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An examination of the impact of diversity initiatives and their supporting roles on organizational culture: an experiential study from the perspective of diversity personnel

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An Examination of the Impact of Diversity Initiatives and Their Supporting Roles on
Organizational Culture: An Experiential Study from the Perspective of Diversity Personnel
Nicole Yvette Irving-Hogan

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty.
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2023

© Copyright by Nicole Yvette Irving-Hogan, 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Nicole Yvette Irving-Hogan certifies the approval of this dissertation.

Wilmon A. Christian III
Jennifer Phillips
Esther C. Kim

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023
iv
Abstract
Purpose: This research study identifies why senior leaders opted to focus on diversity initiatives,
and it explores the impact of diversity initiatives and their supporting roles on organizational
culture.
Design/methodology/approach: This phenomenological approach is applied through semi-
structured qualitative research. The research study examined the experiences of 15 participants.
Findings: Analysis of the results identified four themes that revealed that internal and external
factors motivated organizational leaders’ focus on diversity initiatives. These factors included
George Floyd’s murder, social pressure, globalization, and morality. Secondarily, the findings
identified transformational and transactional factors that impact organizational cultural change.
The transformational elements are forming a strategy, creating a corporate design that supports
the plan, and developing two-way communication to support interventions. The transactional
factors defined the actions of the DEI professionals that support diversity programming.
Practical implications: Leaders can develop the best practices of DEI strategy by providing
leaders with strategies that build impactful organizational programs.
Originality/value: The research provides in-depth insight into the interventions implemented to
support diversity initiatives and how effective leadership supports organizational change.

Keywords: Diversity initiatives, Organizational Change, Leadership, Burke-Litwin, Cultural
Change.

v
Dedication
No one has been more important to me during the pursuit of finalizing this project than my
family. I thank my parents for their guidance and continual support in finishing such an
achievement. To my daughter, who became my study buddy as we simultaneously pursued
graduate degrees, I thank you. I love our mutual support of each other as we continue to chase
our dreams.

This work is dedicated to those who have lost their lives because of inequality.

vi
Acknowledgments
This effort would not have been feasible without the support of the professors and staff at
the USC Rossier School of Education Organizational Change and Leadership Program. I am
especially indebted to my chair, Dr. Esther Kim, who actively participated in developing this
project. In addition, this endeavor would not have been possible without Dr. Wilmon Christian,
who provided me with extensive personal and academic guidance to grow in educational
thinking. Finally, I would like to express my thoughtful appreciation to Dr. Jennifer Phillips,
whose comments and support steered me on the right path regarding my theoretical framework. I
am incredibly grateful to my student success advisor, Reginald Ryder, for his motivational
support throughout this program. I am also thankful for the mutual support of Cohort 18.
My sincerest gratitude is to my friends and extended family, who supported me in many
ways throughout these years of schooling during the pandemic. Their calls, texts, and emails
cheered me through to finish this work. Finally, I want to thank my study participants, whose
enthusiastic pursuit of equity inspires me. Without their participation, I would not have
developed the results of this research.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
Tables List ....................................................................................................................................... x
Figures List .................................................................................................................................... xi
Abbreviations List ......................................................................................................................... xii
Chapter One: Study Overview ........................................................................................................ 1
Problem Context and Background ...................................................................................... 2
Study Significance .............................................................................................................. 4
Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................................... 5
Definition of Terms........................................................................................................... 10
Dissertation Organization ................................................................................................. 11
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 12
Literature Review Equity Challenges ............................................................................... 12
Intersectionality................................................................................................................. 25
Diversity Challenges Resistant to Change ........................................................................ 28
Relevant Theories Addressing Equity Problems .............................................................. 29
Corporate Accountability .................................................................................................. 32
Accountability From Media .............................................................................................. 33
Environmental Social Governance ................................................................................... 34
Pivotal Events from 2015 to Present that Reignited DEI initiatives In
Corporations ...................................................................................................................... 36
The Business Case for Diversity Initiatives ...................................................................... 42
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 47
viii
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 52
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 54
Research Study Organization ............................................................................................ 54
Design and Procedures ...................................................................................................... 55
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 57
Data Collection Procedures ............................................................................................... 57
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 58
Research Setting................................................................................................................ 59
Participants ........................................................................................................................ 59
The Researcher.................................................................................................................. 61
Credibility and Reliability................................................................................................. 61
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 62
Chapter Four: Results ................................................................................................................... 64
The Participant Group ....................................................................................................... 64
Factors for Initiating Cultural Change .............................................................................. 69
Leadership Impact on Organizational Change .................................................................. 79
Impact and Implementation of Strategy ............................................................................ 87
Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 89
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations......................................................................... 92
Discussion of Findings ...................................................................................................... 93
Limitations and Delimitations ......................................................................................... 103
Recommendation 1: Develop a Strategy Aligned with the Structure ............................. 104
Recommendation 2: Develop Strategies from Internal Research Findings .................... 106
Recommendation 3: Develop Specific Programmatic Objective ................................... 107
Recommendations for Future Research .......................................................................... 108
ix
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 109
References ................................................................................................................................... 111
Appendix A: Burke-Litwin Organizational Change Model ............................................ 147
Appendix B: Results from Thematic Analysis ............................................................... 148
Appendix C: Interview Protocol ..................................................................................... 151

x
Tables List
Table 1: Research Question Themes 58
Table 2: Subjects’ Demographics 59
Table 3: Participants’ Function 64
Appendix B: Results from Thematic Analysis 153

xi
Figures List
Figure 1: Factors of Cultural Change 9
Figure 2: DEI Lens 48
Figure 3: Conceptual Framework 50
Figure 4: External Environment Reciprocating Impact on Organizational Culture 51
Appendix A: Theoretical Framework: Burke-Litwin Change Model 152

xii
Abbreviations List
ADA Americans with disabilities
AI Artificial intelligence
CDC Center for disease control
CDO Chief diversity officer
CEO Chief executive officer
CFO Chief financial officer
COO Chief operations officer
Covid-19 Coronavirus Pandemic
CSR Corporate social responsibility
DEI Diversity, equity, and inclusion
EEO Equal Employment Opportunity
EEOC Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
ESG Environmental social governance
IRB Internal review board
LGBTQ-plus Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer, plus other identified names
STEM Science, technology, engineering, and math
U.S. United States
WHO World Health Organization
1

Chapter One: Study Overview
When discussing diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in a business setting, stakeholders
often offer simple answers to solve the complexity of these wicked problems (Reinecke &
Ansari, 2016). The challenges include diversifying the workforce to meet the tensions of a
globalized market. Many have sought to solve the simpleness of this problem through hiring
practices and offering contracts to businesses that represent marginalized populations. However,
those solutions pertain to simple implementation and advancement of diversification in
organizations through business strategy and touch on a superficial level of DEI change. The
complexity of the challenge lies in the inclusivity of opinions and decisions for those hired. That
is a complex problem that involves a cultural shift.
Similarly, defining and building equity is a challenge addressed in society by many
governmental laws. Societal equity involves education, opportunity, and pay (Frum, 2000; Kalev
et al., 2006; Urofsky, 2020) that intertwines society and the workforce. These are even more
complex challenges, and the solutions require agreement between government and business
entities. This challenge is why Rittel and Webber (1974) introduced the term "wicked problems,"
describing the broadness of the challenge and the seeming impossibility of defining solutions
because of the complexities. These problems do not exclusively exist in one environment or the
other, and they connect through the relations of people. Therefore, when organizational leaders
aim to form an organizational change, their motivations to meet the legal standard dominate their
expectations because of the complexity of the solution. Once diversity, equity, and inclusion
gained popularity, firms attempted to capitalize on their value and construct a sincere effort
toward cultural change. The aim must not stop with a difference in the organizational culture but
include a societal shift as knowledge builds through the workforce.
2

Therefore, this research examines how diversity initiatives and supporting positions
impact the organizational culture in U.S. organizations. The study’s literature review seeks to
illustrate the experience of underrepresented and marginalized groups in society and the
workplace framing the need for diversity initiatives. In this study, I review corporate life to
describe the evolving practices of diversity initiatives, which have developed in both name and
strategy over time. I also explain how past and present events reciprocate societal effects on the
organization and vice versa. Therefore, I built on Rittel and Webber's frame of "wicked
problems" to describe equity challenges shaping workplace culture that forms the need for
diversity initiatives. I also discuss policies and their challenges, the formation of accountability
structures from various movements, and how diversity initiatives address these challenges.
Problem Context and Background
This research examines the impact of diversity initiatives and positions on U.S.
workplace organizational culture. Scholars reveal that over 53% of Fortune 500 companies hired
at least one person in a diversity position to manage diversity initiatives (Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2022; Cooper & Gerlach, 2019; Douglas & Little, 2017; Good, 2021, Ashikali &
Groeneveld, 2015; Shi et al., 2017; Worthington, 2014; Wilson, 2013). Furthermore, Cho et al.
(2017) report that diversity and inclusion are associated with elevated levels of performance in
the organization. The report suggests to senior leaders that there is value for the company if there
is a focus on diversity and inclusion. Additionally, Downey et al. (2015) showed that diversity
promotes trust and employee engagement, which supports why there are high-performance
levels, as Cho et al. (2017) indicated. However, lacking diversity and inclusion has negatively
impacted environmental culture, increasing attrition (Dowd, 2017; Miller, 2019). Additionally,
the tensions promoted by a lack of diversity and inclusion reciprocate problems in society and
3

workplace environments (Reinecke & Ansari, 2016). Therefore, it is essential to understand
research on the impact of diversity initiatives and how diversity positions use strategies to
provide organizational transformation to address equity in both environments (Reinecke &
Ansari, 2016; Stanley et al., 2019; Williams, 2015; Williams & Wade-Golden, 2013).
Project Purpose and Research Questions
The research examines the impact of diversity initiatives and the positions supporting
them. The study will help senior leaders design the strategic direction of their organization's
transformation to an equitable environment. Participants' responses provide a top-down view of
the effects of current strategies and support them with transformational factors. The critical
function of this research is to build discussions about the long-term effects on society and the
workplace.
The Burke-Litwin Organizational Change Model (1992) (Appendix A) builds the
foundation for this study. The model shows that external factors influence organizational leaders
to transform the organization by rallying an internal response through transformational changing
actions. These actions are related to the transactional directives of the managerial staff. The
model illustrated in the current phenomena shows an external demand for equity. The responsive
steps are to strategize diversity initiatives to make organizational change. I develop an
understanding of how leaders communicate diversity initiatives and to what extent they impact
the organization for organizational transformation. I will also discuss how diversity positions
provide the base for the strategic direction through their actions and the impact of these actions.
Three research questions guided this study:
1. What factors caused organizational leaders to address diversity through initiatives?
2. What is leadership involvement with diversity initiatives?
4

3. How do diversity initiatives and positions impact the organization's culture?
Study Significance
This research develops an understanding of diversity positions and how they utilize
strategies to impact organizational culture beyond prior research. Prior research explored the
efficacy of diversity management initiatives (Cho et al., 2017; Kalav & Dobbin, 2019; Leslie,
2019). Other studies sought effective diversity management interventions (Burgess et al., 2021;
Downey et al., 2015; Fry et al., 2021; Inegbedion et al., 2020; Kelly & Dobbin, 1998; Kohl,
2021; Lall-Trail et al., 2023; Madera, 2018; Sherman et al., 2021; Williams et al., 2019; Williams
& Wade-Golden, 2013; van't Foort-Diepeveen, 2021). The work of this project builds on other
diversity studies, which present equity and disparity in various working and social structures
(Cohen, 2022; Kohl, 2021; Urofsky, 2020; Williams, 2015; Williams & Wade-Golden, 2013).
The business case for diversity initiatives, developed from Kohl’s Driving Justice, Equity,
Diversity, and Inclusion research, helps practitioners define strategies to implement cultural
change.
Williams and Wade-Golden, The Chief Diversity Officer, build a framework for adopting
diversity positions. Like Kohl (2021), they help practitioners progress toward diversity, equity,
and inclusion by leveraging the Chief Diversity Officer (CDO) role. These studies examine
strategy, structure, communication, and change management, helping leaders to build knowledge
and understanding of the challenges to these endeavors. At the same time, Cohen's Supreme
Inequality and Urofsky's The Affirmative Action Puzzle present the disparity through the
historical and economic context. Their research highlights the policy challenges hindering the
progression of accountability and change and the societal pressures on organizations to provide
change.
5

This research continues the conversation by discussing what social pressures motivate
organizational change and the impact of those transforming strategies. It also defines the steps
leaders should take to ensure the success of diversity initiatives. Although organizations have
committed to focus on diversity initiatives, little research illustrates the type of impact leaders
should expect. This research aims to define those expectations.
Theoretical Framework
The Burke-Litwin model is a widely accepted framework used as a tool that
metaphorically explains the cause and effect of organizational actions and how processes flow
through the dynamics of the organizational structure (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Researchers
Warner Burke and George Litwin created the model to show the complexity of dimensional
connections from one function to another within the organization. Additionally, the model
provides an understanding of the macro and micro relations of the organization's roles and
processes. The processes are actions that become part of the daily people functions in the
workplace. These actions define the organizational culture as the processes become part of the
beliefs and actions of the workforce the culture.
The Burke-Litwin model, introduced in the Journal of Management in 1992, clearly
illustrated the theoretical basis of organizational design. The model identifies twelve
interconnected factors influencing organizational performance. These twelve factors have two
categories. First, the transformational factors significantly impact the organization and require
more investment and time to change. Transformational factors, defined in the model, are the
responsibility of senior leaders and, when done according to the model, initiate a process of
organizational change. These factors interrelate to create transformation leading the organization.
1. Leadership.
6

2. Mission and vision.
3. Organizational culture.
4. Organizational structure.
5. Systems and processes.
These leadership positions define the strategic direction of the organization. The mission and
vision of the company determine the organization's direction. The accomplishment goals define
the mission by formulating the organization and how to accomplish it (Schein, 2017, pp. 150–
150). The vision is how the company leaders envision their target status in the future (Schein,
2017, p. 328). Organizational culture encompasses the workforce's processes, beliefs, and actions
(Schein, 2017, p. 6). Similarly, the structure incorporates the organization of systems and
procedures working efficiently. The methods and processes formalize the routine (Schein, 2017,
pp. 196–200).
There are transactional factors managed by the managerial staff of directors and
managers (Burke-Litwin, 1992). These described factors have less impact on organizational
change by researchers giving more importance to senior leaders' definition and direction.
However, all transformative actions are the responsibility of the managerial staff. Therefore,
these roles are critical to the success of cultural change. They do this through transactional
factors described by Burke-Litwin (1992):
1. Management practices.
2. Work climate.
3. Task requirements and individual skills.
4. Individual needs and values.
5. Motivation.
7

6. External environment.
7. Resources.
However, when an organization endeavors to make changes related to diversity, equity,
and inclusion, these factors are more significant and impact the success of the change. Cameron
and Quinn (2011) noted that the Burke-Litwin model helps diagnose organizational challenges
and define the functional place of the roles. However, the model could be more effective in
creating strategies for change. For years, the portrayal of these challenges has had many avenues
of illustration in many ways. For example, Bissell (1958) portrayed the treatment of the all-
female staff of seamstresses in a book–turned–musical, The Pajama Game. The inequity
included low pay, sexual harassment, exclusion from decision-making, and exclusion from
promotions, which created a culture of hostility toward management. Burke (1987) noted Pajama
Game as an example of how transformational and transactional groups can collaborate to
develop solutions. In his example, he pointed out that the management's inclusion of resources
(workforce) in decision-making was a mitigating strategy for workplace challenges.
Many factors can catalyze an organizational cultural change. A corporate culture change
may have sparked from a change in leadership, strategy, employee turnover, crisis, or the
external environment (Avolio et al., 2009; Berg & Chyung, 2008; Lin et al., 2018; Gliem &
O'Leary-Kelly, 2011). Gliem and O'Leary-Kelly (2011) discuss the impact of the external
environment on organizational culture, noting that organizations adapt as the external
environment changes. The adaptation is in response to the experience outside the organization
that impacts internal culture. The event external event I will explore is the murder of George
Floyd. The George Floyd murder was a momentous event causing many to act (Jan et al., 2021;
Repko & El-Bawab, 2021; Morcos, 2020). Burke-Litwin's model expresses that many internal
8

organizational changes are due to external changes. Under the Burke-Litwin model,
transformational leaders pledged to make changes toward equity races, causing leaders to
employ diversity initiatives to produce a solution (Chauncey, 2021; Segal, 2021; Jan et al., 2021;
Repko & El-Bawab, 2021). To make sense of the impact of diversity initiatives and diversity
positions, I am utilizing the Burke-Litwin model as a framework to make sense of the current
phenomenon and understand the impact on organizational culture.
Organizational Culture
We can observe the culture in the setting expressed by behavior patterns, values,
established rules or principles, procedures, members' interactions, and shared assumptions
(Scjeom, 2017). Sun (2008) pointed out that Deal and Kennedy (1982) defined culture through
the repeated phrase: "the way things are done around here" (in the environment), which means
that culture is the perception of procedures and values of the members of the domain. Schein
(2017) illustrates that culture has three defining principles: values, norms, and actions. These
three are how people organize their experiences and relate to others within the environment.
These are visible and invisible traits defining culture and influencing organizational change.
Schein's notion of corporate culture is an asset when constructing change to challenges because it
lends meaning to where and how the organization will change. The Burke-Litwin model
emphasizes an appreciation of the organization's macro and microstructure espoused by culture.
Transformational leaders should consider these aspects to ensure the program's success.
External, Transformational, and Transactional Factors
The transformational factors of Burke-Litwin's model explain that change is an effect and
response to external factors. External actions, changes, or ideas are causal to alter the
organization's strategy, mission, or structure. When the transformational factors adjust, it
9

influences the transactional factors to modify. The three areas focus on external,
transformational, and transactional aspects. These three areas determine cultural change. While
the Burke-Litwin model (1992) (Appendix A) describes twelve factors of the change model, this
simplified diagram below shows how diversity initiatives and positions influence organizational
cultural change. The model illustrates that each of the factors contributes to cultural change. The
external factors affect transformational actions and the culture, but they alone cannot influence
long-term change. Transformational decisions and actions define the change that will happen
once external factors influence the organization's culture. Transformational factors execute an
impact on the culture. However, it alone cannot change the culture. Transactional factors are the
tactical actions that influence change. These are within the activities of diversity positions and
distributed through the workforce resulting in behavior change. The three factors work together
to change the culture in the figure below.
Figure 1
Factors of Cultural Change

This figure outlines the overarching factors that the Burke-Litwin Model of
Organizational Change develops to show how these factors interact. Finally, I borrow their
theory to show that these three factors directly determine organizational culture.
Cultural
Change
External
Transformational
Transactional
10

Definition of Terms
There are five terms defined in this section. Because these terms have various meanings in
different environments, I developed the definition from current literature and applied the most
relevant definition to this research.
Coronavirus Pandemic (2020) is a virus circulating among humans in late 2019. In February
2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced the official name of coronavirus
disease 2019.
Diversity initiatives are plans to address equity challenges. From strategy, these initiatives are
programs and projects organizations use to create equality, inclusion, belonging, diversity, or
justice. All organizations have a particular focus on addressing the equity tensions and
challenges of their organization. They include creating equality, diversifying the workforce,
including all voices in developing products and programs that grow the organization, and
providing a sense of belonging to each worker. These challenges vary; therefore, the focus of a
particular company’s initiatives may concentrate on all the above to address the challenges they
face. Diversity initiatives (Wentling & Palma-Rivas, 1998) define one or all the points that
address an organization's belonging, diversity, equity, and inclusion initiatives.
Equality provides the same service, pay, treatment, and opportunities among individuals and
groups (Kohl, 2022).
Equity refers to fair and impartial unbiased access, treatment, opportunity, and advancement
where the outcome is not pre-defined. Therefore, equity is a step beyond equality because it
begins where the individual lacks access and opportunity (Kohl, 2022).
Inclusion is actions that allow all stakeholders to participate in activities leading to decisions in
the workplace.
11

Senior leaders are individuals leading the organization. The title in this study is synonymous
with chief roles, officers, and other organizational leadership titles.
Stakeholders are individuals or groups drawn into the outcome of an organization’s decisions,
profit, or impact on a community.
Dissertation Organization
The five chapters address the development of this research study; therefore, each section
progresses a different part of the study. The first chapter introduces the topic of study, frames the
problem, and the theoretical framework under which the issue is examined. The second chapter
reviews the literature leading up to the events that changed how organizations think about
diversity initiatives. This chapter highlights leaders' challenges as diversity, equity, and inclusion
issues arise in society and manifest in workplaces. There is a specific focus on the murder of
George Floyd because it was after his death that issues of equity became a mainstream problem
to address. The third chapter describes the methodological approach, research methods, and
procedures used in the investigation study. The fourth chapter outlines the research findings, and
the fifth chapter discusses the results. Finally, in the fifth chapter, I offer recommendations for
leaders who endeavor to create equity in the workplace.

