and sixth with identical scores of 4.5. For
stress tolerance the business (4.8) and gerontology (4.10) scores were very similar, but
when ranked they are seventh and eighth. Mental toughness had a notable gap in scores,
the business mean score was 4.05 and the gerontology was 3.61, which tanked it eighth
and ninth.
Gerontology did rank creativity higher than the business respondents, but only by
.11. As with the top two, the bottom two are similar for aging specific and business
organizations who ranked risk taker and charisma at the bottom. Their mean scores were
very close in range as well. As the lowest mean score for the total population was 3 .47,
for risk taker, it could be inferred that all of these characteristics are somewhat important
and appear to be scored fairly close. There were not any mean scores in the one or two
area meaning that all of the above are commonly desirable, however some are more
preferred than others. As a job candidate, it would be more beneficial to market oneself as
a reliable and moral employee, rather than a risk taker.
Qualifications vs. Characteristics
The final table, Table Seven, explains the differences between businesses and aging
specific organizations in their assessment of the ultimate preference in qualifications and
characteristics. Qualifications were divided into education and work experience
Professional skills and personal traits define characteristics. The respondents were asked
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49
to rank order these one through four, according to which was ultimately the most
important when hiring a new employee.
For the total sample, the majority of respondents (26) viewed professional skills as
the most important criteria. Personal traits, however, was a very close second for the
whole survey with 25 responses as number one. Far behind were work experience and
education. So for the sample as a whole, the ordered ultimate top preferences when hiring
a new employee are professional skills, personal traits, work experience and education.
Table 7 - Criteria When Hiring
Organization Size General Older N
Education 100.0 0.0 3
Professional Skills 38.5 61.5 26
Personal Traits 32.0 68.0 25
Work Exnerience 25.0 75.0 8
62
When separated into business and gerontology ultimate preferences, there were
also few differences. Qualifications were still clearly lower than characteristics. Of the
eight responses who rated work experience as the number one determinant when hiring a
new employee, 75% of them were from aging specific organizations. All of the three
respondents who listed education as their top preference were from the business sector.
Not one gerontology organization listed education as the most important criteria for hiring
someone. Furthermore, gerontology ranked personal traits slightly above professional
skills as the top choice, with work experience second to last. Business was the opposite,
decisively rating professional skills as the most desirable, followed by personal traits, work
experience and education. Clearly characteristics are the key to being hired by the vast
majority of employers for gerontology and business institutions alike.
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50
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
The research question posed for this thesis was: Do businesses and aging
organizations prefer different qualifications and characteristics when hiring personnel? The
answer is yes in some areas and no in others. Several clear answers, nonetheless have
emerged from this study. Most of these do not confirm the predictions made at the
beginning of this project.
It was expected that there would be similarities between business and aging, but
this proved false by the data. Similarities were expected to be found in the area of
minimum education levels for both entry level and management workers. The results,
however, did show that both gerontology and businesses require at least a high school
diploma, not a Bachelor’s degree for hiring entry level workers. Also for entry level,
aging specific organizations are more apt to prefer a Master’s degree. The management
level displayed stronger similarities. Furthermore, the length of work experience preferred
was also predicted to be similar, but was not at the entry or management levels.
Gerontology organizations would accept either no work experience at all or required quite
a bit of experience at the entry level. Businesses required some work experience. The
common length of work experience preferred was one to two years for entry level and two
to four or over four for management.
The personal traits of adaptability, being a team player, and interpersonal skills