12

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This research examines the impact of diversity initiatives and diversity positions on
organizational culture in the United States (U.S.). Organizations. In chapter two, I review the
past and contemporary literature that has shaped corporate equity gaps in the (U.S.), which has
led to a need for diversity initiatives. In the first section, I dissect the central idea of DEI
complications in corporate spaces and the guiding concepts that have shaped the responses and
behavior of organizations to such issues. Next, I review some equity challenges to illustrate the
type of disputes that happen, how they are shaped, and mitigating policies designed to create
accountability and change. I explain intersectionality to develop an understanding of the
experience of diverse employees in their workplaces. This explanation follows the formation of
accountability structures, such as media, social justice groups, and business accountability
groups. Critical to this research study are the pivotal events leading to the DEI problems that
created a need for diversity initiatives; therefore, the subsequent section outlines social
movements and how organizations address equity challenges internally. Lastly, I present the
growth of diversity initiatives and the diversity-focused roles supporting those projects.
Literature Review Equity Challenges
There is a link between corporate equity challenges and societal equity issues. This link
exists within societies as the people work in and are customers of goods distribution,
information, services, opportunity, pay, and justice, which means that people hold two positions
in society. They are the workers and leaders in organizations distributing products and services
and the receivers of the same products and services in a community. Thus, people connect
workplaces and society. Their attitudes, thoughts, and feelings translate from one environment to
another as the individual traverses between environments.
13

Therefore, equity’s definition is vital when applying the distribution of goods, services,
and information to the public because it is impossible to remove a person’s inner thoughts from
themself. Equity is the ability to be fair and impartial. Concerning government, education, and
business, creating fairness and equitability with goods, services, and information is challenging.
Who is accountable, and who measures equity when addressing it across many sectors and in
society? Equity is dispersed through impartiality in the relationship when there is even
distribution of goods, information, services, opportunity, pay, and justice (Fourie et al., 2014;
Klasen, 2006; Kleiman-Weiner et al., 2017; Newell & Frynas, 2007). Equitable distribution
delivers a fair outcome felt by the citizens in society. For example, the community is negatively
affected if businesses distribute unequal pay. Equally, in another example, if the government
provides an uneven distribution through education, leading to unequal opportunity between
citizen members, it negatively impacts society. Therefore, equity influences the entangled
relationship between society and the decisions of businesses and the government. The entangled
relationship derives from the distribution of companies and the government's goods, information,
and services.
Kohl (2022), however, frames equity as a construct that advances equality. She
demonstrates equality as equal support to all people versus equity that meets the individual
where they have a deficit, compared to the most advantaged group (Kohl, 2022, pp 4–6). The
importance of this differentiation is that it shows the evolution of our understanding of DEI
needs. It further provides insights into conversations among policymakers and shows that the
language used has transitioned from equality to equity (Urofsky, 2020). The definition highlights
the need to provide academics and practitioners with a universal language to define issues for a
unified approach to investing resources, policies, and practitioner solutions.
14

Since the 1600s, the United States has developed policies to manage social and corporate
equity-related issues (Cohen, 2021; Hines, 2021; Kohl, 2022; Urofsky, 2020). These policies
define interactions between companies and people, stop discrimination, and address inequities
toward underrepresented populations (Amar, 1992; Ayers, 2009; Bishop, 2017; Cohen, 2021;
Hines, 2021; Kohl, 2022; McGuire, 2003; U.S. Const. Amend. XIV, §1, U.S. Const. Amend.
XIII & Amend. IVX; Urofsky, 2020; Voros, 2000). They also reflect policies and the reciprocal
impacts of the macro-system, society, on the microsystem, the corporate environment, and vice-
versa (Dennis & Thomas, 2007; Dionne & Turkmen, 2020; Giordono, 2020; Obasogie, 2020;
Railborn & Payne, 1990; Williams, 2015). Obasogie (2020) indicated that policies such as these
have systemic consequences in the macro-system designed to do what they are doing, oppress
minorities. Likewise, Hines (2021) illustrates the culmination of history that leads to the
designed system described by Obasogie (2020). Dennis and Thomas (2007) suggest that the
microsystem reflects the "biases that are part of our national social environment," which links to
corporate equity challenges.
Anti-discrimination policy has had opposition since its inception. For example,
Affirmative Action (A.A.) and equal employment opportunity (EEO), introduced in the
seventies, were quickly opposed by the Reagan Administration in the 1980s (Urofsky, 2020;
Williams, 2018). The contradicting ideas led to a lack of accountability in enforcing anti-
discrimination policies (Frum, 2000; Kalev et al., 2006; Kelly & Dobbin, 1998). Moreover, the
lack of external accountability may explain several inadequacies of the Federal Government in
regulating industries, such as recommended accountability structures, best practices, or strategies
to address internal discriminatory practices (Dennis & Thomas, 2007; Kelly & Dobbin, 1998;
Railborn & Payne, 1961). In addition, Cohen (2021) notes that businesses forge political
15

relationships to hinder regulatory policy that would advance equitable hiring and fairness
practices. Additionally, court rulings "prevent U.S. workers from legally fighting for fair
treatment against discrimination" and "contribute to the nation's growing economic inequality"
(Cohen, 2021, p. 207 & p. 225). Hence, private, regulated industries lack the accountability to
make significant changes toward equal employment opportunities that prohibit discrimination.
Therefore, business sectors and the Federal Government may contribute to the economic
disparities causing unequal distribution of goods, services, and information. The following three
examples illustrate the corporate equity issues as a microcosm of societal challenges.
Corporate Equity Gaps and Policy
Many policies prohibit employment discrimination protecting minoritized groups (based
on ability, age, gender, nation of origin, race, religion, gender identity, and veteran status). For
example, these policies prevented post-slavery discrimination against Black and African
Americans (Cohen, 2021; Kohl, 2022, pp. 82–86). Later, they developed to include equality for
different populations, which became the baseline for adding regulations on corporations (Cohen,
2021. Dover et al., 2020; Kohl, 2022, pp. 82–86, Urofsky, 2020). However, Dover et al. (2020)
note that a U.S. field experiment by researchers Quillian et al. (2017) finds that "racial
discrimination–significantly for African Americans–has not declined since 1989." In addition,
studies by the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), the U.S. Department of Commerce on
Women in the Workforce, and the Committee of Financial Services U.S. House of
Representatives 117
th
Congress found that hiring practices lag in several areas: reporting minority
hiring, promoting women and ethnic groups, and addressing complaints of harassment and
inequities. Therefore, policies implemented to mitigate discrimination against employees,
customers, and society, affecting how organizations behave, have an insignificant effect on
16

changing organizational behavior. The following paragraphs explore literature that defines
various forms of inequity.
Effect of Hiring Practices on Underrepresented/Minoritized People
Policymakers designed Affirmative Action programs to add minorities and women to the
workforce. Still, the policy needs to provide guidance and best practice strategies for hiring. For
example, in a review of hiring and promotion practices, the Committee of Financial Services
U.S. House of Representatives 117
th
Congress (2017) found that hiring and promotions declined
from 2007 to 2015 in the banking industry, specifically for Black and African Americans.
Likewise, in the technology field, The Pew Research Center (2021) highlights the
underrepresentation of Blacks and Latinx workers in science, technology, engineering, and math
(STEM) professions. In addition, this same report deliberates on the varying gap between women
in STEM fields. Unlike the underrepresented population, women are 57.1% of the workforce and
30% of the technology field compared to their male counterparts, who comprise 70% of the
working population (Bureau of Labor Statics, 2019).
Additionally, women, specifically Black women, continue to increase in STEM
education; at the same time, their percentage of representation in the technology field is 8% of
the technology workforce (Addae et al., 2014; Ahuja, 2017; Cheryan et al., 2017; Haroon et al.,
2019, Pandey, 2020; PEW Research, 2021; Woo, 2019). As a result, studies show that
technology jobs will outpace non-STEM jobs regarding employment opportunities and future
earnings. As an anticipated result, underrepresented and marginalized populations will
experience an uneven distribution of low-paying employment compared to the majority
population (PEW Research, 2021; Wynn & Correll, 2017). These statistics emphasize the uneven
17

distribution of wealth from employment opportunities specifically related to people of color and
women.
Research illustrates how unfair hiring practices contribute to negative social
consequences for marginalized populations. McPhail et al. (2016) examine prospects for the
lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ-plus) working community. They find that
accepting a diverse population is not universal, and hiring an individual from this community
depends on regional and organizational approval. Their research reveals that individuals in the
LGBTQ-plus community often seek work outside the United States, where there is general
acceptance of sexual preference. Researchers Chetty et al. (2020) highlight that disparate racial
job opportunities for Black, Indigenous, and Latinx Americans define the lag in economic
prospects compared to White Americans. The effect of this inequality is that it besets
generational poverty with long-term mental and physical health challenges (Bale & Jovanovic,
2020; Berger & Sarnyai, 2015; Lindqvist et al., 2016; Paradies et al., 2015).
Recruitment and Hiring
Recruitment and hiring practices mainly contribute to hiring discrimination (Becker et al.,
2019; Hangartner et al., 2021). Hangartner et al. (2021) found that contacts for recruitment of
minority ethnic groups are up to 19% lower than the majority group (considered White persons
or persons of European descent). A study of the recruitment and engagement of women for
employment found that women are 7% less likely to be contacted in male-dominated professions,
and caring for children at home and being child-bearing age continue to influence hiring
decisions (Becker et al., 2019; Hangartner et al., 2021).
To mitigate hiring disparities, companies rely on algorithmic technology software to look
for candidates that match the open position without prejudice toward or bias against social
18

identities (Rathore et al., 2022). Artificial intelligence (AI) is programmed decision-making
algorithms producing replicable outcomes from previously decided inputs (Wang et al., 2020).
The software pulls candidates' information for open positions. However, researchers, Fosch-
Villalonga et al. (2022) and Leavy (2018) highlight that algorithms embed discriminatory
language. They further point out that decision-making developed primarily by males in the male-
dominated technology field is a new form of discrimination in organizations. As a result, hiring
using these technologies has been noted to develop preferences and a continuing gap in hiring.
While researchers are still exploring this topic, Ntoutsi et al. (2020) present the optimistic
prospect of using AI to mitigate biases in hiring through updating algorithm methodologies used
by programmers. More research would develop this topic to understand the consequences of AI
in recruitment and the effect of AI on the overall DEI progression. Hiring challenges are,
therefore, not isolated. Hiring challenges firms to face a shared load to society, affecting
individuals' fundamental needs to care for themselves and their families.
Hiring is critical in forming equity because employment grants individuals with resources
to purchase goods, services, and information. For example, an individual cannot buy a home
without a job. Homes build financial equity leading to more financial resources. Equally vital,
resources, such as money from a job, make access to information or education; therefore, work
provides access. In this way, the gateway to being employed from hiring practices can be the
beginning of injustice within marginalized communities. Goldsmith and Blakely (2010) speak
about hiring practices as a gate that creates different societal experiences for minority
populations versus majority populations in their editions of Separate Societies. Their debates of
the "American Dream," paired with the statistic of poverty in minoritized communities, suggest
inequities stem from isolation and inadequate resources and education. They also exposed how
19

the "permanently poor" have their needs ignored, although unmet promises from policymakers.
These scholars and Musterd and Ostendorfm (2013) illustrate that the global economic
restructuring of industrial jobs created economically depressed communities, specifically for
minorities. However, Goldsmith and Blakely (2010) epitomize that the consequences of the Wall
Street meltdowns aggravate underemployment and depleted public services. They persist that the
present U.S. methods situate Americans out of employment and decrease the standard of living
for all (Goldsmith & Blakely, 2010). In the second edition, they add that economic and political
forces no longer combat poverty; they generate poverty. The damaging divisions that isolate poor
minority residents from the middle-class suburban majority add to the marginalization of these
communities. While seemingly intended to help the communities affected, these policies have a
reciprocating effect on corporations and communities.
Internal Organizational Challenges Impacting Social Equity
Social equity problems in the general population reflect themselves in organizations. For
example, police departments have a history of using deadly force in policing, and there has been
extraordinarily little to no accountability. Using deadly force by U.S. police officers' is the third
leading cause of violence-related deaths (Fagan & Campbell, 2020; Gilbert & Ray, 2015). Their
research shows that police killings of U.S. citizens are higher than in any other country (Fagan &
Campbell, 2020; Gilbert & Ray, 2015; Obasogie & Newton, 2018). The Fourth Amendment is a
policy initially designed to protect citizens from the deadly use of force. However, Obasogie
(2020) points out that the interpretation of the Fourth Amendment defends officers, covering the
abuse of power. Researchers Gray and Parker (2020) found a correlation between police
shootings and Black and African Americans. Their study concluded that Blalock's political
power-threat hypothesis (Tolnay et al., 1989) is valid. This study proved a strong correlation
20

between the growth of political power in minority groups (as little as 0.800%) and the majority
group's suppressive forces response (Gray & Parker, 2020). The study implies that when the
majority group feels that their economic resources are threatened or lessened because of minority
groups, they respond by suppressing the minority group (King & Wheelock, 2007). However,
Johnson and Betsinger (2009) performed a study that reported the punishment and political threat
are almost exclusive to the treatment of Black and Latinx Americans. In a separate study,
Johnson and Betsinger (2007) examined data from 1997 to 2000, adding that Asian Americans
have similar treatment from police as White Americans. These two separate studies reveal that
White Americans perceive threats from Black, Latinx, and Asian Americans differently. The
treatment established by DeGue et al. (2016) demonstrated that deadly force is 2.8 times more
likely to be used by police officers when confronting a Black assailant versus a White assailant.
However, they are less likely to have a weapon. Concerning the Johnson and Betsinger study
(2007), this means that although Asian Americans are considered part of a minority group, police
treat the population like their treatment of White Americans. Therefore, the Johnson and
Betsinger (2007) study uncovers a different view between minority groups, suggesting a distinct
perspective or bias imposed on various minority groups.
Police departments across the U.S. initially addressed police brutality through reform
focused on transparency, accountability, training, and workforce diversity (Engle et al., 2020).
From the 2015 Presidential Task Force (Task Force), Engle et al. (2020) found that implicit bias
is salient throughout policing departments in the United States. Although the Task Force
provided education and anti-bias training, Engle et al. (2020) noted that education did not
translate to better decisions in high-stress situations. Additionally, efficacy research of police
departments found that these training elements failed to eradicate implicit and explicit biases
21

ingrained in the culture of these workplaces (Edmond & Martire, 2019; Engle et al., 2020). The
consequences of these actions are that deadly use of force creates health disparities for people of
color (Gilbert & Ray, 2015). Additionally, Nadal et al. (2017) show that deadly use of force
leads to negative perceptions of law enforcement among people of color. These burdens also
increase mental health disparities among people of color (Bale & Jovanovic, 2020; Berger &
Sarnyai, 2015; Nadal et al., 2017), negatively impacting the community. Despite these strains on
minority communities, policymakers and internal police organizations have yet to address the
problem with a viable solution to prevent using deadly force from killing U.S. citizens
(Ackermann et al., 2015. Aymer, 2016; Obasogie & Newman, 2018).
In this part of the literature review, I analyze several policies and the adverse outcomes to
communities challenged by this organizational effect on society. First, researchers highlight the
ineffective attempts of lawmakers to adjudicate policies and deregulate deadly force in policing.
As noted, these methods have fatal consequences and unequal community impact. Within the
organization, leaders struggle to address organizational change meeting the desire to reform
policing (Engle et al., 2020; Koziarski & Huey, 2021; Robinson, 2020). Against the policy
backdrop, police protection opposes justice and fair treatment of citizens. For example, in 1979,
the United Nations Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement and, separately, the U.S. Fourth
Amendment was conceptualized to regulate deadly force (Gilbert & Ray, 2015).
Nevertheless, Carbado (2017) and Newton (2018) add that the judicial system has used
these policies to weaponize policing and serve as an oppressive tactic by political leaders. Engle
et al. (2020) also point to the lack of data from the policy change, which prevents research from
understanding the problem and allocating proper resourcing. These effects on
marginalized/underrepresented populations strain communities of color, resulting in poor health
22

outcomes, including death, and adding preventable communal social stressors. Later, I will
discuss the movements born from this stress leading to the need for diversity initiatives.
Sexual Harassment
In another example, sexual harassment and assault are among corporations' DEI
challenges in the U.S. (Raj et al., 2020). Sexual harassment and assault are forms of
discrimination and violate Title VII (Emory, 2018; Eskridge, 2017), which prohibits
discrimination based on sex and includes pregnancy, sexual orientation, and gender identity
(U.S. Titles VII). The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) received over
98,000 alleged workplace harassment charges from 2018 to 2021. Over 27,000 of those charges
are related to workplace sexual harassment and sexual assault (Harassment Report, 2020; U.S.
EEOC, 2022). A study by Raj et al. (2020) showed that women were more likely to experience
sexual harassment by their supervisor than their male counterparts, specifically in male-
dominated occupations. Kohl (2022) recorded that one in three women experiences physical or
sexual violence. During the coronavirus pandemic (2020) (Covid-19), violence against women
significantly increased (Pandey, 2020). The EEOC (2022) reports that sexual harassment resulted
in almost $300 million of litigation claims for employers for over 8,000 claimants from 2018 to
2021.
The consequences of sexual harassment and sexual assault have been well documented as
affecting both the organizational environment and the victim (Hunt et al., 2010; Schneider et al.,
1997). Hunt et al. (2010) postulate that antecedents of sexual harassment are associated with
organizational culture and are more likely in male-dominated professions. However, in this same
review, the research suggests that the dominance of either gender increases the power balance or
strengthens the likelihood of sexual harassment for either gender. Further investigation by
23

Cassino and Besen-Cassino (2019) shows that the decline of sexual harassment claims (pre-
pandemic years) is uneven among women. Their study found that African American and Black
women have a higher risk of sexual harassment than their White counterparts. Other studies
found that job insecurity among the dominant gender is a factor in sexual harassment incidents
(Cassino & Bessen-Cassino, 2019; Schneider et al., 1997). Sexual harassment litigation and
public perception threaten employers economically (Soroka et al., 2015). These factors lead
employers to act and make internal changes.
Sexual harassment and sexual assault in the work environment require policies and
accountability that prevent sexual violence (Brown & Chavda, 2022; Sheikha, 2019; Pandey,
2020). However, (2018) and Zhu et al. (2019) revealed that organizations often have internal
sexual harassment claims causing them to have a passive bias favoring the aggressor.
Avendano's (2018) research illustrates this example through the study of unions designed to
protect their employees yet failed to address sexual harassment due to internal biases. Although
these studies point to the lack of policymaker and organizational leadership interventions, they
also allude to cultural barriers from social norms that prevent adherence to anti-sexual
harassment values (Avendano, 2018; Griffith & Medeiros, 2020; Hardies, 2019; Zhu et al.,
2019). These victims then endure the attack and compounded stressors from the lack of justice
(Avendano, 2018; Cassino & Besen-Cassino, 2019; Hardies, 2019; Schneider et al., 1997). I will
further explain this effect in the section describing social movements.
Pay Inequity
Pay inequity exists when two people with the same qualifications performing the same
job are paid differently because of their social identities (Leutwiler & Kleiner, 2001). At the end
of the Great Depression (1929–1939), female lobbyists urged job reform and affirmative actions
24

from President Roosevelt in the New Deal (1933). However, the New Deal (1933) directed
reform predominantly toward White men working projects in white-collar jobs. The reform left
the women, who were 24% of the workforce, negatively impacted by the New Deal (1933)
(Douglas, 2018, U.S. Census, 1934). Recent statistics show that women comprise 57.1% of the
labor force, reported by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statics (2019). The U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics (2020) reports that women earned 30% less than men in 2020. This differentiation
continues, although women's education has increased, specifically in male-dominated
professions (Dowell, 2022, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020). Studies reveal that women
working in the same position as their male counterparts are paid approximately $0.77 for every
$1.00 paid to men (Dowell, 2022; Kohl, 2022, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020).
Consequently, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2020) also reports that 70% of the states pay
women up to $10K less per year than their male counterparts.
There are several reasons pay inequity continues to exist. Lesner (2018) argued that
stereotyping and prejudiced beliefs are the most probable cause. Gilman (2016) points to the
U.S. Supreme Court's rulings as a perpetuation of pay inequity in a review of three cases. Brake
(2017) and Cohen (2021) support the research of Gilman's theory with similar arguments from
associated topics. For example, in Walmart v. Dukes (2011), the inequity in hiring positions,
promotions, and pay between males and females came into question before the Supreme Court.
Yet the case turned toward litigation for the right of the 1.5 million female workers to file a class
action against Walmart, delaying the settlement years. These tactics cause exasperation for the
plaintiffs when their case cannot move forward due to legal loopholes and cause continued stress
for injustices. In another example, Lilly Ledbetter lost her case against Goodyear Tire and
Rubber Company; the litigation was the first to garner policymakers' attention. President Barak
25

Obama addressed gender pay inequity before Congress by signing the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay
Act of 2009 (S.181–111
th
Congress 2009–2010) (Baker, 2014). The Fair Pay and Safe
Workplaces Act targeted the pay gap and created accountability for employer violations of the
Act (Cohen, 2021; Douglas, 2018, Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009).
These injustices are affecting working women in several sectors regardless of education.
For example, Watson and King (2021) highlight inequities in pay from insurance companies for
female obstetricians who perform the same procedures as their male counterparts. As a result,
insurance companies charge higher out–of–pocket costs for patients requiring a medical system
when their obstetrician is female. In addition, researchers indicate that the likelihood of pay
inequity occurrence increases for workers with intersectional social identities. Therefore, when
race, ability, or gender identity intersect where an individual represents two or more of these
identities, they have a higher likelihood of experiencing pay inequity (Brake, 2016; Gilbert &
Ray, 2016; Watson & King, 2021).
Intersectionality
In the previous texts, I have described employee experience with implications of
discriminatory effects when combined social identities exist. The term for this collective social
identity is intersectionality. Kimberlé Crenshaw introduced the intersectionality (Crenshaw,
1989) of social identities as a prism that maps dimensions of our identity variation, helping
policymakers and leaders to understand where individualism intersects. Intersectionality
combines essences from Morgan's wheel of oppression, privilege, and power (Crenshaw, 1991;
Diller et al., n.d.; Morgan, 1996). The individual's intersection of social identities combines one
or more described identities: gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, ability, religion, family,
socioeconomic status, veteran status, and age (Crenshaw, 2020; Morgan, 1996). Coaston (2019)
26

argues that people in the majority group (White Americans) see intersectionality as a term used
by a person in the minority/underrepresented groups to seek privilege. However, Hankivsky and
Jordan-Zachery (2019) borrowed from George (2001) to state the usage of intersectionality in
policymaking: "It is a tool for analyzing how gender, race, class, and all other identity and
distinction, in different contexts, produce situations in which men and women become vulnerable
to abuse and discrimination." Therefore, this section utilizes the term intersectionality to describe
differential employee experiences.
Employees representing various minoritized social identities continue to have unequal
experiences in the workplace (Culture Amp, 2018). For example, Culture Amp (2018), a human
resource consulting firm, collected survey data from employees in over 100 companies. Their
survey outcome shows that the workforce is becoming more diverse and heavily influenced by
individuals with intersectional identities. Their results show that White men have a more positive
experience in the workplace in areas of fairness, sense of belonging, inclusive decision-making,
and feeling heard. Conversely, individuals with multiple identities showed negative associations
in these areas. As described by the lawsuits in the list below, intersectional identities have
negative employee experiences that are problematic to businesses, and these issues have no clear
solution. Although this is not an exhaustive list, below are litigation cases being debated for
organizational unfairness, citing intersectionality.
• Gender and ethnicity (Arai et al., 2016; Nadal et al., 2014; Rosette et al., 2018;
Sidanius & Veniegas, 2013).
• Being Black, queer, and a woman at work (Brassel et al., 2020).
• Race, gender, and education (Harris & Leonardo, 2018).
• Age, gender, and ethnicity (Katz & LaVan, 2022).
27

• Asian, female, and pregnant (EEOC, 2015)
Intersectionality, defined by Crenshaw (1989), expands Morgan's wheel of power and oppression
(Morgan, 1996) because each individual carries the burden of multiple identities. In one
circumstance, they may have an oppressed position; in another, they are in a position of strength.
These statistics show that those with multiple oppressed identities experience numerous forms of
oppression due to their distinguishable characteristics. The latter example prompts researchers
like Dhanini and Franz (2021) to argue that intersectionality creates a vulnerability. Dhanini and
Franz (2021) further state that to eradicate inequality, stakeholder groups must have a specific
focus to define and solve it.
Many researchers lend a tremendous amount of understanding to the magnitude of
understanding the effect of intersectionality in the workplace. For example, Moodley and
Graham (2015) describe the importance of intersectionality in gender and disability. Other
researchers follow Crenshaw (1989), exploring the relationship between race and gender in
intersectionality (Lewis et al., 2017; Ro & Loya, 2015; Rosette et al., 2018). The rise of
intersectionality exploration is developing as more challenges evolve in workplaces and society.
For example, a study by Singh (2015) investigates the intersection of religious agency and
gender. Although there is much cohesive research and descriptive scrutiny of the subject, some
researchers debate the materiality of intersectionality. For example, Coaston (2019) reports
discourse invalidating intersectionality by engaging the conversation that provides minorities a
way to seek privilege.
Bile (2020) suggests that intersectionality is a fungus, explicitly giving undue power to
Black women. Tomlinson (2013) presents arguments from Dr. David T. Goldberg (2007), who
debates intersectionality and its fair value. Tomlinson (2013) points out that theorists like Dr.
28

Goldberg have weakened arguments by suppressing race, nation, and power from their
statements to target women, specifically Black women. Therefore, critics of intersectionality do
not address the many aspects of the theory facing individuals in workplaces. Instead, they focus
on the potential validation it gives Black women. Arguing intersectionality in this discourse is
necessary because organizational culture requires defining the problem to find ways to embrace
diverse populations and engage the workforce.
Diversity Challenges Resistant to Change
These hiring discrimination challenges, police use of deadly force, sexual harassment and
assault, hiring inequity, and pay inequity are complex social and cultural issues. Although there
are solutions, there continues opposition to the intended resolution, suggesting that people do not
want to change (Kohl, 2022; Kolko, 2012; Obasogie & Newman, 2018). Their results address
social inequity issues in legal, political, healthcare, financial, education, and housing systems
(Kohl, 2022). Rittel and Webber (1974) defined these cultural and social challenges as "wicked
problems” in the early 1970s because their resolution required shared knowledge among groups
with similar cultural assumptions and values. Additionally, Kolko (2012, pp. 10) believes the
solution must have a shared economic worth among stakeholders to finance the wicked problem.
Adding to the complexity of wicked problems is human behavior that stems from and adds to
confusion and tension among a group's attitudes, assumptions, behaviors, beliefs, and values
(Kotter, 2012; Schein, 2017). Without shared values and straightforward solutions from
regulatory policies, organizational leaders have adopted theorist frameworks to design their
behaviors and responses to internal and external social challenges (Millstein et al., 2021;
Roberts, 2019; Robertson, 2020; Sabharwal, 2014).
29

Relevant Theories Addressing Equity Problems
Businesses have used guiding principles that have shaped their involvement in social
responsibility. These ideas to involve corporate leaders in solving equity issues have a long
history in policymaking. However, as investors look for the best value for their investment,
developing theories framing corporate strategy, the best practice continues to arise. The
following section discusses the prevailing thoughts that have shaped organizational behavior.
Friedman Doctrine (Stakeholder Theory) Point of View
Friedman Doctrine or Shareholder Theory, created by Milton Friedman, holds that
business exists to make a profit (Friedman, 1970; Goodman, 2008; Sorkin, 2020). His much-
quoted text describing free enterprise and private property suggests that executives are
accountable only to their shareholders to "make as much money as possible" (Bower & Paine,
2017; Denning, 2017; Millstein et al., 2021). Friedman also passionately believed that the social
community, hence social issues, should be separately funded and managed absent the business's
profit interest (Friedman, 1970; Millstein et al., 2021; Sorkin, 2020). The doctrine further argues
that it is the responsibility of the shareholders to decide how and what resources to allocate
toward social initiatives (Friedman, 1970; Millstein et al., 2021; Sorkin, 2020). It adds that
individual investors, customers, and workers can invest in corporations aligned with their values.
The organization's leadership is only accountable to their employer–the investors (Friedman,
1970; Sorkin, 2020).
The theory fundamentally states that leadership's responsibility is to increase
stockholders' profits, and they give reign to stock-based compensation, specifically for the CEOs
(Bower & Paine, 2017; Denning, 2017; Millstein et al., 2021). The fundamental flaw of this
theory is that it leans toward a conflict of interest if the sole responsibility and morality of
30

decisions are in the hands of the same decision-makers who benefit from increased profits. For
example, pharmaceutical companies profit from the increased revenue of prescription opioids,
and stakeholders have suffered 400,000 deaths from prescription drug overdose (CDC Injury
Center, 2022). There are many more examples of this flaw in airline transportation with the
Boeing 737MAX, where 346 lives were lost when leaders ignored warnings from engineers
(Clarke, 2020). There is also the Enron trading scandal, where stockholders lied about projects to
create stockholder value, and the public suffered financial losses of $74 Billion (Li, 2010; Petrick
& Scherer, 2003). These examples illustrate problems created in society by the theory of the
Friedman Doctrine. The outcomes highlight the need for external senior leadership
accountability to protect the public's interest. As these conflicts of ethics evolved, new theories
challenged the Friedman Doctrine specifically because organizational leaders lacked
accountability for internal actions.
Stakeholder Theory Point of View
Stakeholder Theorists contradict the Friedman Doctrine, calling it socially irresponsible.
For example, Nobel laureate Hart and Zingales (2017) contend that Friedman's Doctrine assumes
shareholders care only about financial profit (Zhang et al., 2020). Instead, Stakeholder Theory
posits that the awareness of the business impact on communities and its citizens is the
responsibility of organizations (Barnes, 2021; Barnes & Barnes, 2023; Bernton & Mapes, 2019;
CDC Injury Center, 2022; Clarke, 2020; Liu, 2022). Therefore, an interconnected relationship
between customers, suppliers, employees, investors, and communities in this ecosystem of
business of related groups requires accountability to align objectives that meet all stakeholder
needs (Jia et al., 2016; Miller & Akdere, 2019). Although stakeholder theory has little research, it
31

evolved business thinking. It led to the evolution of corporate social responsibility and
environmental, social, and governance structures.
Corporate Social Responsibility Rises to Shape Internal Change
Friedman's doctrine assumes that the stockholders and leadership lens are the only
valuable perspectives when a firm acts. However, stakeholder theory considers all stakeholders
impacted by business action. Stakeholder Theory leads to a need for accountability building from
public visibility of corporate behavior, resulting outcomes from bad actors in communities, and
the birth of social visibility through social platforms. As a result, organizational behavior
predicted by Freeman et al. (2010) is more visible today than at any time in history (Jia et al.,
2016). This idea of visibility leads to another emerging concept that is becoming a priority in
business: corporate social responsibility (CSR) (Miller & Akdere, 2019). The CSR methodology
redefines business interaction within the community it supports (Jitmaneeroj, 2016; Lagasio &
Cucari, 2019; Miller & Akdere, 2019). CSR emphasizes corporations' responsibility to make
money and interact ethically with the surrounding community while defining profit in terms of
its monetary value and value to community welfare (Jitmaneeroj, 2016). Therefore, a company
showing financial gain that harms the community is not sustainable or a worthwhile investment
for stakeholders. CSR has four guiding principles: making money, adherence to government and
society rules, doing what is right even when not required, and contributing to society's projects
directly and indirectly related to the business (Miller & Akdere, 2019). The methodology born
from the Stakeholder theory differs from Friedman's because it creates an internal focus on
community impact paired with profit. CSR led to the formation of Environmental, Social, and
Governance (ESG), an organization designed to hold institutions accountable for the guiding
32

principles created in CSR (Badia et al., 2020; Clementino & Perkins, 2020; Jitmaneeroj, 2015;
Rao, 2013; Zhang et al., 2018).
Stakeholder theory and CSR impart a form of accountability that Affirmative Action still
needs to accomplish. Affirmative Action served as a guide treatment for business leaders in their
relationship with marginalized/underrepresented populations. Stakeholder theory and CSR seek
the most profitable investment from organizations not riddled with toxic cultures and leadership
faux pas leading to litigation. Urofsky (2020) speaks about how Affirmative Action originated to
combat discrimination. The results have had minimized effects on systemic issues and
organizational culture in the United States (Kalev et al., 2006; Schroder, 2021; Urofsky, 2020).
However, with the rise of diversity initiatives and the development of CSR and stakeholder
interest, organizations are using new roles to develop organizational change (Cloutier et al.,
2015; Douglas & Little, 2017; Johnson, 2021; Stanley et al., 2019). I will explore these roles in a
subsequent paragraph.
Corporate Accountability
Hussain and Moriarty (2018) describe the changing landscape of the business world.
These changes are related to initiating a global economy, social engagement, and environmental
impact (Carroll & Brown, 2018; Hussain & Moriarty, 2018; Bernton & Mapes, 2017; Unerman
& O'Dwyer, 2007). Throughout the 20
th
and 21
st
centuries, corporate negligence drove the
concept of investor responsibility and accountability. These events beset several types of crises
affecting the public. For example, the Exxon-Valdes oil spills affected extensive coasts (Bernton
& Mapes, 2019), plane crashes killed hundreds of people (Clarke, 2020), and financial
meltdowns affected the stock market (Li, 2010; Liu, 2022). Therefore, accountability is
necessary because corporations’ historical behavior maximizes profits without regard to
33

damaging effects on society. Because policy failed to manage firms and prevent these tragedies,
the public held these firms accountable by not buying products, and eventually, stockholders
took notice. The theory behind investor accountability is that firms with poor ethics are
unsuitable investments because they have a high potential for lawsuits and volatile profits. In this
way, investors became a form of accountability.
Accountability From Media
Social media, defined by researchers, is the existence of websites and web-based systems
facilitating the interaction and exchange of information and communication among people in a
network (Emerson & Murphy, 2014; Akram & Kumar, 2017; Murphy et al., 2014). The Pew
Research Center piloted a survey to track internet usage for Americans and found that 93% of
adults used the Internet in 2021 (Pew Research Center, 2021). The high usage of information
exchange allows social media to affect businesses positively and negatively, influencing the
organization's behavior. In addition, it increases direct communication with the public, who are
customers, workers, and stakeholders as investors.
Communication through social media also provides positive and negative feedback from
an individual or a group with the possibility of a wide broadcast among users. The consequence
was seen in a blog about Uber when Susan Fowler's post about her experience working at Uber
went viral (Tippett, 2018). Her blog described the details of gender discrimination and the lack
of response from human resources as she documented and complained after each incident
(Fowler, 2018). The post created internal pressure, leading Uber to remove the co-founder and
CEO, Travis Cordell Klanick (Chappel, n.d.; Dowd, 2017).
Social media promoters provide another example of how social media has created public
accountability. Operation Varsity Blues investigated several high-profile parents who paid
34

academic professionals to allow their graduating senior into a prestigious university. Name
disclosure giving general information about who benefited from the pay-off exposed the guilty
and their associated business relationships to social media shaming. The scandal highlighted
economic disparity and inequity in education when applying to colleges and universities. Social
media posts caused universities to change their behavior by monitoring faculty and staff to
prevent future inequality. Among the group was social media influencer Olivia Jade, a brand
influencer for several brands, including Sephora, HP, and Amazon. Ms. Jade's parents, Mossimo
Giannulli and Lori Laughlin, were convicted of bribery that they used to secure their children's
admissions to prestigious universities (Davies, 2021; Kintu & Ben-Slimane, 2020). As a result,
Ms. Jade's representation of brands ended (Kintu, Ben-Slimane, 2020). Researchers Kintu and
Ben-Slimane (2020) reflected that public condemnation of Olivia Jade "spilled over" to the
brands she influenced publicly. Public accountability forced the brands to end their partnership
with Ms. Jade to prevent unfavorable consumer reactions and monetary loss.
Environmental Social Governance
A corporate investor provides capital or money to an organization in exchange for a
percentage of ownership of that business. Not every firm requires investors. However, there are
financial advantages to the growth and development of the organization when the business has
sufficient funds to manage operations. Companies use investment dollars to raise needed capital
to run the business (Wheelan, 2021). Investors, in turn, have the entitlement to invest in
companies that align with their values. From the investment entitlement, environmental, social,
and governance grew to a new form of voluntary accountability (Barnes, 2021).
Environmental Social Governance (ESG) is a global interrogation of the corporate impact
on the environment, communities, and the internal governance of business activities (Badia et al.,
35