were expected to receive the highest scores, thus denoting them as the most sought after
by employers in both business and aging organizations. These traits were ranked similarly
by both populations in the sample, but they were not ranked highest. Team player was
rated fourth for business and fifth for gerontology. Adaptability was rated fifth for
business and fourth for gerontology. Interpersonal skills was the only predicted trait to
make the top three, coming in third for gerontology only and fourth for business.
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51
The differences anticipated in the responses from the sample were more on target
than the similarities. In fact, the degree preferences were expected to be quite opposite
and indeed they were. Business undoubtedly preferred to hire new employees with
business related degrees, while gerontology preferred those with general degrees. The
only surprise being that aging specific organizations favored a communications or liberal
arts degree over a gerontology, psychology, or social work degree. Differences were
predicted to be found in the desired professional skills between business and gerontology.
No differences were found and the top three skills - oral skills, problem solving, and
written communication - were the same for both populations.
Furthermore, the business sample was foreseen to rate management, leadership,
and marketing skills higher than the aging specific sample. This prediction was also
dispelled as management was ranked ninth and marketing was ranked thirteenth for both.
The only difference was in leadership, which was fourth for business and seventh for
gerontology. As estimated for the results in personal traits, gerontology did rate ethics
and creativity higher than the business segment, who also ranked initiative higher than
gerontology as predicted. Finally, in terms of the ultimate rankings of qualifications versus
characteristics, characteristics was the victor as predicted. The final order was determined
to be professional skills, personal traits, work experience, and education.
The data collected in this thesis validates much of the existing literature. For
example, Silfvast and Quaglieri (1994) had reported the importance of transferable skills.
The data show that professional skills and personal traits, both transferable, are more
preferred than work experience and education. Indeed, the public and private sectors do
value the same transferable skills. Adaptability, however, was cited by Silfvast and
Quaglieri as being a critical trait, but was not ranked highly by our sample. Skills were
further advocated by Hines (1993) who maintained that skills were the key to landing
desirable jobs. Our respondents agreed with him. He was not quite on target though
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52
when he also argued that education was a necessary qualification. Education might be the
key, but without a doubt skills and traits get you in the door.
In addition, Jean Coyle’s article (1985) listed specific personal traits and
professional skills that she and the survey sample thought to be associated with job
success such as problem solving, taking initiative, responsibility, and team building. Risk
taking was the least preferred by both business and gerontology organizations. Kahl,
(1989) also proved insightful by naming the predictor for success in gerontology as
“motivation.” This seems to parallel the findings of this study as well. Krause’s study
(1987) did not agree with the findings of this thesis. He found work history to be a critical
factor in job success for gerontologists, work experience was ultimately not rated as high
as professional skills or personal traits in this study. Gerontology, nonetheless, did assign
more importance to work experience than the business sector. Krause did assert that there
is ignorance on the part of employers about what gerontologists can do, as well as a lack
of training in job specific skills. In summary, the existing literature provided an abundance
of information on education, work experience, professional skills and personal traits in the
gerontology and business sectors, most of which was validated by the data collected.
Implications
This research study has significant implications for the field of gerontology and the
outlook for the industrial gerontologist. To begin with, the organizations appear to be
quite different. To the benefit of industrial gerontologists who want to work in a business
environment, corporations are larger and hire more employees. On the down side,
however, they prefer to hire employees with business degrees. For the industrial