2020; Clementino & Perkins, 2020). ESG formulates a framework for businesses to report their
business practices showing investment viability (Jitmaneeroj, 2016; Miller & Akdere, 2019;
Tower et al., 2022). Volunteer accountability using the ESG model derived from the many
examples already explored in this literature review, demonstrating corporations' social and
environmental impact on society and the financial degradation resulting from those practices.
The ESG model reports the organization's values, actions, and mitigation processes through a
rating system that compares organizations of the same industry. Reporting these areas postulates
the theory that a firm can hold itself accountable for ethical values and actions, making it a
sustainable organization viable for investment (Barnes, 2021; Barnett & Salomon, 2006; Duque-
Grisales & Aguilera-Caracuel, 2019; Liu, 2022; Roberts, 1958). Therefore, ESG ratings serve as
risk management information measuring the risk rate involved in an investment (Muff, 2022;
Rao, 2013; Zhang et al., 2018). However, there are three considerations for this form of
reporting; firstly, it is a voluntary reporting system, and only some companies choose to
participate (Tashman, 2022). Secondly, ESG reporting is a business managed primarily by non-
profit firms with no oversight (Barnes, 2021). Thirdly, the approach to reporting varies between
reporting agencies, making it hard to assess the accuracy of ESG reporting without
standardization and a performance benchmark (Jitmanerroj, 2016). A study by Schroder (2021)
found that 57% of investors began to care more about social issues because of compounding
events during the pandemic (Tower et al., 2022). Additionally, Alsayegh et al. (2020) found that
using the ESG rating model is positively attributed to business stainability. Other research from
Muff (2022) and Amel-Zadeh and Serafeim (2018) shows that the model does result in
communication and governance of the company's values and practices.
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As such, ESG creates a form of accountability derived from external companies' ratings
of businesses, which defines the sustainability of the business (Duque-Grisales & Aguilera-
Caracuel, 2019; Jitmaneeroj, 2015). These valuations construct a formal process to report what
they are doing, how they organize ethically, and the values they hold to manage their actions
transparently (Rao, 2013; Zhang et al., 2018). The positive attribution demonstrates that (1)
companies can govern their actions; (2) governing their actions produces sustained effort toward
better performance (Alsayegh et al., 2020). However, there needs to be more research showing
the long-term impact of ESG ratings on corporate behavior and accountability. Therefore, the
potential sustainable efforts are challenged during exploration (Alsayegh et al., 2020; Duque-
Grisales & Aguilera-Caracuel, 2019; Jitmaneeroj, 2016).
Pivotal Events from 2015 to Present that Reignited DEI initiatives In Corporations
The murder of George Floyd and the following social media video post of the event
generated protests from several groups, uniting different racial populations. These populations
identified with Mr. Floyd's "I can't breathe" statement, referring to being choked by a system of
marginalization (Ayers et al., 2020; Bowman, 2021; Hernandez, 2021). Gates et al. (2021)
specified that the murder of George Floyd and Covid-19 were magnifiers of workplace
marginalization. Like the non-violent protests by Dr. Martin Luther King, corporations and
individuals could no longer ignore the violence against oppressed, marginalized, and
underrepresented populations throughout the United States. (Alcorn, 2021; CNN News Report,
n.d.; Segal, 2021). From that recognition, they pledged to support the end of racial injustice (Jan
et al., 2021; Repko & El-Bawab, 2021). For example, some 50-plus large companies in the
United States committed over $49 billion after Mr. Floyd's murder pledging to close the racial
and economic gap between Black and African American and White communities (Alcorn, 2021;
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Jan et al., 2021; Repko & El-Bawab, 2021; Segal, 2021). Additional promises to combat racism
and impose a change in society were voiced by several financial, manufacturing, pharmaceutical,
and technology companies (Jan et al., 2021; Purtell & Kang, 2022). The internal pressure to
provide social change bore a unification of stakeholders to change the internal environment,
leading companies to adopt diversity initiatives (Bonaparte, 2022, Purtell & Kang, 2022). Purtell
and Kang (2022) examined 166 companies that posted their response to the murder of George
Floyd on Instagram. Their research found that companies had six different motivations reflected
in their message.
1. Risk management.
2. Organization function.
3. Market positioning.
4. Civic positioning.
5. Moral positioning.
6. Social reform.
However, other researchers Bonaparte (2022), note that the murder of George Floyd,
along with the Covid-19 and other murders of Breonna Taylor and Ahmad Aubrey, were brutal
repeats of police brutality. However, the timing of these events during the pandemic allowed
more visibility. Therefore, there was a broad response causing some companies to respond and
strategically address injustices, specifically for Black citizens. During the Covid-19 pandemic
(Ciotti et al., 2020), in the age of social media, these events were seen by many working from
home and not distracted by the busyness of the workday. Research from Krause et al. (2022)
found that there were unprecedented numbers of mental challenges with anger and sadness
following the publicized event of George Floyd’s murder. However, there is little research that
38

links the murder of George Floyd directly to corporate responsibility and the motivations behind
their dedication to changing messaging.
Coronavirus 2020 Impacts Individuals, Businesses, and Exasperated Marginalized Groups
The murder of George Floyd during the unprecedented event of Covid-19 was a visible
display of inequity in society. On the one hand, a Black male was murdered on the street by
police, echoing many deadly force cases described earlier in this literature review. On the other
hand, the rising income and healthcare inequalities added a focus on marginalized populations
widening the gap between groups (Barnes, 2021; Bates, 2020; Ciotti et al., 2020; Gates et al.,
2021). In addition, the pandemic gave rise and visibility to biases (Clissold et al., 2020), racial
discrimination (Dhanani & Franz, 2021; Dionne & Turkmen, 2020), and sexual violence against
women (United Nations Women, 2021). Studies are investigating the impact of the George Floyd
murder and the pandemic revealing the strain on societies around the globe. In the United States,
there were social implications and effects on businesses.
These events caused business leaders to listen to employees because of the impact on
their business and sales (Donthu & Gustafsson, 2020; Fairlie & Fosssen, 2021). While Fairlie
and Fosssen (2021) reveal decreased sales from the pandemic, Liu-Lastres et al. (2022) associate
the Great Resignation as necessitating industry changes since studies show that these workers
were planning to resign before the start of 2021. Serenko (2022) finds many reasons for the
Great Resignation, including toxic culture and a significant impact on knowledge and capital
loss. More research must follow to understand how these phenomena combined several social
movements and their implications on the social and business environment.
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#Blacklivesmatter
The #Blacklivesmatter movement is a civil rights movement that differentiates itself from
previous civil rights movements because of its goal to attain "full rights for Black citizens"
(Chase, 2017, p. 18). By "full rights," the group organizers describe complete "civil, social,
political, legal, economic, and cultural" attainment (Chase, 2017, p. 18). The movement surged
to organize against police use of deadly force in the deaths of Michael Brown and Eric Garner
(Carney et al., 2016) and the Florida death of Trayvon Martin (Rickford, 2016). However,
Rickford (2016) highlights the group's transition to represent all inequities concerning Black and
Brown communities. The #Blacklivesmatter movement gained prominence because of the
organizer's ability to bring awareness to the injustices of violence against Black Americans using
the social media platform Twitter (Carney, 2016; Matter, 2020; Rickford, 2016). The
#Blacklivesmatter movement showed that awareness is not enough, adding that actions and
accountability are critical for Black lives in the United States (Chase, 2017; Hooker, 2016; Mir
& Zanoni, 2021). The #Blacklivesmatter movement sought to increase the knowledge of the
truth about inequalities in the U.S. Additionally, their campaign has successfully promoted
awareness of these injustices through the mobilization of citizens. Hooker (2016) highlighted
that the effect of the #Blacklivesmatter movement is the mobilization of citizens that then holds
political leaders and corporations accountable. Little research explores the depth of
#Blacklivesmatter and its meaning to organizations. The power behind #Blacklivesmatter is from
its ability to mobilize and create an activity from leaders after rapidly moving supporters into
action (Hooker, 2016; Mir & Zanoni, 2021).
Gates et al. (2021) and Heckler and Mackey (2022) recognize that the #Blacklivesmatter
movement brought people together to demonstrate after the murder of George Floyd during a
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time when people stayed home because of Covid-19. Sherman et al. (2021) differentiate the
power of the movement when describing the impact of the #Blacklivesmatter movement. They
indicate that the #Blacklivesmatter movement brought awareness to individual inequities that the
Covid-19 pandemic exasperated. The heightened awareness led companies to pledge to make
internal changes creating the need for diversity initiatives (Bhonos & Sisco, 2021, Jan et al.,
2022, Sherman et al., 2021). The power behind the campaign is that it brought individuals,
leaders, and organizations to action that the policy still needs to produce.
#Metoo Movement
Tarana Burke launched the #Metoo Movement to support victims like herself to stand up
to sexual harassers. However, the movement did not become a social phenomenon until 2017
when Alyssa Milano and others used the hashtag to define their experiences in sexual abuse
cases against Harvey Weinstein (Bhattacharyya, 2018; Brown & Chavda, 2022; Burke, 2018).
Because of the Harvey Weinstein litigations, Hollywood leaders took center stage in the fight
against sexual harassment and abuse, highlighting many incidents and accounts of sexual
offenders by public figures (Sheikha, 2019). Along with Hollywood, companies endured steep
litigation payouts from cases of sexual harassment and abuse (EEOC, 2022; Sheikha, 2019).
Therefore, the movement became a whistleblowing tool signaling another campaign that
established accountability (Bhattacharyya, 2018).
Ayers et al. (2020) highlight that "I can't breathe," stated by several victims of police
violence, represented a state that millions of women feel when dealing with oppressive beliefs in
workplaces. Johnson and Renderos (2020) highlight that the movement spawned awareness of
invisible populations who previously lacked a voice to speak up about workplace oppression.
The #Metoo movement is essential right now because sexual harassment and abuse previously
41

lacked attention to research the depth of the problem. Statistical data adds value for policymakers
to address the gaps in policy (Bhattacharyya, 2018; Heydemann & Tejani, 2019; Rhode, 2019;
Sheikha, 2019; Tippett, 2018). Bhattacharyya (2018) studied statistical data on sexual
harassment and abuse, finding that these abuses exist worldwide. However, in the U.S., the food
and service industry, the lowest-paying sector, is dominated by females and houses the most
vulnerable population reporting the highest number of victims. For example, the Harvey
Weinstein allegations included the hotel service staff in Chicago. Because the abuse described by
workers was pervasive, state legislation mandated a no-tolerance policy addressing abuse toward
workers and guests. Another study by Brown & Chavda (2022) and Sheikha (2019) shows that
accountability for those who conduct sexual harassment or assault at work is rising. For example,
public figures in the entertainment industry now have contractual clauses to hold them
accountable for their values and actions in and outside the workplace (Sheikha, 2019). While
industries and policymakers look to define accountability and mitigation measures, U.S. citizens
debate the validity of the #Metoo Movement.
The Pew Research (2022) revealed that more than twice as many Americans support the
#Metoo Movement than those who oppose the movement. Those who oppose the movement cite
the time to report and their belief in a need for due process as reasons for their opposing cause
(Brown & Chavda, 2022). Men also say they find it harder to interact with women at work
because the movement calls for careful interaction, creating fear of being accused (Brown &
Chavda, 2022; Tuerkheimer, 2018). Hence, the consequences and benefits of the #Metoo
movement are unclear, and there is little research outlining effective interventions. Heydemann
and Tejani (2019) reveal that policy needs to change to strengthen the objectives of the #Metoo
42

movement. This research would close the gap in interventional approaches allowing the
movement to evolve (Tuerkheimer, 2018).
The Business Case for Diversity Initiatives
The terms associated with diversity, equity, and inclusion profoundly impact our culture
as added terms are developing yearly and gaining momentum to define cultural inequalities.
Within organizations, they are a set of initiatives that aim to promote equity for all employees,
regardless of their race, gender, age, religion, disability, or sexual orientation. It also seeks to
create an environment where people can bring their individuality to the workplace, and by
respecting individuality, the company benefits. The DEI agenda is not limited to the various
organizational sectors such as education, healthcare, technology, and beyond. Every organization
is experiencing globalization, government regulations, changing demographics, a desire to
remain competitive, and, most importantly, the push from all stakeholders to be socially
responsible. In this section, I will describe the importance of diversity initiatives and what a
diversity initiative can achieve through various strategies.
First, I would like to define diversity and inclusion because they are often used
interchangeably but are two different concepts. I have already described equity earlier. Diversity
is a wide range of differences, whereas inclusion refers to bringing people together regardless of
their differences (Garg & Sangwan, 2021). According to Garg & Sangwan (2021), an example of
diversity brings together people from several backgrounds in race, ethnicity, gender, social class,
ability, or sexual orientation. On the other hand, Davidson and Ferdman (2001) illustrate
inclusion in an anecdote about a corporation that fired several leaders and replaced them with
diverse employees to experiment with the success of the individuals. These executives noted that
accepting the new diverse employees took approximately 18 months. This experiment
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demonstrates what Kohl (2021) calls an activity in which a diverse group can participate. Both
diversity and inclusion are important aspects when trying to achieve a workplace culture that
embraces individuality from different perspectives. However, diversity initiatives place
companies in their market to address the issues debated earlier in this section: globalization,
government regulations, changing demographics, a desire to remain competitive, and most
importantly, the push from all stakeholders to be socially responsible. Discussed throughout this
section are some strategies that help organizations achieve these goals.
DEI presents knowledge and understanding of another’s point of view to help people
learn to accept others whose backgrounds differ. Acceptance of others’ points of view builds a
cohesive workforce that works towards common goals instead of focusing on their differences
which might lead to conflicts. The first strategy I am going to explain is recruitment practices.
Next, an organization will adopt diversity initiatives to address challenges in the workforce and
produce unifying outcomes (Burgess et al., 2021; Cho et al., 2017; Downey et al., 2015; Fourie
et al., 2015; Inegbedion et al., 2020; Leslie, 2017; Madera, 2018; van't Foort-Diepeveen, 2021).
These initiatives address challenges for underrepresented workers and customers by employing
interventions and strategies. Nadal et al. (2014) describe how diversity initiative interventions aid
employers in mitigating microaggressions in workplaces. Sidanius and Veniegas (2013) and
van't Foort-Diepeveen (2021) dispatch the opportunities to address the effects of prejudices and
discrimination from gender biases in workplaces. Cho et al. (2017) explore the validity of
diversity and initiatives related to those interventions from diversity management. Their research
examines the effect on organizational performance. They find that organizational performance
and engagement are positively associated with diversity in the workplace. A similar study by
Kalav and Dobbin (2019) explored the nature and effectiveness of diversity management
44

practices. They describe opportunities to update diversity management practices to more positive
strategies.
The efforts of diversity initiatives transition the organization's culture by addressing
biases in multiple areas of the culture, including hiring, promotions, retention, and engagement
(Cho et al., 2017; Kalav & Dobbin, 2019). Kalav and Dobbin (2019) point out that firms began
to address biases in their organizational culture through diversity initiatives to mitigate litigation.
However, Roberson (2019) and Stano (2019) describe changing socioeconomic workplaces, the
need to better manage diverse workforces, and the reduction in trade barriers created by the
global economy and technology as the catalysts for the birth of diversity initiatives. In other
research, Roberson (2020) describes organizational leaders' need to make changes in the firm
after they made statements to fight for racial justice in the wake of the George Floyd killing.
Diversity initiatives are the leadership strategy, whereas diversity management, a
discipline in human resources, is a tactical element. Thomas (1990), considered the father of
diversity management, calls the domain a new form of Affirmative Action because the
management of diversity intends to accomplish what Affirmative Action failed to do. First, it
creates internal accountability. Second, it designs prescriptive strategies and best practices to
attain diversity goals. Lastly, diversity management generates structure for upward mobility for
underrepresented workers once hired into organizations (Thomas, 2004 & 2005). Researchers
draw attention to diversity in the workforce to produce diverse thoughts from individuals of
diverse backgrounds, increasing knowledge capital and yielding better performance and profit
(Ely & Thomas, 2001; Garg & Sangwan, 2021; Ng et al., 2019; Robertson, 2019; Yadav &
Lenka, 2020). Under diversity management, firms employ the human resources team to promote
45

diversity and inclusion in the workplace by implementing policies in hiring, management,
training, recruiting, and retention (Ely & Thomas, 2001; Thomas, 2005; Kalav & Dobbin, 2019).
Research from Norbash and Kadom (2020), Sabharwal (2014), Stanley et al. (2019), and
Williams and Wade-Golden (2013) focuses on diversity initiatives and management,
demonstrating that it alone does not produce the cultural change needed to embrace a diverse
workforce with inclusive properties embedded into the culture. Norbash and Kadom (2020)
revealed that diversity initiatives and management require leadership to invest resources in
diversity and inclusion for successful outcomes. Jayne et al. (2004) and Sabharwal (2014)
describe leadership commitment and actions that encourage employee inclusiveness, which
improves workplace performance and adds value to diversity initiatives. Stanley et al. (2019)
highlight the need for strategic alignment to produce successful results for diversity initiatives.
Finally, Williams and Wade-Golden (2013) elucidated the need for leadership communication
and alignment with diversity positions to have results meeting the needs of stakeholders.
Results show that leveraging diversity management adds value to a firm's performance
while also improving the firm's reputation (Barron, 2020; 2020; Nikhil et al., 2021). Findings
from Ashikali and Groeneveld (2015) demonstrate that diversity management links to greater
inclusion levels, raising employee loyalty. These optimistic perspectives could motivate firms to
adopt diversity initiatives to transition the culture. Kalav and Dobbin (2019) point out that
organizational behavior has remained the same in the last thirty years due to using these similar
strategies. They propose updating diversity management approaches to yield better results.
Although the article seems to criticize Thomas' (1990) movement, it suggests that "control
tactics" from diversity management are less effective. They propose that more engaging efforts
will yield a better strategy, although the approach they posit is similar to Thomas'. (Kalav &
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Dobbin; 2019, Thomas, 1990). Kalav and Dobbin (2019) point out that diversity management
within human resources is a list of "dos and don'ts." However, researchers showed earlier that
diversity training is ineffective when focused explicitly on biases (Kalav and Dobbin, 2019;
Engle et al., 2020; Gilbert & Ray, 2015; Newton, 2018). However, while these researchers find
fault with diversity initiatives and management, other researchers, as described earlier, highlight
that these initiatives and management efforts are most effective when paired with different
strategies, such as leadership involvement and communication (Norbash & Kadom, 2020;
Sabharwal, 2014; Stanley et al., 2019; Williams & Wade-Golden, 2013).
Diversity Positions in Organizations
Diversity roles defined by title are represented in six categories, from the head of the
function, usually the Chief Diversity Officer (CDO), to an individual contributor (EEOC, 2022).
These six categories represent over fifty titles managing diversity and inclusion in the workplace.
There is emerging research on the CDO role. However, research needs to catch up in defining
other diversity positions' effectiveness, impact, and strategic use. Large organizations, including
Fortune 500 companies, often employ a lead to the diversity positions represented in the CDO
role (Good, 2021). Still, mid-sized and small organizations rarely use CDO and vice president of
diversity and inclusion roles. With the surge in diversity initiatives, companies usually employ
one function varying from CDO, Diversity Director, or Diversity Manager. These roles are
typically resources as the only person in their department.
Research for diversity positions is critical to developing a review of diversity
effectiveness. The study defines diversity management as a vital component of diversity
initiatives that require specified roles in managing the tasks (Kalav and Dobbin, 2019; Ely &
Thomas, 2001; Kohl, 2022; Sabharwal, 2014; Shen et al., 2009; Tatli et al., 2015; Williams &
47

Wade-Golden, 2019). These positions are responsible for bridging multiple organizational
functions toward equity while serving numerous stakeholders (Williams & Wade-Golden, 2013).
However, because current research focuses on the CDO position to define strategy, there needs
to be more scholarly extrapolation about the impact of diversity positions.
Conceptual Framework
One of the key strengths of the Burke-Litwin model is its focus on identifying the root
causes of an organization's problems rather than just treating the symptoms. When the underlying
factors contributing to organizational performance are understood, managers can develop
targeted interventions that address specific issues. Addressing these issues can help to ensure that
change efforts are focused, efficient, and effective.
The Burke-Litwin model (1992) also emphasizes leadership’s role in transforming the
environment. The model recognizes that leaders are vital in shaping the organization's culture,
setting the strategy, and initiating employee motivation. It also recognizes the integral part that
managerial staff has in organizational change. However, their input is related to those of the
senior leaders. The model further suggests that middle-management staff direct the motivations
of the workforce. Therefore, employee motivation happens when senior leaders make decisions,
take a comprehensive approach to change the environment, and create supportive actions that
allow managerial staff to ensure that change efforts are sustainable over time.
The conceptual framework builds on Burke-Litwin's (1992) model for organizational
change. This model sees the organization through the DEI lens. Through the DEI lens, one can
see the entire corporate culture, beginning with the external environment's influence on the
organization’s culture and driving organizational culture awareness of a social problem that spills
into the organization’s environment. These are transformational decisions and actions from the
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executive leadership. The transactional factors are actions and communications from the middle
management staff using programs and projects to make environmental transformations. They
reciprocate inputs to each other and produce a change in the corporate culture (Figure 2). The
Burke-Litwin model is an essential framework for managing change effectively because it
provides a comprehensive and holistic approach to understanding organizational change. It
considers internal and external factors that can impact an organization's performance and how
these factors interact. The model also recognizes that change is a complex process that involves
various components, such as leadership, culture, structure, systems, and climate.
Figure 2
DEI Lens