gerontologist who seeks employment in an aging organization, the fit would be better, but
the organizations are smaller with fewer job openings. It is recommended that at least
some work experience be obtained, the more the better. Length of work experience will
increase the chances of getting hired and at a higher level. Since professional skills and
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53
personal traits were markedly ranked higher, it would also be advantageous to develop
these characteristics. Furthermore, education seemed to be the least important factor in
hiring a new employee for both business and gerontology, which has serious ramifications
for all degree programs. I would argue that education is by no means unimportant, but it
does have limitations. Unfortunately, businesses are not yet aware of the relevant
knowledge that a gerontologist could bring to their corporations. Likewise, the
gerontologist needs to develop important skills that are transferable and usable in business
environments. An aggressive, “self marketing” approach is a useful way to articulate their
strengths to potential employers.
Recommendations
The most critical recommendation that can be made from this study is for people
to develop their professional skills and continue to grow personally, thus cultivating their
personal traits. Ideally this can be done as part of work experience and formal education
programs. It is still important to obtain an education and work experience, as these are
sound qualifications in addition to characteristics.
Another recommendation focuses on the field of gerontology. A dynamic public
relations campaign is necessary to inform not only businesses, but aging specific
organizations of the clear benefits of hiring an employee with a gerontology degree. In
fact, gerontology students themselves need to better articulate what knowledge they have
obtained. In addition, the internship seems an ideal way to enrich professional skills and
personal characteristics. The internship experience needs to be carefully monitored and
broadened to meet such goals. Furthermore, although AGHE had an excellent listing of
qualifications of gerontologists, these qualities were not universal enough. This appears to
be a common issue in the field, the public message needs to convey transferable skills and
wide appeal. Undoubtedly gerontologists have interpersonal skills, communication skills,
and problem solving skills. When listed, however, these skills are applied only to the older
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54
population and an aging specific work setting. Such characteristics would be better selling
points if they emphasized their transferable nature.
The education of gerontologists is also critical. Common gerontology curriculum
focuses on the biological, sociological, psychological, political, and economic basis of
aging and the older population. This is a strong core for a specialized field, but the
common employee needs more. Regardless of the field of study, it is important to
incorporate skills into the curriculum. At one time or another everyone needs
communication, managerial, and marketing skills, yet they are so rarely actually taught to
students. Unfortunately, this puts gerontology students at a disadvantage - even the aging
specific population of this sample preferred liberal arts degrees over gerontology degrees.
Career planning and self promotion are another fundamental that could be added to
gerontology programs. Such a course could assist gerontologists in marketing themselves
and selling their unique knowledge - thus making a gerontology an asset. Cooperative
degree programs and courses with gerontology and business programs could also be
offered to not only meet the training needs of an industrial gerontologist, but to enhance
the visibility of the gerontologist in corporate settings. This would increase the awareness
of business students to the field of gerontology and the role an industrial gerontologist
would play as well.
Concluding Remarks
When all is said and done, Strugnell was quite insightful in saying that planning and
personal initiative are the keys to finding a job. The first steps of planning are meeting the
minimum requirements for the job, such as degree level. Then personal initiative opens
doors and affords opportunities for employers to get to know the candidate better. With
all of the variables involved and stiff competition in a volatile market place, there is
tremendous pressure on the job seeker. There are also many negative messages sent out
by employers. In today’s search for employment, there is a demand for the right “fit.” As
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55