As Chapter One discusses, the Burke-Litwin framework relates factors to the external
environment, leadership, managerial staff, culture, and individual motivation. By analyzing these
factors about the desired goal, an organization can identify areas where transformation is needed
and develop a plan for implementing that change. The Burke-Litwin model’s strength is
developing a strategy from the connected factors. Understanding what should happen and who
49

will be affected is most helpful to the top leadership in the change process. The Burke-Litwin
framework delivers this point of view.
On the other hand, the Prosci ADKAR Change framework focuses specifically on the
individual change process and provides a step–by–step process for managing personal change.
The framework emphasizes the importance of addressing unique concerns and motivations and
guides change to build awareness, desire, knowledge, ability, and reinforcement to transform into
the desired format. These are the stages of the ADKAR model and the implementation strategies:
• Awareness: The first stage is to raise awareness of gender bias in the workplace through
training, workshops, and awareness campaigns that highlight the impact of gender bias on
individuals and the organization.
• Desire: The second stage involves creating a willingness to change by including
employees in the change process, encouraging them to share their experiences and ideas,
and communicating the benefits of a more gender-inclusive workplace.
• Knowledge: The third stage involves providing employees with the expertise and skills to
tackle gender bias, focusing on training programs, coaching, and mentoring topics such
as unconscious bias, inclusive leadership, and gender diversity.
• Ability: The fourth stage involves empowering employees to take action to address
gender bias by providing resources and support, creating opportunities for employees to
practice new skills, and establishing accountability mechanisms to ensure that there is
progress.
• Reinforcement: The final stage involves reinforcing the change to safeguard that it
becomes embedded in the organization's culture by celebrating successes, recognizing
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and rewarding inclusive behavior, and providing support and resources to sustain the
change over time.
These activities are transactional and form strategies the director and managerial staff utilize to
build the transformed culture. The strength of the ADKAR framework is that it is adaptable to
any plan and develops a model allowing practitioners to develop the workforce toward the
desired resulting culture within each phase.
Using these two frameworks, build a comprehensive and practical approach to diversity
and inclusive transition, addressing the organizational and individual factors that can influence
the change initiative's success. It also ensures successful implementation and yields the
advantages of a more diverse and inclusive workforce. Figure three illustrates the two
frameworks by showing that the Burke-Litwin framework using the DEI lens (Figure 2) and
overlaying it with the Prosci ADKAR framework (Figure 3) marries the two to build a
comprehensive framework to change the organization’s culture.
Figure 3
Conceptual Framework
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The DEI Lens used with the ADKAR framework provides a distinguished impact on the
organization’s culture. Developed from transformational leadership actions, the managerial staff
in transactional activities work together to identify issues and develop solutions. Conceptually as
the external environment has the potential to initiate the need for change, there should be an
expected reciprocating effect on the external environment as the organization’s culture changes
(Figure 4).
Figure four depicts the relationship between the external environment and multiple
companies. There is external input, and after the internal climate changes, there is input from the
changed environment back into the external environment.
Figure 4
External Environment Reciprocating Impact on Organizational Culture
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As indicated, the external environment initiates change in multiple organizations, then receives a
cultural shift in several organizations. It is a framework for organizational change that changes
the community culture, potentially creating equity for the external environment. However, no
known studies apply these two frameworks to transform corporate culture into an equitable
environment.
Summary
The literature addresses several areas of inequity that corporations both cause and receive
from society. These issues create a reciprocating impact on society and the organizational
culture. Although a fair amount of research was devoted to understanding equity problems, it
should not go unnoticed that organizations have addressed these equity issues through multiple
strategic options. However, specific change catalysts are not well documented. Therefore, to
address the problems that cause social pressure, globalization, government regulations, and a
desire to remain competitive, organizations must understand how these wicked problems develop
within the organization. The overall benefit of addressing these equity issues is a changed
53

organizational culture. However, the more meaningful use can be a societal change that will
reciprocate within the organization and eradicate these equity issues.

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Chapter Three: Methodology
When discussing DEI, stakeholders frequently suggest solutions to address the
complexity of these wicked challenges (Reinecke & Ansari, 2016). Although the simple solutions
offered only address a surface level of DEI change. However, there are multiple complex
challenges experienced throughout the workforce and society. These cultural challenges call for
further research to develop best practices leading to organizational change. Therefore, this
research examines two dimensions of diversity initiatives. First, it examines why senior leaders
focus on diversity initiatives, and second, how diversity initiatives impact corporate culture. The
analysis intends to create best practices for DEI organizational change initiatives.
Research Study Organization
The investigation is a qualitative research study using semi-structured interviews to
develop the study. The study explores the experience of diversity professionals responsible for
the outcome of diversity initiatives. The method of approach to analyze the data uses thematic
phenomenological analysis. This approach is based on descriptive phenomenology, taking the
original data to identify meaning and organizing the data into resulting themes (Sundler et al.,
2019). Thematic analysis is a qualitative approach that allows the data to speak for itself and
bring forth the meaning of to report. Therefore, the data is organized into themes related to the
interview questions that provide elements described from the responses.
This research study applied qualitative phenomenology to uncover two dimensions of
organizational change. First, to understand why senior leaders focused on diversity initiatives,
and second, to examine how senior leaders and managerial staff have influenced organizational
change through diversity initiatives. The method of qualitative phenomenology approaches
subjects with interview questions that explore the subject's perspective of their experience in
55

particular phenomena. Merriam and Tisdale (2015) described this type of approach to data as the
lived experience of the participants. This approach is based on descriptive phenomenology,
taking the original data to identify meaning, then organizing the data into resulting themes
(Sundler et al., 2019).
The study uses the perspectives of various employees responsible for diversity initiatives
in organizations across the U.S. Research participants were required to hold a title indicating
they were responsible for some or all aspects of developing, implementing, managing, or
analyzing diversity initiatives. Their responsibility was essential to the study to ascertain their
experience and the degree of their interactions with leaders responsible for diversity initiatives.
They also had first-hand knowledge of the impacts on organizational culture implementing
diversity programs and projects. Additionally, they interact with diversity data and stakeholders
who expect results from diversity initiatives. In this research, I sought to use the data developed
from interviews with the participants to answer the following research questions.
Research Questions
The seeks to examine the phenomenon of diversity initiatives and roles; therefore, these research
questions frame the examination of the study:
1. What factors caused organizational leaders to address diversity through initiatives?
2. What is leadership involvement with diversity initiatives?
3. How do diversity initiatives and positions impact the organization's culture?
Design and Procedures
I began recruiting participants using several strategies. First, I posted the flyer on my
personal Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn pages and asked my network to send the
information to their network. Second, I also employed purposeful sampling to recruit subjects.
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Purposeful sampling identifies subjects with experience and knowledge of the studied subject
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Palinkas et al., 2015). Finally, I leveraged the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC) for diversity titles finding over fifty titles related to diversity,
inclusion, and belonging (EEOC, 2022). I used these titles and combinations of words in a
LinkedIn search engine to recruit and find subjects' contact information. These were my word
and title selections:
• Chief Diversity Officer.
• Diversity and Inclusion.
• Diversity Director.
• Diversity Manager.
• Inclusion Manager.
I used the titles mentioned above and combinations of words because they had the range to
include most of the positions described by the EEOC (2022). I sent 300 requests for volunteers
with an introduction about myself via LinkedIn. The search utilizing the words "diversity and
inclusion" yielded various titles, including Chief Diversity Officer. I sent the same information to
300 more CDO persons but not to individuals I had already emailed. I sent 300 connections to
other remaining titles until I had 35 responses. Over three months, I received responses from
individuals interested in volunteering for the research study. I set-up an interview date and time
via the LinkedIn chat function and exchanged email addresses with the potential volunteer.
I interviewed 15 subjects who responded to my recruitment emails and posts. Although I
had 35 interested volunteers, 20 did not participate because of their time constraints or because
they did not meet the criteria: having responsibility for the diversity initiatives in the
organization. The interviews ranged from thirty minutes to an hour and fifteen minutes. Before
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the interview, I reviewed the subjects' LinkedIn profiles and company websites to gather
information. I gathered information about their diversity initiatives if it was listed, their current
place of work, and their title. I reviewed this information with the volunteer during the interview.
I began each interview with a review of the information sheet. After asking if the
participant had questions and answering those questions, I reviewed information about the study.
I performed the interview protocol without incident. Next, I asked the participant for permission
to record the interview for transcription purposes only. Each subject agreed to be registered.
Then I began the recorded discussion. As I listened to the participants' responses, I decided
which question to ask next and tried to understand if the respondent answered more than one
question in their reply. This technique helped me gather as much information as necessary and
understand the experience they described.
Instrumentation
I was the interviewer and was the instrument to question each participant. Data were
collected electronically via a one–on–one interview between me, the interviewer, and the
participant, using the video software, Zoom. After downloading the transcription in Microsoft
Word, I added notes about the participant and the organization of the discussion. Next, I used
Microsoft Word to create a table describing the themes from the interviews and quotes
supporting the themes. Finally, I used Microsoft Excel to register a log of participants, their
interview times, and demographic information.
Data Collection Procedures
All interviews were informal open and closed-ended questions, delivered
conversationally. The discussions were between thirty minutes and an hour and fifteen minutes. I
leveraged Zoom to record all interviews, and the transcription from Zoom yielded the data. I read
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all transcriptions while listening to the discussion. Once the transcription was accurate, I deleted
the video interview. I had field notes from the LinkedIn profiles and organization websites. My
notes also included questions I asked the participants about the company and themself. These
notes were transferred from my notebook to the participant's Word document interview to
organize the data and maintain differentiation between the subjects' interviews. My notes
included the participant's demographic information and information about their organization.
Data Analysis
I read the responses several times to gather themes among reactions. Afterward, I coded
the interviews, dissecting them into groups using thematic phenomenological analysis. Using
Excel, I segregated participants, changing their names to reflect a pseudonym. Next, I added the
responses from participants based on the first set of themes uncovered. I used top-level column
headings to record the theme, then added sub-level themes in secondary column headings. Next,
I reviewed the sublevel themes to create a relation between the responses. For example, I
counted how many answers used the same or similar word in response to a question. I did this to
make meaning from correlated responses. Next, I created a codebook that organized interview
questions into the theme. Then I reviewed the data and supporting quotes to develop subthemes.
This approach is based on descriptive phenomenology, taking the original data to identify
meaning, then organizing the data into resulting themes (Sundler et al., 2019). I then reviewed
the transcripts of all participants, looking for similar statements in their responses. Finally, I
checked the findings to develop answers to my research questions.
Table 1
Themes Related to Research Questions

Motivation to
change
Transformational
factors
Transactional
factors
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RQ1: What factors caused organizational leaders to
address diversity through initiatives?
X

RQ2: What is the leadership involvement with
diversity initiatives?

X X
RQ3: How do diversity initiatives and positions
impact the organization's culture?

X

Research Setting
The recorded interviews were conducted virtually via Zoom. Using Zoom allowed the
flexibility for various participants across multiple states to participate in the study.
Participants
The research participants were in diversity and inclusion roles and were responsible for
organizational diversity initiatives. I used purposeful sampling because my criteria defined
specific roles with specific responsibilities. While the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2022)
described over fifty titles relating to diversity initiatives, there are well over 500,000 individuals
employed across the multitude of titles in the U.S. The goal was to study diversity initiatives and
roles impacting organizations. Therefore, gaining knowledge and understanding from individuals
in those roles helped bring in their perspectives.
I interviewed 15 participants: ten women and five men. There was no regard for age,
gender, sexual orientation, country of origin, race, or religious affiliation. I asked participants to
identify their ethnicity or race. Of the women, five identified as Black American, two as White
American, two as Latinx, and one as White and Latinx. The males were proportioned, one Asian
American, two Black Americans, one White American, and one Black and Latinx American. In
another study, by Nixon (2016), researchers aimed to proportion the position of the Chief
Diversity Officer (CDO) role. However, no known studies present the demographics of the
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various diversity, equity, and inclusion positions. The following table summarizes the
demographic proportion of diversity employees from this study.
Table 2
Subjects' Demographics
Research Study Subjects (%)
Race/ethnicity
White 27
Black 47
Asian American 7
Native American 0
Hispanic/Latinx 7
Other (Two or more) 13
Gender
Female 67
Male 33

The participants were categorized into three categories for their titles, Manager, Director,
or CDO. Leadership roles such as CDO and Vice President shared the same responsibilities as
the CDO position; therefore, I categorized them with the same title. I also organized the industry
based on the description used by the participants. Finally, I labeled the role's position, industry,
and tenure in the table below. The term is essential to note because it gives meaning to the events
happening concerning senior leadership decisions.
The subjects became participants because they allocated time for the study and agreed to
interview. These 15 participants are represented in Table 3 as volunteers that met the criteria. I
closed the request for participants after 15 volunteers responded because I had enough data to
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develop themes. I understood I had enough data because participant responses were similar after
the first six participants regardless of their demographic or industry.
The Researcher
I am an outsider to the decision-making and role of those responsible for diversity
initiatives. I am a Black female employed at a Fortune 500 company. I have championed
diversity initiatives in a grassroots role. I serve on the leadership team of an employee resource
group (ERG). The positive and negative events relating to diversity, equity, and inclusion from
either the organization or its residing town are discussed regularly in the group, often with efforts
to solve problematic areas.
The goal of diversity, equity, inclusion, and belonging is equity. For an organization to
achieve equity internally and then impact society, there must be an intentional focus on
problematic areas to make a meaningful change. I have been frustrated with the current state of
continuing social injustices for all social groups. I also assumed that diversity initiatives and
supporting roles aim to create equity among the organization's workers, suppliers, and customer
stakeholders.
Credibility and Reliability
Credibility is how the investigator uses the evidence to support the interpretation and
mitigate biases. The most prominent threat to this research project is bias because I am working
indirectly with diversity initiatives professionally, and I am a stakeholder affected by the problem
of equity.
I mitigated research bias by employing research strategies, including protocols to develop
interview boundaries. I also used a data analysis thematic approach to ensure that data
represented the respondent's experience. I built the research concepts without a hypothesis. I let
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the data speak and read interview responses after the interviews to look for similarities among
the answers. I documented reflections I had before and after the research. In the document, I
included the behaviors of the subjects. For example, all participants were passionate about the
subject. However, I noted participants who supported their experience with data and spoke in "I"
statements versus those that described experiences in general terms and future tense. I then
compared the data of the first group with the second to develop an understanding of experience
versus supposition.
I read the data multiple times to decide before deciding to keep or remove any interviews
from the research. I concluded that all the discussions were valuable because some respondents
gave more profound meaning to the described phenomena. For example, more than one
participant gave a broad perspective on how all stakeholders should view the CDO role. There
was frustration, missed opportunities, and an explanation about different stakeholders'
expectations in the response. When I reflected on the question I asked concerning the reply, I
realized the respondent did not answer the question but gave perspective about their experience. I
did not use these responses that did not answer the question. Still, I developed meaningful
perceptions of the organization's climate regarding organizational change efforts. Using a
thoughtful reflective practice and comparing respondents' responses helped me to provide
validity to the research.
Summary
The research method was designed to gather the subjects' experiences from the DEI
professional lens. Their experience will provide data about the decisions of senior leaders and
reveal the impact of diversity initiatives. The next chapter shows the results of the investigation.

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Chapter Four: Results
This chapter reports the results of my research study to understand what factors caused
senior leaders of organizations to focus on diversity and the impact of diversity initiatives. First,
the report of these factors is in themes that drive organizational leaders to initiate a focus on
diversity initiatives. The study identified the following subthemes: the murder of George Floyd,
social pressure, globalization, and moral imperative. The data exhibits a positive association
between the organization's focus on diversity initiatives and these themes. Second, this report
describes how diversity initiatives have impacted organizational culture. There is a positive
association between senior leaders' transformational actions and the initiation of cultural change.
These themes are strategy, structure, and communication. Finally, I discuss how these
transformational actions lead supporting staff to build processes that impact the organizational
culture.
As discussed in Chapter Two, senior leaders pledged financial resources to develop
equity in the summer of 2020 after the murder of George Floyd. Because of their public pledges,
I sought to understand the impact of changes related to diversity initiatives on organizational
culture. The themes reflect the collective experiences of these respondents, who are responsible
for diversity initiatives initiated or redefined after the murder of George Floyd. The participants
revealed that they are responsible for diversity initiatives within any function and at any level,
which is a criterion for participation.
The Participant Group
The 15 participants represented various DEI positions. Table three describes the
respondent's function, industry, and tenure in their current role as diversity practitioners.
Understanding their positionality is vital to make sense of the results.
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Table 3
Participant Group Function
Participant* Type of
Position
Industry Tenure in current position
(months)
Olivia CDO Academia 60
Fatima CDO Academia 18
Erika Director Academia 17
Perla Director Consulting, Marketing, and
Management
13
Lana Director Consulting, Marketing, and
Management
0
David Manager Consulting, Marketing, and
Management
5
Leo Manager Entertainment 8
Frank CDO Finance 15
Quinn CDO Government 14
Dakota Manager Non-profit 5
Sierra Director Non-profit 2
Nate Manager Tech 11
Camryn Manager Tech 9
Omar Manager Tech 9
Malia Director Tech 7
*Pseudonyms are randomly assigned names. The names are based on the gender identity of the participant.
As represented in Table three, there are four CDOs. These are senior leaders within the
DEI group and are typically senior leaders in the organization, reporting directly to another C-
Suite executive (or comparable title for academia). These CDO participants are responsible for
directing diversity initiatives and supporting staff activities. They are also accountable for
achieving results, including defining the strategy and strategic alignment, budget and resources,
communication, and structure of their function. Because of their position, these four respondents
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had a unique perspective than the other participants. As the senior leader, it is their role to define
the strategy and strategic alignment, budget and resources, communication, and structure for
diversity initiatives. If they have one, they also direct the staff to manage the programs and
projects that support diversity initiatives. For example, Fatima described their academic
institution's responsibilities and reporting structures.
I report to the President, and reporting to me is an assistant vice president and an
executive assistant. In addition, I am a member of what most schools will call a
cabinet for the President's Cabinet and a strategic liaison with our Vice President
for student affairs with our Board of Regents.
This quote illustrates their position in the academic industry. From the description, the
participants describe themself as part of the senior leadership group, reporting directly to the
organization's top position and participating in activities with its leaders. However, Olivia, who
is also a CDO in an academic institution, explained in this way:
It is driving and creating our diversity, equity, and inclusion strategies, as well
as making sure that we're compliant with various aspects of the law and that I
have a pretty good sense of where students, faculty, and staff are with their
belonging on campus. And then the connection to the community as well.
This CDO explicitly defined the diversity initiatives' strategic direction and focus. As
exemplified above, the quote reveals that these roles directly affect diversity initiatives' design,
impact, and effectiveness. In addition, this group is from the senior leadership group in the
organization, and they engage in transformational decision-making.
The second is the managerial group, who are directors and managers. This second group
primarily supports the senior leadership strategy through tactical actions and responsibilities. For
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example, one director, Malia, who is in the tech industry, characterized strategic responsibilities
by stating:
I spent six of my seven months researching, studying, analyzing, and creating a
complete, designed, from-scratch, maturity model to inform the next three to five
years of our journey here at this company. I've made that to tell the journey and
reset our strategy and strategic pillar.... I've realigned us to pillars of diversity,
equity, and inclusion in our industry. Then under equity, of course, I started to
lay out the equitable practices in how we monitor data to keep an eye on where
there are perhaps inequities. I'm resetting the strategy and shifting our focus into
particular diversity, equity, and inclusion; these are key focus areas under each of
those pillars.
The information demonstrates that Malia is focusing the organization on strategy, although she
holds a director title. However, strategy is not singularly a responsibility of the CDO, and there is
variance among the titles.
Eleven participants hold director and manager titles, including Malia, a director in the
tech industry. Included in the responsibilities of the DEI role are defining and managing metrics
to shape priorities, supporting employee resource groups, and creating knowledge-sharing d
resources. Participants revealed that their duties were more tactical and aligned with
transactional methods that can impact organizational culture. For example, Leo explained his
responsibilities this way:
I manage all the DEI activities at the organization and in our international
function. And so, what that consists of, I break it down into two things. One of
them is providing the subject matter expertise, cultural competencies, and
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strategic management of our employee resource groups across the departments,
which is one-half of it. The second encompasses many other things, such as
conferences and bringing in speakers on diversity and things of that nature. So
that's really what that role was about.
This respondent's responsibility is to manage the activities defined by the strategy. Again, this
participant's sentiments about his responsibilities differ from the CDO's but are valuable to the
strategy's implementation and impact.
Perla, who works in the consulting industry, defines similar responsibilities and adds to
Leo's description with additional responsibilities. These duties indicate that tracking metrics and
utilizing skills to build knowledge can add value to the organizational culture. Here she
describes:
My core responsibilities are supporting our employee resource groups (ERGs)…
I am also responsible for administering our employees' Pulse Survey, which is
now monthly, generating reports based on ERG activities, internal demographics,
and employee survey results. I built our diversity, equity, inclusion, and
SharePoint page. That's a way to inform the organization about our initiatives,
events, and learning opportunities. We use an e-learning catalog from a company
added to my responsibility…. So sometimes, I counsel a leader on how to handle
difficult situations. Sometimes I consult on a client project where they want an
intensive DEI lens on consumer insights. Sometimes I am doing completely
unrelated things just as needed.
Leo’s response reveals that workers in DEI positions wear multiple hats. Another
participant in the financial industry, Frank, used the same term to explain how the many
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activities of these positions are evolving and managed by practitioners. These comments align
with Perla’s comments and describe multiple duties within the role.
There was a variety of industries represented in the study: four companies were in the
technology (tech) industry; three four-year institutions represented academia; three organizations
were marketing and management consulting firms; three were consulting in the clothing-retail
and beauty-retail industries; two non-profit companies; one company represented the
government; and one financial sector. Three Fortune 500 companies were in the group, each
from a different industry: tech, entertainment, and finance. The number of employees in these
Fortune 500 companies ranged from 100 to 1.5 million.
Factors for Initiating Cultural Change
The results indicate a positive association with four factors that initiated a senior
leadership focus on organizational diversity initiatives. These are George Floyd's murder, social
pressure, globalization, and senior leadership's internal motivation. Although four factors
indicate positive relations, The participant described that one factor, George Floyd's murder, may
have triggered the other four by creating a sense of urgency. The four factors showed that senior
leaders cared about inequity and racial injustice after the George Floyd murder. First, however, I
will explain how social pressure or globalization may have been the initial factor leading toward
organizational change and that the murder of George Floyd may have been the trigger causing
senior leaders to act.
The Significance of George Floyd's Murder
The murder of George Floyd (Bowman, 2021; Hernandez, 2021) and the video post of
the event were significant worldwide and affected the workforce. Participants indicated that
George Floyd's murder directly affected nine companies in this study's decision to initiate
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diversity as a focus. The associations with George Floyd's murder were represented in the data
when the participant identified George Floyd's murder as the reason for adding diversity
initiatives or changing initiatives that were already in place for their organization. To uncover the
cause for the focus on diversity initiatives, I asked, "in your opinion, why do you believe your
organization's leaders are focused on diversity initiatives?" Respondents described a new focus,
which included hiring staff members, and changes to the initial approach. For example, Leo
explained that diversity initiatives were already part of the organization's culture. However, after
the murder of George Floyd, organizational leaders changed the focus of diversity initiatives.
I don't know the complete history of why there was that differentiation… prior to
the pandemic before the murder of George Floyd, social responsibility was
managed in the function of experience and products. They [diversity initiatives]
were more business focused on what these businesses can bring to the
organization. [The event] forced us to follow suit regarding how they [leaders] care
about diversity or what we [workforce] should care about it as well.
Leo's comments suggest a positive association with George Floyd's murder because the event
sparked a change in the strategy of this company. For example, the diversity strategy before the
murder focused on department customer relations. However, organizational leaders changed their
approach after the event, making diversity initiatives a company responsibility beyond a
segregated part of products and experience, which is a functional department.
Participants also depicted the murder of George Floyd as pivotal to creating unified
thoughts about societal inequities and how they overlap with organizational culture. Because of
the event, organizations defined strategy, part of the changes to focus on diversity initiatives. The
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design brought about awareness through tactical actions and helped others in the organization
care about the change. Here is an example:
The division was formed in July 2019. So, it was right ahead of significant shifts
in our country. And so the murder of George Floyd, … got the ear and attention of
folks who may not have taken it seriously the year prior, and we've been able to
hold the attention of many to understand why it's vital for them to be engaged in
the professional development, the training, the workshops, the programs, and
events.
Oliva, a CDO in the academic field and the only participant in the position before the murder of
George Floyd explains that the event got the attention of people who may not care about
diversity, equity, and inclusion in the organization. This statement aligns with data from Leo,
who described "how we care about" diversity. Similarly, Omar, who works in a Fortune 500
tech company, expressed the change in tangible actions of their organization's strategy with this
statement:
So, in two thousand and twenty, after the murder of George Floyd, many tech
companies made commitments to remove racial language from their code. Six
words that come to the surface for the most pervasiveness and in tech code, in
tech language, are black days, white days, blackness, whitelists, and master-slave.
Now, we're following the tech industry here. The implications are that specifically
around black days, white days, black, blacklist, whitelist is that there is a negative
connotation with Black people and a positive connotation with White people
because white is the allowed list. Black is the denial list. (Emphasis added.)
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The data supports research from Fosch-Villaronga and Poulsen (2022), showing that artificial
intelligence is a factor in discrimination, using key terms to discriminate against Black
individuals and promote White individuals. Because the respondent continued by adding that
"now" the company is following the industry standard, and the respondent indicated that these
changes happened after the murder of George Floyd. This company began to care enough to
change these discrimination codes in technical language after George Floyd's murder. The
example aligns with the first two examples of data because the murder of George Floyd sparked
the organization to care and take action by changing its code.
George Floyd's murder is significant in our society's historical account of business
decision-making and the advancement of equity. The horrific murder made people care about
and pay attention to our society's racial inequities. It made businesses care about injustice and
sparked them to change their behaviors. This evidence supports research by Bonaparte (2020),
whose study illustrates how companies responded to the horrific moment when a man was
murdered on the street by the police. The response was to act, and the reason is that they cared.
Social Pressure
The murder of George Floyd also sparked social pressure on companies to act. In two
instances, participants characterized social pressures on the company to take action and change
after the murder of George Floyd. The participants explained internal and external social
pressure. For example, David explains the internal demands in the following instance:
Our ERGs were established before I joined the organization, resulting from all things
happening during 2020. Specifically, the murder of George Floyd within the company's
employee ranks. You know, folks were asking questions like, why don't we have ERGs?
How can we stand them up? … The main business goal is that they're trying to create a
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representation of women and people of color. In 2023 we will add our veterans and
people with disabilities.
David, from the Consulting, Marketing, and Management industry, began working at the
organization five months before this research interview. He identified the action as one of several
actions that had already occurred before his employment, yet, he noted that the murder of George
Floyd sparked the change. The statement shows that employee pressure is as powerful in
developing a reason for leaders to care and act. However, another respondent, Frank, in the
financial industry, discusses how their organization regularly manages external pressures from
stakeholder groups and why diversity initiatives matter to leaders.
Understanding the business case and having diverse thought, leadership, and
backgrounds is that they thrive in innovation, and we see that internally.
Externally we have a call to action from our Board of Directors and our investor
relations, who are looking at diversity as part of those dialogues and discussions
with investors, board members, and other various stakeholders. We must
understand that diversity is equally important to them, and we have to make
changes internally to meet their demands.
This statement relates to the reason senior leaders care and act. The respondent shows that the
board and investor beliefs and values shape the basis for leaders to make decisions. This tension
produced a reason to care about diversity initiatives. In this statement, Frank pointed out that
diversity brings innovation. Response from Leo also referred to opportunities to enhance
products and services through staff diversity. This research supports investors' understanding of
organizational opportunities when the company encompasses DEI strategies into its overall
organizational goals. They add pressure on the leaders to utilize diversity initiatives.
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In the above examples, David and Frank illustrate that internal social pressure moved
leaders to answer workers' and stakeholders' requests to initiate diversity programs. However,
Perla relates social anxiety to the company's actions in this example. She tells us that, possibly,
the leaders are responding to how they are perceived.
If I can be totally honest, I think it's because of social pressure. I think they feel
like a company of this size [2000 people] has to have a DEI function. Yet, they
have not internalized it, meaning they have not addressed why it's essential to
their success or what they want us to do. I think they want to have a DEI team,
so they can say they have a DEI team.
Perception can be a tension created by social pressure, and it can serve as a reason to act but not
to care. Perla later explains that the CDO left the position because the leaders underused her
ability to design a DEI vision and strategy. In another reply, she explains that goals were not
approved, and the action hindered a budget proposal from passing leadership approval. The new
budget would champion the work in diversity initiatives. Perla's information supports that
motivation from social pressure may negatively affect an organization's diversity initiative focus.
Senior Leadership Internal Motivation
Participants also expressed the moral imperative of their senior leadership to act. In three
instances, participant responses illustrated that the leadership team or, specifically, the CEO
progressed diversity initiatives to develop a hiring strategy and created a structure to support the
initiatives. For example, Fatima relates events at this university:
At this school, the inaugural role was announced that they were going to be
recruiting for this role in January of 2020, prior to George Floyd, prior to those
things, because this institution had gotten a new President in 2019, and this is
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one of his inaugural themes from 2019. Pre Covid a theme was belonging. This
organization created the position of Vice President for Community Belonging
and Chief Diversity Officer, which is the role that involves all the human
variation belonging and considers all of the things that you would consider
typical in DEI.
Fatima, a CDO in the academic sector, depicts that structure and a shared language are
fundamental elements to begin to focus on diversity initiatives. In this organization, the
President, who was new to the role, developed language first by describing belonging as a
critical focus and term used to define the office focused on diversity initiatives. This leader also
expressed belonging as a strategic direction in creating an office that uses belonging as the
descriptor. It is clear from the leader's actions that their motivation includes creating a sense of
belonging for their stakeholders. However, data front the participants do not support why this
was a key factor for that leader. Second, they began to form a structure by hiring individuals to
fill the role and continue to build the strategy. This second action demonstrated that these
changes were a priority for the leader to develop support for the position. In a later discussion, I
will discuss strategic support for diversity initiatives using this organization as an example.
Globalization
Another positive association between diversity initiatives and organizational focus on
diversity initiatives is globalization, which the data indirectly represents. Globalization refers to
the changing customer dynamics making it more diverse when an organization has customers
worldwide. Therefore, companies that sell products and services must relate to and communicate
with people from different countries. As a result, these companies began changing their
recruitment processes, creating a strategy, and expressing their affinity publicly to associate
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better with the global community. These actions showed how globalization is impacting their
market. Leo's comments exemplified the impact of globalization on the decision to focus on
diversity initiatives with this statement.
There are two key reasons why they're focused on it [diversity initiatives]. One is
the business reasoning for DEI. They recognize that given that our product is for
people from all over the world to come and view our products and services, [our
leaders realize] the more diverse and the more intentionality we have on how we
offer that product, and whom we're catering to, [it] just makes the business
better. But I also think there's a moral imperative to the DEI work, that it is the
right thing to do. It is what this is, what makes sense, and it outlines those core
values of the company to have a very intentional lens on making sure that DEI
has a strategy. It's not just somebody in a role, but there is actually something
that we're trying to achieve through all the work.
Leo demonstrates two reasons for the company to focus on diversity initiatives. Still, I want to
concentrate on how globalization and moral imperative tie together. Organizational leaders may
understand that equity from diversity initiatives is the right thing to do or invest in. Still, there
must be another reason beyond morality that resonates monetarily. Selling products in a
globalized market is the reason that will push senior leaders to trigger diversity initiatives
because leaders identify with the need to produce and make a profit. Doing the right thing and
spending money by adding resources, which drives up costs without profit, is not appealing.
Debates about the moral imperative of social responsibility have continued since the initiation of
the Friedman doctrine (1970). The Friedman doctrine promoted executive leaders' commitment
to shareholders to drive profits. Merrick (2021) debates the relevance of this theory because of
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the development of irresponsible behavior in businesses from all sectors, discussed in chapter
two. However, the information presented by Leo illustrated that tensions in this area are still a
topic of discussion and remain an area of polarity.
Other respondents relay the changes in hiring practices and recruitment to address
globalization. These responses indicate that organizations are recruiting to diversify the
workforce, enhancing their ability to communicate and meet customers' needs globally.
However, diversifying the workforce is not a positive correlation with globalization. It indicates
that the staff is possibly more homogeneous than beneficial to the organization. For example,
Camryn describes that employee changes primarily drive organizational change.
I think we have seen a good amount of traction in increasing the representation
of certain types of URMS (underrepresented minorities) who have joined the
team. I think that we've made a good amount of traction on the diversity side. I
think our leadership team and our managers, like everybody, are very open and
eager about this topic. We've hired a few women engineers … we have learned
that internal referrals can hinder diversifying the workforce. The employees are
not incentivized anymore, but a big part of that is because we have a team that is
sixty to seventy [percent] White men. They're all making referrals, and we
realized that's going to increase that representation across the board. It might
limit the diversity, so that's something that we did early on that I think also had a
pretty good impact.
Camryn describes how the organization changed to create a more diverse environment. Some
critical decisions and strategies changed in the organization to support building a diversified
climate, such as removing the incentive for the referral program from the homogenous staff. She
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also discusses "getting ahead of it" to define the focus of some organizational changes and their
intent to address issues of concern before problems arise, such as not meeting the needs of their
entire customer base. Their efforts indicate that they are trying to diversify their workforce to
meet the globalized needs of the company.
Lastly, Camryn conveys why she believes company leaders are investing in diversity
initiatives to promote innovation of products and to relate to the requests of various customers.
We've decided to invest in it (1) to ensure that we are considering all perspectives.
But then it's also (2) about how we are creating this product for different types of
users and customers. So, it's making sure that as we're creating a product, we're
also thinking about the end user, such as how they're going to perceive or going to
utilize the tool because all those personas come from different backgrounds.
It is clear from Camryn’s response that diversity initiatives are part of a strategy to meet
globalized markets and relate to customers. She indicates that a reason to care about diversity
initiatives is meeting the differences in people's backgrounds with products and services. The
value is positive perception.
There are positive associations between an emphasis on diversity initiatives and
leadership focus because of George Floyd's murder, social pressure, internal motivation, and
globalization. Data informs that organizational leaders have changed because of these
phenomena. Making sense of the data, I spoke about the phenomena explaining how these events
drove the transformational actions of the leaders to happen. Inequity has existed for a long time
in the United States, as represented in chapter two. However, after the triggering events,
according to these participants, the executive team found motivations to care enough to act.
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Leadership Impact on Organizational Change
The leadership has many actions described by Burke-Litwin (1992) that impact
transformation. These transformational factors were positively associated with the roles of senior
leaders’ actions to impact organizational change. They build structures to support diversity
initiatives, develop a DEI strategy, and manage communication. These are practical efforts that
form the corporate strategy.
Strategy Formation
Participants were asked to explain several business areas to examine the elements and
depth of senior leadership involvement. These elements of leadership involvement include
strategy, resource allocation, communication, and the DEI reporting structure to senior leaders.
Twelve participants' responses clarified senior leadership's involvement with diversity initiatives
by aligning their actions with forming organizational strategy, objectives, and values.
In this section, I report how leaders support the decision to focus on diversity with the
formation of strategy. Each organization is different and builds its focus from various building
blocks. Participants revealed three common themes for diversity initiatives. First, is the reporting
structure that defines the management and communication structure of the department. I will
describe the importance of structure. Second, the senior functional roles in the department
require a design to set goals, define a common language, and construct a DEI strategy. Twelve
participants expressed the DEI strategy aligning with organizational values and approach. Lastly,
I describe the importance of communication with stakeholders inside and outside the
organization. I will discuss how these are positively associated with organizational strategy
formation.
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Structure
Participants depicted how the structure affects the strategic direction of diversity
initiatives. Participants' responses clarified various forms of structure design and their benefits
and weaknesses. Some reveal that the lack of structure hinders progress, and others show a
positive alignment between structure and strategy. However, from the information, I noted that
diversity practitioners report higher opportunities and the ability to impact the culture when the
structure design and strategy are aligned. Fatima illustrates the importance of strategic alignment
with structure and how they work together.
One of the best organizational design practices is to have strategy guide many of
the processes and have the structure mimic that. So, that first bullet (in our
strategy) basically says that we have changed the structure [design] to have this
new role here and must resource and empower it to do the work it needs.
Example (Pepperdine, 2021):
Enhance diversity and deepen the sense of belonging.
• Fully integrate, resource, and empower the vice president for community
belonging position as part of the University's senior leadership.
• Continue to enhance the diversity of the University Board administration, faculty,
staff, and student body.
• Review the curriculum and co-curriculum and implement appropriate changes to
increase diverse perspectives and enhance student belonging.
• Develop dynamic, distinctive, and effective educational resources for
administration, faculty, staff, and students on issues of cultural competence and
cultural sensitivity.
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• Explore creating a center for belonging.
Fatima described the importance of structuring a department aligned with strategy by using her
position as an example. These bulleted points are from the institution's strategy that
communicates to all stakeholders the purpose of the office. It also empowers the office to act
under its administrative duties. Lastly, it defines the purpose of the office in alignment with
strategic goals that are part of complete communication. Finally, it is an example of how senior
leaders align strategy and structure, ensuring the success of initiatives.
In another example, Perla describes how misalignment with structure can harm advancing
diversity initiatives.
Originally our DEI lead reported to our head of human resources. I think the
reporting undermined her effectiveness because we're such a small team. We
really need the resources of the people team, and we need DEI practices to be
integrated into hiring, promotions, performance reviews, and into benefits. For
all the functions that the people team owns, we need [to add] DEI practices. But
since we are a separate department, we don't get a seat at the table when they're
setting those policies. I believe embedding us in the people team might help our
effectiveness.
The example characterization of the organization's structure illustrates how structure can
improve cultural competence and sensitivity issues. Earlier, Perla stated that she did not feel the
organizational leaders understood why diversity initiatives are meaningful for their organization.
Here, she supports the theory by illuminating the lack of structure and the effect on their
effectiveness. Although, the organization had a CDO (described in the quote as the DEI lead)
who left the organization because the CDO was not empowered to make changes and decisions
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about diversity initiatives. In this data, Perla's description shows how the lack of structure
aligned with the strategy negatively impacts the organization, specifically relating to the needs of
employees.
DEI Employees
Within the structure are the DEI employees, who are responsible for diversity initiatives.
There is a positive relationship between the creation of these roles and diversity initiatives’
impact on the organization. Participants spoke of their duties and ambitions to make
organizational and societal impacts with zealous expressions for change. Their description of the
subject of DEI and the ability to motivate change in workers' hearts showed their commitment to
the work of DEI as a mission beyond work responsibilities. Their role can be an extension of
human resources that is a people-oriented resource to the organization. Malia, in the tech
industry, exemplified their experience by saying,
I do this work because every human in this company is going to come to learn
something new [about DEI] and grow in a way that they wouldn't have [without
the learning and development]. So, the impact of DEI is not just on the business
in the company, but it's on the people. Meaning as we bring greater diversity to
the team, someone is now exposed to a new person that maybe they wouldn't
have been exposed to in a different way. …I constantly teach and educate and try
to raise awareness on different [DEI] topics… and it affects their heart, and it
changes their mind…. So, the people are actually also changed.
This quote exemplifies the passionate endeavors of the sample interviewed for the research
study. It demonstrates the ambition of leaders working in diversity positions and their desire to
deliver results. Their aspirations are not regulated within the organization's walls but aim to
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impact society. The many ways these employees affect organizational culture and the types of
strategies they employ are part of the results discussed later in this section.
However, while the research revealed the characteristics of DEI employees and their
value to the organization, two respondents pointed out that they are limited when senior leaders
place boundaries on staff resources. Therefore, results may be limited if the structure does not
support enough staff to manage the workload. Perla provides an example of her experience in
this way.
I think we have not had tangible results, what we're seeing indicates we're
moving in the wrong direction, and candidly, we don't have the resources to
reach across the organization at the scale that we would need to do so. We're a 2-
person team for a 2,000-person organization, and our employees are held
accountable for their billable hours more than anything, so their performance is
based on their ratio of billable hours to admin hours, and anything they do for
our [diversity] initiatives count as admin time, so it counts against their
performance review. … Some of them are willing to set aside that performance
pressure to do that… that should not be a choice between your performance
rating and engaging in DEI, that is, if the organization is really committed to this
work.
Therefore, a barrier to results can exist in the organization's structure. As depicted here, there is
not only a barrier because of the lack of available resources, but the organization's design does
not incentivize the workforce to participate in DEI activities. There is potential penalization for
participation, as the respondent represented.
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DEI Strategy
The DEI strategy is specific to the focus that will lead to the actions of practitioners. Each
organization has its own DEI strategies addressing its challenges and opportunities. Therefore,
there is not a one–size–fits–all DEI strategy that will meet the needs of all organizations.
However, DEI strategy is positively associated with an impact on the organizational culture.
Within the strategy are resources, objectives, and systems. Nine participants (tech, consulting,
and government) depicted resource allocation in their organization. Dakota, a participant from
the non-profit sector, spoke about having enough resources but no buy-in from leadership, while
the other reported buy-in from administration and aligned resource allocation. Only one
participant noted that leadership could have easily defined goals and that the budget was also
scarcely defined by leadership. Therefore the budget was not aligned with the strategy. However,
all participants indirectly spoke about allocated systems to build learning and development, share
knowledge, and use it as a communication resource. Malia characterized building strategy in the
following statements.
I've realigned us to pillars of diversity, equity, and inclusion in our industry.
Within diversity, the first thing we have to do is actually know what
demographics we want to measure. What can we measure, and what do we care
about? Then under equity, I started to lay out the equitable practices in how we
monitor data to keep an eye on where there are inequities…
Malia shows that developing strategic direction must thoroughly understand the organization's
needs to be effective. The strategy demonstrated by this data includes allocation elements and a
vision of the type of impact desired for the company.
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Communication
Ten of the 15 respondents positively associated communication with senior leadership
involvement. Communication from senior leaders informs stakeholders about the organization's
values and strategic direction. The participants conveyed that the leaders' communication is
essential to gathering support and leading diversity programs and projects. Communication of
support for diversity initiatives is an integral part of bringing cultural change. These
organizations are communicating support in several ways. For example, Malia describes that this
is one area where she feels the leaders excel because the leader's communication fuels all actions,
even hers.
Well, here is one thing I think they do really well… Even if they don't quite
know how to articulate it, (they communicate) our reason for having diversity
initiatives. For example, [their] belief that it's the right thing to do… fuels my
fire and at least keeps me going. I believe they believe our reason for the focus.
Studies support the actions of leaders leading the way by speaking about the reason for the
change is valuable to organizational change (Belasen & Belasen, 2018; Cloutier et al., 2015;
Douglas & Little, 2017; Schein, 2017). Douglas and Little (2017) stress the importance of
communication when discussing diversity initiatives to create a shared responsibility. Sierra
indirectly illustrates how their non-profit communicates the importance of diversity initiatives by
involving the leadership team in training to lead change.
We’re having the senior leadership team go through the training first, so we pilot
it with them. Therefore, they are setting an example for the rest of the
organization. There are spaces where the user can provide insights and reactions,
and reflections on content. … Users can see their comments [when they go
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through the training]. Therefore, the workforce can see the leader's insights and
reactions. … that was another way that we wanted to really have them lead by
example to communicate to the staff the importance of this training and the
knowledge.
There is a positive correlation between communication and the impact of diversity initiatives
because leadership speaking about diversity initiatives develops cultural value for these
initiatives. Frank stated, "One thing that makes my job easier is that my senior leaders talk
inclusion and equity in almost everything they do." In short, communication regarding leadership
plays a vital role in the expressed values of the organization. When senior leaders speak about
diversity initiatives and their importance, the data demonstrate various forms of top-down and
bottom-up communication. These communications are helping these organizations to improve
the overall culture and uncover issues related to equity. A great example of this type of
communication is in the data from the finance, and non-profit industries, respectively.
Frank demonstrated that various levels of leadership are responsible for communication. The
meeting description discloses the advantages of these conversations to highlight challenges in the
organization.
I'm in these inclusion review panels with the organization's senior leaders and
VPs that report to the executive leadership team. These meetings hold
conversations that challenge how people move within that particular organization
and who gets promoted again and again. We challenge the mix between their
male and female workforce—the people of color versus, not people of color. And
then, more importantly, we get granular as to what people of color are meeting
objectively.
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In both quotes, Frank highlights how senior leaders interact with the workforce and disseminate the flow
of information and how it can help the groups reciprocate information. In this way, these conversations
create shared responsibility and a form of accountability between levels of responsibility. In the
following example, Sierra describes a similar scenario of bringing together groups with different
responsibilities in the organization. These meetings and conversations create shared accountability and
communicate that the executive team is part of the change.
We have a DEI Council comprising our senior leadership team, their direct
reports, and the leads of all of our employee resource groups that meet
quarterly. The meeting is intended for them to interact with each other and be
able to give feedback, updates, and lessons learned.
Communication flow is necessary to build value and understand the ongoing challenges in the
organization. This section illustrates that senior leadership must assemble a two-way communication
first to define the values and direction of the organization. This type of communication aligns with the
data from the first two themes in this section, which displays a positive correlation between leadership's
active role in constructing a diversity plan. There is also a positive relationship between the
effectiveness of diversity initiatives and leadership involvement when there is reciprocating
communication to address challenges.
Impact and Implementation of Strategy
Diversity initiatives and their supporting positions significantly impact the organization's
culture, showing a positive association between diversity positions and the impact on
organizational culture. The data demonstrate that organizations become more inclusive and
generate shared understanding and knowledge across diverse cultures by introducing diversity
initiatives and supporting them with hired positions. This section clarifies the tactical actions
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practitioners use to impact the organization, and these actions are used further in Chapter five to
illustrate recommendations.
Several questions addressed their responsibilities to establish the participant's
involvement with diversity initiatives. Data showed that workers having DEI responsibilities
have several functions of diversity responsibilities. Participants communicated that diversity
initiatives and supporting positions impact the organizational culture by the following:
1. Improving hiring practices.
2. Increasing cultural confidence.
3. Creating a shared understanding and knowledge.
4. Building relationships between different groups of people with other thoughts,
ideas, attitudes, and identities.
5. Improving outcomes with employee experience by empowering and supporting
employees must provide them with equity and inclusive opportunities.
6. Utilize employee conversations to make sense of events happening in the
environment.
These impacts result from specific strategies developed from listening tours, conversations
between employees and senior leadership, and setting up and supporting ERGs. For example,
Franks explains the value of these strategies.
To make a change in the organization, you have to understand your employee's
experience and what their needs are. You must have open listening channels to
utterly understand what's top of mind for your employees by population. These
conversations will help you understand if your efforts and actions need to be
aligned. These conversations will tell you if managers at the lowest levels and
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leaders of people know how to create an inclusive environment. And if they
develop psychologically safe spaces, people can bring their authentic
personalities to work and perform well. More importantly, you want to know if
they're encouraged and feel empowered to contribute.
This quote describes what leaders should do to embed an inclusive culture and why it is
essential. The section summarizes that the most crucial development in the strategy is
empowering the workforce to speak up, which requires creating space and having staff listen.
The value of these activities is that the personnel becomes more engaged and delivers better
performance results.
Discussion
The research results exposed several vital factors about organizations. These findings, as
described above, were generated from these research questions:
1. What factors caused organizational leaders to address diversity through initiatives?
2. What is leadership’s involvement with diversity initiatives?
3. How do diversity initiatives and positions impact the organization's culture?
There is much research on the role of leadership in organizational change. Today's
challenge facing leaders is creating organizational change that does not have ambiguous goals of
diversity, equity, and inclusion. One of the biggest challenges identified by Cohen (2021) and
Urofsky (2020) is the changing landscape of government regulations. They highlight that the
government creates laws to regulate business practices that we assume help constituents. Still,
they hinder progress as policies are implemented without hard lines to protect people.
Additionally, these challenges that prevent equity are sprinkled throughout society, leaving
leaders in all sectors to debate whose problem it is to solve. Rittel and Webber (1974) discussed
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these issues when they described issues of equity that float between business and society as
wicked problems.
However, in 2020, the murder of George Floyd prompted action. Leaders of
organizations could no longer pass issues of equity between government and society.
Globalization, morality, social pressure, and inequity met together momentarily as a man,
George Floyd, was murdered on the street by a police officer. Leaders in organizations from all
sectors must consider the impact of the murder of George Floyd on the organizational culture.
The evidence from this research shows that people looked to organizations to solve the problem.
However, further research would develop a theory as to why organizational change became the
answer to solve equity when the issue of equity is both business and social. One view is that the
horrifying event highlighted many disparities across the U.S., promoting employees,
shareholders, and customers to seek a response from organizations (Ayers et al., 2020;
Bonaparte, 2020; Gates et al., 2021; Jan et al., 2021; Krause et al., 2022; Marcos, 2020; Purtell &
Kang, 2022; Reny & Newman, 2021; Segal, 2021). I proposed evidence from this research that
leaders found an acceptable reason to care about these disparities after the murder prompted
protests. The social pressure to protect the organization's reputation became a priority for brand
reputation. Therefore, organizational leaders aligned with protestors and pledged to end racial
injustices.
Nevertheless, we should ask ourselves what this means and how long it will last. In the
same summer of 2020, leaders hired staff, including a CDO, to focus on diversity initiatives. Ng
et al. (2018) discussed the value of aligning words and actions. Those researchers also pointed
out that more than leadership words and actions are needed to implement diversity initiatives.
There must be intentional action from leaders and supporting staff to transform the culture.
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Highlighted from this research were positive and negative actions that showed the resulting
impact affiliates with those actions. Therefore, it is a critically important action that leaders must
view noteworthy events, like the murder of George Floyd, as more than an action to pass along
without consideration to their strategy. These thoughtful considerations will present themselves
as opportunities to make a momentous change in the organization and society, which will benefit
the company.
Evidence demonstrated Burke-Litwin's (1992) organizational change theory. The
research showed that a commitment to transforming the corporate culture could lead to cultural
change. However, a significant finding from this research is the positions and activities of
workers supporting diversity initiatives. Berger and Sarnyai (2015) demonstrated that leaders'
words and actions alone could not implement diversity initiatives. Therefore, a critical
component of diversity initiatives is the practitioners. There are several key factors to their
activities. However, further research could reveal a defined strategic focus using these positions
as a strategic arm of human resources. Very little research explains how managerial staff and,
more specifically, specialty positions like those in diversity roles influence organizational
culture. Burke-Litwin (1992) discuss their ability to motivate individuals. However, dedication to
future research should focus on identifying how the environment and cognition encourage
workers to accept people of diverse backgrounds. Based on Bandura's (1977) social learning
theory, this study could help develop strategies, helping globalized environments become more
inclusive.
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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
The development of this research sought to understand the impact of DEI initiatives
decisions on organizational culture and why senior leaders focus on diversity initiatives. The
findings uncovered that those responsible for diversity initiatives have immense value to the
organization leading to many transforming actions that are changing the culture to become more
diverse and inclusive. It also uncovered that internal and external factors create a meaningful
reason for senior leaders to care about diversity initiatives causing them to seek change. Lastly,
when leaders care about changing the culture to become more diverse and inclusive,
transformation begins with aligning strategy, structure, and communication.
Revisiting the Research Study Purpose
The research examined diversity initiatives and the positions supporting them. The results
define why senior leaders are motivated to focus on diversity initiatives. It delivers
transformative actions that initiate change in organizations. Lastly, this research provided design
strategies that promote diversity, equity, and inclusion. The following research questions guided
the study:
1. What factors caused organizational leaders to address diversity through initiatives?
2. What is leadership involvement with diversity initiatives?
3. How do diversity initiatives and positions impact the organization's culture?
Senior leaders began to care about diversity initiatives because of external and internal
events that motivated a need for change. Results showed that George Floyd's murder and social
pressure were simultaneously external factors that motivated cultural change. Leaders also
responded to globalization and their moral consciousness, which are the internal reasons for
change. Leadership action was the same for either motivator initiating transformative actions.
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Buke-Litwin (1992) theorized that transformative activities creating organizational change
include strategy, structure, and communication alignment. The results revealed that leaders
involved with diversity initiatives developed ingenuities using these approaches, aligning
strategy, structure, and communication. Managerial staff, directors, and managers supported
diversity initiatives with various techniques, bringing about awareness, sharing knowledge, and
unifying groups to initiate cultural transformation. The diversity-focused staff approached
managing the initiatives with several tactical programs and projects. These include changing
hiring practices, and recruitment strategy, organizing affinity groups, developing open
communication to speak about challenges and opportunities, and supporting the development of
change in the organization.
Discussion of Findings
This discussion explores the internal and external motivators that drive senior leaders to
address equity issues and the impact of those actions on the organization’s culture within
diversity initiatives. The discussion is organized within each section; first, the internal and
external motivators are described in the findings. Next, these are paired with current research and
compared to previous research findings. Finally, these findings are also discussed concerning the
conceptual framework to reveal the relevance to the impact on society.
Internal and External Motivators
Organizations reacted to George Floyd's murder and subsequent protests. The reaction
revealed by this study showed that some institutions, especially in the academic field and
Fortune 500 companies, already had diversity initiatives in place. However, the murder of
George Floyd and social pressure from the protests caused organizations to react. Purtel and
Kang (2022) discuss the reaction in their analysis of Instagram responses showing that
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organizations pledged affinity with the Black community after the incident. They had
comparable results, reflecting six motivations for corporate social responsibility
communications: “risk management, organizational functioning, market positioning, civic
positioning, moral positioning, and social reform” (Purtel & Kang, 2022). These findings support
one another because respondents describe responses of change or positioning related to one or
the other of these factors.
The conceptual framework suggests that external factors influence organizational culture.
The research results and prior research reveal evidence that external factors influence the
decisions made by senior leaders that affect corporate culture (Cooper, 2015; Kukkamalla et al.,
2021; Mehta et al., 2021). Kukkamalla et al., 2021 discuss the motivators for organizational
change and describe the internal and external factors. Their research identified several drivers for
change, like those found in this study (globalization, market pressure, and stakeholder demands).
Similarly, Cooper (2015) and Stanly et al. (2019) highlight that external factors motivated
university leaders to make changes at academic institutions. These researchers emphasize the
development of mitigation strategies in university settings to protect against negative perceptions
from the public (Cooper, 2015; Stanly et al., 2019). These were not the only reasons for their
diversity plans; they also noted that staff retention and increasing student applicants were
benefits of their goals. Like the study, these researchers show the influencers for organizational
change. Stano (2019) addresses internal motivators, globalization, and a diverse workforce,
which were also results described in the previous chapter. Stano (2019) found that these internal
motivators also create a need for organizational change. In each study, researchers support that
internal and external factors made a market for organizational change.
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More research is needed to explore whether internal motivation and external factors
interact. Researchers (Cooper, 2015; Kukkamalla et al., 2021; Mehta et al., 2021; Stanly et al.,
2019; Stano, 2019) reveal that both factors correlate with motivation for organizational change.
However, studies need to indicate which of these factors dominate decision-making. This
research suggests that there can be an interaction between internal and external motivating
factors. The suggestion derives from results showing that some organizational leaders planned to
address inequities among the workforce before the murder of George Floyd.
Nevertheless, newly hired positions supporting equity through diversity initiatives were
after the murder of George Floyd. The actions indicate that the two factors influence each other.
Additionally, Oliva stated that the event got people’s attention, and Leo noted that the event gave
leaders a reason to care. These statements also indicate a possible combination of factors that
motivate organizational change.
Strategy Formation and Leadership Involvement
Creating and implementing strategies to advance organizational change relating to
diversity, equality, and inclusion (DEI) is the responsibility of leaders in the organization. The
results demonstrate that while leaders are at least allocating resources by hiring at least one
individual to manage diversity initiatives, producing results requires active involvement from the
leadership team. The involvement begins with constructing a strategy that includes language and
direction for the organization. Next, it requires continued top-down and bottom-up
communication. Leaders need to reciprocate contact with the workforce to have input or
knowledge on continuing challenges and leverage opportunities as they arise. There is support
for this finding from researchers. For example, Stano (2019) documents that leadership
involvement is vital for successfully implementing retention and hiring strategies. Žnidaršič et al.
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(2021) report that the organization's workforce responds better to changes when senior leaders
are involved in diversity initiatives. Research from Berger and Sarnyai (2015) used the Burke-
Litwin Organizational Change Model to establish best practices for leaders when changing the
organization framed from Pelz's (1950) study, which defined power over the workforce when
executives listened to staff and empowered them with knowledge and information about the
strategic direction of the company. These studies support that leadership involvement is critical
to successfully implementing diversity initiatives.
The framework shows that leadership responsibility involves transformational activities
that organize the company, such as communication, the structure of the firm, and strategy. Schein
(2017) points out that these activities design the organization and initiate the culture. Their
involvement is critical to reciprocal communication. Without input, culture remains the same and
does not impact society.
Diversity Positions Impact the Culture
However, as the strategy develops, individuals in diversity and inclusion jobs support
these strategies ensuring the culture transforms and the workforce builds knowledge to develop
toward change. They strive to provide employees from various backgrounds with a sense of
belonging and aim to ensure that there is diversity of thought through diverse backgrounds
among the employees. They are an essential functional progression of the company's success.
They also manage to change the company culture to respect and value the diversity of many
people's backgrounds. This finding ties to other researchers who noted that positions supporting
equity have a variety of responsibilities and that they bring various skills to organizations to
support the workforce culturally (Bhattacharyya, 2018; (Downey et al., 2015; Inegbedion et al.,
2020).). These findings also connect to research from Kohl (2022) and Williams and Wade-
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Golden (2013), whose research extensively discusses the impact of a CDO and offers strategies
and recommendations to leaders and practitioners for developing these roles to meet the
challenges of implementing DEI strategies, while expanding opportunities in the organization.
Additionally, there is an unintended opportunity for diversity and inclusion positions.
They have a unique place to be in-house experts serving as a resource for building knowledge
about various situations regarding DEI. This position is different from a typical human resource
function because human resources is an extension of policymaking in the organization. These
positions bring a human element of understanding that reaches beyond policy. Therefore, their
impact goes beyond the workday and workplace. They influence the workforce through
education, listening, and creating opportunities for diverse people to develop cultural
competence. They can significantly impact society as the organization changes its thinking on
DEI-related challenges. Martin and Coetzee (2009) speak about this impact, declaring that
organizations embracing positions supporting equity usually have a more engaged workforce and
a superior level of satisfaction with their job. Dover et al. (2020) assert that positive associations
with company satisfaction and engagement are due to the activities of these professionals.
Results from this study reveal some of these strategies impacting the organization listed with
their indicated impact on the organizational workforce:
1. Support learning and development to build awareness and skills that sustain these
skills.
2. Build resource groups to create a desire to participate in and support change.
3. Manage open communication between leaders and the workforce because it
supports the desire to change and builds awareness of the need to change.
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4. Continue to research and develop new hiring strategies because it is an integral
part of continuous improvement.
5. Manage and monitor metrics through regular surveys and research. It will support
continuous improvement strategies and reveal what needs to change.
These strategies intend to build and reinforce organizational change through activities that
deliver a more engaged staff. Engaging employees is a well-researched topic that creates
productive employees. Downey et al. (2015) found a positive association between employee
engagement and inclusivity in the workplace. It also supports the research from Hill et al. (2017),
who confirmed a positive relationship between psychological safety and employee relationship,
which is increased work engagement.
Lack of psychological safety and inclusivity are among the cultural characteristics that
undermine employee engagement. Kuntz and Pandaram (2022) illustrate the difference in
employee experience by describing that White employees have vastly different and more positive
experiences than the racial minority in U.S. organizations. The study relates to a similar survey
by Culture Amp (2018). These studies reveal that the challenge in organizations still exists.
However, current research must illustrate that organizations have a defined strategy and specific
methods to address this challenge. Additional research should address effective strategies that
address these particular challenges. The research would also provide targets and approaches for
practitioners to remove the ambiguity in diversity roles. A study of this specificity would help
leaders and practitioners define individual motivators that produce an inclusive environment.
This finding relates to the conceptual framework that uses the Prosci ADKAR Model,
described in chapter one, to affect change in the workforce, first bringing about change inside the
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organization. Therefore, my recommendations are to use a model for change to develop
strategies to initiate DEI programs in the organization.
Recommendations for Practice
These recommendations described by diversity-focused practitioners help organizational
leaders understand how to impact the company culture. The most significant development from
this research is understanding the support positions to affect the organization's culture. To
influence the culture and deliver a more diverse, inclusive workplace where workers have a
sense of belonging, I have these recommendations that focus on utilizing diversity-focused
positions in organizations. The data exposes the strengths and weaknesses of the organizations as
they develop and implement diversity initiatives to form organizational change. This section
describes three recommendations to transform the organization's culture into a diverse and
inclusive environment. These recommendations derive from the detailed experience conveyed by
subjects and align with current research.
Recommendation 1: Develop a Strategy Aligned with the Structure
The first recommendation for the chief leaders is to develop a strategy aligned with the
structure once external events or internal motivations identify a change. Once a need for change
is triggered, organizational leaders must act. In their research, Kukkamalla et al., 2021 support
that leaders must respond to either trigger because of the potential effect on stakeholder relations,
demands from the market, or employee engagement. Data from this study support that senior
leaders responded to internal motivations and external events to create organizational change.
These impacts have primarily ensured transformation readiness and communication alignment
between senior leaders and the workforce. Cooper and Gerlach (2019) relate hiring a CDO as a
primary way that senior leaders of municipalities signal that they are focused on creating a
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diverse and inclusive environment. The data from this study also showed that hiring staff is part
of creating a structure that initiates the focus on diversity initiatives. The CDO position
developed the strategy to align with the organization in twelve organizations researched.
Therefore, hiring staff, specifically a CDO, is critical to transforming the environment by
creating structure. These positions pair with the other senior leaders to define the strategy and set
the overall direction of transformation.
Strategy is critical to any organization as it defines communication structure. Strategy
explains what will be accomplished, by whom, and what systems leaders will use. It also
represents stakeholders' knowledge about the strategy's goals, meaning what will be measured to
manage its progress. Design is the first to initiate these activities in diversity, and including
activities is particularly necessary when creating organizational change for diversity initiatives to
align stakeholders (Dover et al., 2020; Tamtik & Guenter, 2019; Riccucci, 2021; Leslie, 2019).
While Dover et al. (2020) discuss these strategies and their effects, it is clear from their research
that the approach is critical. Likewise, Tamtik and Guenter (2019) discuss the method used in
university settings. First, however, they define the types of strategies determining their value.
On the other hand, Riccucci (2021) points to the importance of programs that develop
from strategies in government sectors. Finally, Leslie (2019) discusses the critical component of
an approach to the effectiveness of changing the environment. Burke-Litwin's (1992) change
model defines these transformational elements as elements that build the foundation for diversity
and inclusive organizational change to create equity. Supported by current research and data
from this study, strategy is vital to achieving diversity and inclusion transformation.
101