elusive as that may seem, if you are to be hired, you need to “fit” in with the organization,
their workers, their environment, and their goals. Therefore, what it comes down to is
selling yourself as a blend of education, work experience, professional skills, and personal
characteristics - and getting the employer to buy the package. Bolles was on target when
he stated, “He or she who gets hired is not necessarily the one who can do that job best;
but, the one who knows the most about how to get hired.” (Bolles, 1977) Hopefully, this
body of research has indeed shed light on how to get hired.
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56
REFERENCES
Bolles, Richard N. (1996) What Color is Your Parachute? Berkeley, California: Ten
Speed Press.
Coyle, Jean, M. (1985) "Entrepreneurial Gerontology: Creative marketing of
Gerontological Skills" Educational-Gerontology, v ll, n2-3, p. 161-167.
D' Orsie, Sharon ( May 1994)" How to Develop Top-Notch Talent", Nation's Business,
v82, n5, p.9(1).
DeRenzo, Evan G. (January 1989) "What Predicts Career Success in Gerontology?",
Aging Network News, v5, n9, p. 19.
Doka, Kenneth J. and Smith, Denise F. (1989) "Building Coalitions With Private Industry:
Academic Gerontology in the Corporate World", Gerontology and Geriatrics
Education, vlO, nl, p. 81(10).
Hines, Andy (1993) "Transferable Skills Land Future Jobs", HR Magazine.
Holtz, H. (1984) Beyond the Resume: How to Land the Job You W ant, New York:
McGraw Hill.
Kahl, Anne (January 1989) "Careers in the Field of Aging", Aging Network News, v5, n9,
p. 1,16.
Krause, Daniel (February 1987) "Careers in Gerontology: Occupational or Academic
Fancy", Gerontologist, v27, nl, p. 30(4).
Lord, Mary (November 1993) "Cashing in on Health Reform" U.S. News and World
Report, vl 15, nl7, p.87(2).
Martell, Kathryn and Carroll, Stephen (July 1994) "Stress the Functional Skill When
Hiring Top Managers" HR Magazine, v39, n7, p.85(3).
Peterson, David A. (1993) "Professional and Job Characteristics of Personnel in the Aging
Network: Implications for Gerontological Program Development and Student
Recruitment", Gerontology & Geriatrics Education, vl3, p.8i(4).
Peterson, David A., Douglass, Elizabeth and Lobenstine, Joy (1996) Association for
Gerontology in Higher Education (AGHE) Careers in Aging: Opportunities and
Options.
Peterson, David, A. and Wendt, Pamela, F. (1993) "Professional and Job Characteristics
of Personnel in the Aging Network: Implications for Gerontological Program
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57
Development and Student Recruitment", Gerontology and Geriatrics Education, vl3,
n4, p.81(16).
Peterson, David, A., Wendt, Pamela, F., and Douglass, Elizabeth, B. (1991) "Determining
the Impact of Gerontology Preparation on Personnel in the Aging Network: a National
Survey", University of Southern California, Andrus Gerontology Center and
Association for Gerontology in Higher Education, p. 1(48).
Ports, Michelle H. (October 1993) "Trends in Job Search Methods", Monthly Labor
Review, vl 16, nlO, p.63(5).
Ramsey, Robert D. (April 1994) "How to Hire the Best", Supervision, v55, n4, p. 14(4).
Roberto, Karen, A. and BenshofF, John, J. (1988) "Comparison of Graduates with
Bachelor's and Master's Degrees in Gerontology", Gerontology and Geriatrics
Education, v8, nl-2, p.53(11).
Rueb, Suzanne, M., Weber, Joseph, A., and Hesser, Jenny, L. "Gerontology Graduates'
Employment Opportunities", Educational-Gerontology, v20, n2, p. 147(9).
Saltzman, Amy (November 1993) "The Changing Professions", U.S. News and World
Report,
Silfvast, Roger O. and Quaglieri, Philip L. (Spring 1994) "Management Skills
Transferability and the Public and Private Sector Manager" Public Personnel
Management, v23, nl, p. 117(10).
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58
APPENDIX A: SURVEY
1 . Is your organization
For Profit
Non-Profit
2. Is your clientele
The general population
Primarily the older population
3. What is the approximate size of your organization?
I - 10 employees
11 - 25 employees
26 - 50 employees
51-150 employees
151 - 500 employees
Over 500 employees
4. Approximately how many new employees are hired per year?
5 or less
6-15
16-50
51 or more
5. How does your organization typically make new job openings known? Please check all that apply.
University placement services
Professional recruiters
Newspaper Advertisements
Trade Magazines or professional group listing
Employees / Private Referrals
Employment Agencies
6. When hiring new staff, what is the minimum education level typically required for an entry
position as professional staff?
High School diploma
Bachelor’ s Degree
Master's Degree
Doctorate
7. For entry level positions, what is the minimum amount of work experience required when hiring a