Recommendation 2: Develop Strategies from Internal Research Findings
The second recommendation is that the strategy should form from understanding the
issues of the organization to address. Developing a focus to change the organization to become
more equitable by including diversity and inclusivity, senior leaders need to understand the
internal issues of their environment. The effort must come from chief executives led by the CDO
and developed from listening to the workforce using quantitative and qualitative methods. The
data revealed that leaders in these organizations employ engagement surveys and listening tours
as an opportunity to develop their understanding of the issues within the organization.
Researchers found that these interventions increase employee engagement, productivity, and
retention (Gillborn et al., 2018; Inegbedion et al., 2020; Johnson & Betsinger, 2009; Roberts &
Mayo, 2019)—the common practice of research methods using data to uncover issues. Senior
leaders should continue to allocate resources to understand them in their organization.
Particularly noted in this research is that it is necessary to use quantitative and qualitative
methods for issues related to diversity and inclusion because of the complexity of "wicked
problems" (Reinecke & Ansari, 2016). Researchers Reinecke and Ansari (2016) pointed out that
the frame of wicked problems is hard to define and has complete stakeholder agreement.
Therefore, research methods are instrumental in bringing stakeholders together and working with
the same language on the defined problems uncovered from the research.
Workplace diversity and inclusion issues have been identified as wicked problems
because they need help to locate. Brottman et al. (2020) illustrated in their studies that cultural
competency is an issue when organizations attempt to solve these issues. Therefore, there is a
need to educate leaders, practitioners, and the workforce. The research data identified that
organizations spend much time educating, developing awareness, and creating shared language.
102

Kang and Kaplan (2019) support this challenge in their research that education is necessary to
begin conversations about diversity and inclusion. Therefore, there must be research to
understand the problem within building strategy. It follows with education and training to build
cultural competence. Unlike other strategic objectives, diversity initiatives uncover more
information during program implementation, requiring agility to develop comprehensive change.
Recommendation 3: Develop Specific Programmatic Objectives
The third recommendation is to develop specific objectives that will address aspects of
the strategy. For example, data from this study showed that the programs and projects created
from the strategy focused on diversity management, which involves recruitment, hiring, and
retaining employees. This program indicates several projects with multiple objectives leading to
a goal of an increase in each area (recruiting, hiring, and retaining employees) of diverse
backgrounds. Another purpose mentioned in the data is to engage employees by developing
employee resource groups. Equally, this program may include several projects with the intended
goal of engaging employees of diverse backgrounds. The data showed that these activities
transacted by middle management groups made the staff more involved, use their unpaid time to
work on diversity activities, and improve or produce equitable products and services. This
recommendation aligns with research from Cooper (2015) that shows the transactional
components of the Burke-Litwin (1992) change model affect employee engagement, increasing
individual motivation. Kalav and Dobbin (2019) also add to this recommendation from their
critical review of Thomas (1990), whose work defined diversity management. Kalav and Dobbin
(2019) point to several programs that advance diversity management. The data in this research
support recommendations to develop specific programs that focus on the identified
organizational issues and leverage opportunities when possible.
103

Limitations and Delimitations
I am an outsider to the participant group since I do not work as a practitioner responsible
for the outcome of diversity initiatives. I relied heavily on participants' interests based on their
time constraints and interest in participation. Therefore, the focal point of the study was broad. I
did not gather data from one sector, industry, location, or position title. I was limited by who
would respond and qualify based on their responsibilities in the organization. However, because
of the limitation, I took advantage of the opportunity to represent voices from many sectors and
various levels of reporting structure. The research results yielded a broad view of the impact of
diversity on organizational culture.
Participants responsible for the outcome of diversity initiatives ranged between senior
leaders, represented by CDOs, and managerial staff, represented by directors and managers.
Their different perspectives presented two categories of responses, broadening the research
results. The CDOs are developing strategies and supporting projects and programs with resources
and communication. Since CDOs participate in the process of decisions regarding the approach, I
gathered their first-hand knowledge. Nevertheless, there were only four perspectives from this
group. The managerial staff conducts the actions of the projects and programs that support
diversity initiatives. There were more participants from this group, and their responses reflected
efforts that supported diversity initiatives. These were limitations because the respondents were
not from one level of responsibility. However, the opportunity in the research presented
perspectives from upper and middle management, allowing the researcher to reveal alignment
between the two views.
Gathering data via virtual interviews was limited by their environment. For example,
Dakota described the senior leadership as a homogeneous White male group who did not care
104

about the results of diversity initiatives. Yet they approved a generous budget and have an
advanced team working on diversity initiatives. Noting the room and how the participant spoke
in a low voice, I gathered that the participant was at work. The participant was limited because of
the environment and had response hesitation.
The delimitations of the study were the ability to use semi-structured interviews. For
example, I leveraged the semi-structured interview style to develop conversational interviews.
The technique allowed the conversation to flow naturally and aided the interview flow.
Recommendations for Future Research
These recommendations described by diversity-focused practitioners help organizational
leaders understand how to impact the company culture. The most significant development from
this research is understanding the support positions to affect the organization's culture. To
influence the culture and deliver a more diverse, inclusive workplace where workers have a
sense of belonging, I have these recommendations that focus on utilizing diversity-focused
positions in organizations. The data exposes the strengths and weaknesses of the organizations as
they develop and implement diversity initiatives to form organizational change. This section
describes three recommendations to transform the organization's culture into a diverse and
inclusive environment. These recommendations derive from the detailed experience conveyed by
subjects and align with current research.
Recommendation 1: Develop a Strategy Aligned with the Structure
The first recommendation for the chief leaders is to develop a strategy aligned with the
structure once external events or internal motivations identify a change. Once a need for change
is triggered, organizational leaders must act. In their research, Kukkamalla et al. (2021) support
that leaders must respond to either trigger because of the potential effect on stakeholder relations,
105

demands from the market, or employee engagement. Data from this study support that senior
leaders responded to internal motivations and external events to create organizational change.
These impacts have primarily ensured transformation readiness and communication alignment
between senior leaders and the workforce. Cooper and Gerlach (2019) relate hiring a CDO as a
primary way that senior leaders of municipalities signal their focus on creating a diverse and
inclusive environment. This study's data also revealed that hiring staff is part of creating a
structure that emphasizes diversity initiatives. The CDO position developed the strategy to align
with the organization in twelve organizations researched. Therefore, hiring staff, specifically a
CDO, is critical to transforming the environment by creating structure. These positions pair with
the other senior leaders to define the strategy and set the overall direction of transformation.
Strategy is critical to any organization as it defines communication structure. Strategy
explains what will be accomplished, by whom, and the usage of systems. It also represents how
those stakeholders know the strategy goals, meaning what will be measured to manage its
progress. Strategy is the first to initiate these activities in diversity, and including activities is
particularly necessary when creating organizational change for diversity initiatives to align
stakeholders (Dover et al., 2020; Tamtik & Guenter, 2019; Riccucci, 2021; Leslie, 2019). While
Dover et al. (2020) discuss these strategies and their effects, it is clear from their research that the
approach is critical. Likewise, Tamtik and Guenter (2019) discuss the method used in university
settings. First, however, they define the types of strategies determining their value.
On the other hand, Riccucci (2021) points to the importance of programs that develop
from strategies in government sectors. Finally, Leslie (2019) discusses the critical component of
an approach to the effectiveness of changing the environment. Burke-Litwin's (1992) change
model defines these transformational elements as elements that build the foundation for diversity
106

and inclusive organizational change to create equity. Supported by current research and data
from this study, strategy is vital to achieving diversity and inclusion transformation.
Recommendation 2: Develop Strategies from Internal Research Findings
The second recommendation is that the strategy should form from understanding the
issues of the organization to address. Developing a focus to change the organization to become
more equitable by including diversity and inclusivity, senior leaders need to understand the
internal issues of their environment. The effort must come from chief executives led by the CDO
and developed from listening to the workforce using quantitative and qualitative methods. The
data revealed that leaders in these organizations employ engagement surveys and listening tours
as an opportunity to advance their understanding of the issues within the organization.
Researchers found that these interventions increase employee engagement, productivity,
and retention (Gillborn et al., 2018; Inegbedion et al., 2020; Johnson & Betsinger, 2009; Roberts
& Mayo, 2019). The customary practice of research methods uses data to uncover issues. Senior
leaders should continue to allocate resources to understand them in their organization.
Particularly noted in this research is that it is necessary to use quantitative and qualitative
methods for issues related to diversity and inclusion because of the complexity of "wicked
problems" (Reinecke & Ansari, 2016). Reinecke and Ansari (2016) pointed out that the frame of
wicked problems is hard to define and has complete stakeholder agreement. Therefore, research
methods are instrumental in bringing stakeholders together and working with the same language
on the defined problems uncovered from the research.
Workplace diversity and inclusion issues have been identified as wicked problems
because they need help to locate. Brottman et al. (2020) illustrated in their studies that cultural
competency is an issue when organizations attempt to solve these issues. Therefore, there is a
107

need to educate leaders, practitioners, and the workforce. The research data identified that
organizations spend much time educating, developing awareness, and creating shared language.
Kang and Kaplan (2019) support this challenge in their research that education is necessary to
begin conversations about diversity and inclusion. Therefore, to build a strategy, decisions must
have a basis from data to understand the problem. Then the organization can focus on education
and training to build cultural competence. Diversity initiatives are unique programs requiring
agility because more information will surface during implementation. Agile programs allow the
organization to change over time and support new challenges as they arise.
Recommendation 3: Develop Specific Programmatic Objective
The third recommendation is to develop specific objectives and goals to attain from the
program. For example, data from this study showed that the programs and projects created from
the strategy focused on diversity management, which involves recruitment, hiring, and retaining
employees. This program indicates several projects with multiple objectives leading to a goal of
an increase in each area (recruiting, hiring, and retaining employees) of diverse backgrounds.
Another purpose mentioned in the data is to engage employees by developing employee resource
groups. Equally, this program may include several projects with the intended goal of engaging
employees of diverse backgrounds. The data showed that these activities transacted by m staff
middle management committed the employees to become more involved, use their unpaid time
to work on diversity activities and improve or produce equitable products and services. This
recommendation aligns with research from Cooper (2015) that shows the transactional
components of the Burke-Litwin (1992) change model affect employee engagement, increasing
individual motivation. Kalav and Dobbin (2019) also add to this recommendation from their
critical review of Thomas (1990), whose work defined diversity management. Kalav and Dobbin
108

(2019) point to several programs that advance diversity management. The data in this research
support recommendations to develop specific programs that focus on the identified
organizational issues and leverage opportunities when possible.
Recommendations for Future Research
Future research should focus on the influence of diversity positions and specific strategies
these support positions use to advance diversity initiatives. Frank described the daily activities of
these positions with the phrase “wear many hats.” Lana described their duties as being pulled
into many projects to support advancing diversity initiatives throughout the organization. Lana’s
comments support Frank’s assessment that these positions wear many hats but are in ambiguous
roles. They fill in the gaps where strategy is undefined. There is an opportunity to leverage and
build upon the unique positioning of the individuals in DEI positions.
The data showed that these positions have a unique place to create engagement through
human interaction, which may be missing in virtual and digitized environments. They also build
a rapport with the workforce. Building these relationships is a function of human resource
departments. Yet, human resources are limited in their pursuit because the human resource
commitment is to protect the organization. The DEI positions apply their knowledge and passion
for diversity, equity, and inclusion and become a separate resource to the organization. They
bring meaning to crises, such as when an external event impacts the organization. They support
conversations that build unity in the organization, and they develop an understanding of why
these efforts are essential. They are valuable informants to senior leaders about the current
departmental issues as they stay informed by the workforce. Therefore, further research would
help develop these roles to become effectively efficient in supporting diversity initiatives. It
would allow leaders to keep these positions and define expectations.
109

Respondents indicated several impacts on the organization's culture developed from
programs and projects. However, this research needs employee data supporting environmental
and cultural change. Therefore, another research study that compares employee experience with
interventional aims would benefit the field in presenting the results of interventions and the
employee experience. Additionally, metrics and data supporting a changed environment, such as
an engagement survey, were out of the scope of this research project. In this research,
participants described examples of change and employee responses to illustrate the impacts of
programs and projects.
Conclusion
Organizations are complex environments that can have an initiated change derived
internally or externally. This study aimed to understand the trigger for diversity initiatives that
begin organizational change. The results illustrated external and internal factors creating
organizational change regarding diversity initiatives. These activities triggered them to care and
act to make changes. This research also sought to understand the impact of diversity initiatives
and positions. The results reveal that implications from diversity initiatives begin when senior
leaders design meaningful strategies and initiate organizational transformation, focusing on
alignment for the entire organization. These results mean that they align their mission, vision,
values, and structure with the strategy of developing diversity initiatives. Organizational culture
transforms when there are actions from senior leaders to change the culture. The results further
revealed that the primary support for diversity initiatives falls on DEI positions employed for the
diversity initiatives. These roles have a specific focus on the organization to ensure the
transformation of organizational culture with transactional activities.
110

The history of initiatives to support equity is as complex as equity itself. One must
wonder how long society will continue to function in this manner and how long organizations
will make small changes to support societal equity. The slaying of George Floyd was one of
many murders that prompted change. The timing during the pandemic seemed to spark more
change than any other martyr because of the widespread attention focused on the horrible event.
Yet, the only difference found by this research is that organizations have developed
conversations, some strategies, and open communication. These pieces do not guarantee equity
for the many stakeholders living in inequity.
These findings are critical to further research supporting diversity initiatives. The need
for change was majorly influenced by George Floyd's murder and social protests, sparking
organizational leaders to focus on diversity initiatives. In addition, financial and people resources
backed their promises to create racial equity. This research is essential to those leaders to reveal
that the work for social equity impacts the organizational culture and can impact society. This
research continues the conversation by discussing what social pressures motivate organizational
change and the impact of those transforming strategies, as researchers Errida and Lotfi (2021)
discussed. It also defines how to create diversity and inclusivity change in the corporate culture.
Although organizations have committed to focus on diversity initiatives, this research illustrates
the type of impact that leaders can expect.

111

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Appendix A: Burke-Litwin Organizational Change Model

Adapted from A Causal Model of Organisation Performance and Change by W.W. Burke and
G.H, Litwin, 1992, Journal of Management, 18(3), 523–545.
148

Appendix B: Results from Thematic Analysis
(+) represents data positively associated with the category.
Red: represents the interview questions asked of participants associated.
Theme Sub-theme Associated participant verbiage
Motivation to change.

• Would you describe why you believe your organizational
leaders are focused on diversity, equity, and inclusion?
They cared. George Floyd's murder
Positively associated with
nine participants. (+)
- The difference in approach to
initiatives before George Floyd
and after:
1. Defining strategy.
2. Organizing ERGs to answer
workers.
3. Changing language.
- Organizations hired a person after
the murder of George Floyd.

Social pressure is positively
associated with two
participants. (+)

- Communication with customers
- Hiring a person after the murder

Globalization. The workplace and customers
are from many different
backgrounds with various
abilities. The business must
speak to all customer
backgrounds and need input
from workers who are
different. (+)
- Change in hiring practices.
- Change in recruitment strategy.
- They use social media, and the
company website visibly promotes
their