new employee?
No minimum requirement
Less than one year
1-2 years
More than 2 years
8. For management positions, what is the minimum education level typically required?
High School diploma
Bachelor's Degree
Master's Degree
Doctorate
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59
9. For management positions, what is the minimum amount of work experience required when hiring
a new employee?
No minimum requirement
Less than 1 year
1-2 years
2 -4 years
More than 4 years
10. Which degree area is preferred when hiring a new employee? Please rank from one through nine
One being most preferred, nine being least preferred.
Business
Economics
Psychology
Gerontology
Liberal Arts
Social Work
Communications
Public Administration
Other, please list
11. In what type of organization is work experience preferred? Please rank order from one to seven.
One being most preferred, seven being least preferred.
Non-Profit
Corporate, For Profit
Volunteer
Military
Education
Homemaker
Internship
12. On a scale of 1-5. how important are the following professional skills in hiring new employees?
1 is least important; 5 is most important.
Professional Skills
Oral Communication
Written Communication
Strategic Planning
Time Management
Problem Solving
General Management
Negotiation
Technical Expertise
Bilingual
Marketing
Organization
Planning
Decision Making
Leadership Ability
Score
L east Im nnrtant_______Most Important
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
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13. On a scale of I- S. 1 being least important, five being most important, how would you rate the
following personal traits when choosing a new employee to hire?
Personal Trait Score
Least Important_______ M int Im nnrtant
Creativity and Innovation 1 2 3 5
Charisma I 2 3 5
Adaptability 1 2 3 5
Mental Toughness I 2 3 5
Stress Tolerance 1 2 3 5
Initiative 1 2 3 5
Team Player I 2 3 5
Risk Taker 1 2 3 5
Interpersonal Skills 1 2 3 5
Reliability 1 2 3 5
Ethics 1 2 3 5
14. Which is ultimately most important when hiring someone?
Professional Skills
Personal Traits
Education
Work Experience
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61
APPENDIX B: TABLES
Professional Skills
Mean Scores for Skills for all Respondents, and by the type of population serviced
All respondents
Mean Std Dev
General Population
Mean Std Dev
Older Population
Mean Std Dev
Oral Skills 4.63 0.59 4.65 0.49 4.64 0.64
Problem Solving 4.44 0.66 4.35 0.75 4.50 0.61
Written Communication 4.27 0.70 4.20 0.70 4.31 0.72
Leadership Ability 4.18 0.83 4.20 0.77 4.17 0.89
Decision Making 4.18 0.92 4.00 1.08 4.31 0.80
Time Management 4.18 0.71 4.05 0.83 4.25 0.65
Organization 4.07 0.89 3.70 1.13 4.29 0.67
Planning 3.95 0.98 3.60 1.10 4.17 0.86
General Management 3.55 0.85 3.40 0.88 3.66 0.84
Technical Expertise 3.51 1.12 3.40 1.19 3.53 1.08
Strategic Planning 3.44 1.09 3.30 1.13 3.53 1.08
Negotiation 3.28 1.16 3.20 0.95 3.33 1.29
Marketing 3.20 1.18 3.10 1.25 3.29 1.15
Bilingual 2.74 1.40 2.10 1.25 3.08 1.38
N 55 25 30
Personal Traits
Mean Scores for Personal Traits ordered for all respondents,
and by the type of population serv ed
Total
Mean Std Dev
General Population
Mean Std Dev
Older Population
Mean Std Dev
Reliability 4.73 0.55 4.75 0.55 4.71 0.57
Ethics 4.71 0.49 4.65 0.59 4.76 0.43
Interpersonal 4.63 0.61 4.55 0.60 4.66 0.63
Team Player 4.59 0.77 4.65 0.67 4.54 0.84
Adaptability 4.53 0.50 4.50 0.51 4.55 0.50
Initiative 4.41 0.67 4.50 0.69 4.34 0.67
Stress Tolerance 4.08 0.75 4.10 0.72 4.08 0.78
Creativity 4.07 0.83 4.00 0.97 4.11 0.77
Mental Toughness 3.76 0.95 4.05 1.00 3.61 0.92
Charisma 3.53 1.05 3.35 1.04 3.62 1.06
Risk Taker 3.47 1.01 3.65 0.99 3.37 1.02
N 58 20 38
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Asset Metadata

Creator Klein, Marti Adine (author)

Core Title Comparison of gerontology-specific organizations to the business sector in hiring personnel: An analysis of qualifications and characteristics

School Leonard Davis School of Gerontology

Degree Master of Science

Degree Program Gerontology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag business administration, general,Gerontology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Peterson, David (committee chair), Larue, Gerald (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-12031

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Identifier 1384899.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-12031 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 1384899.pdf

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Document Type Thesis

Rights Klein, Marti Adine

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA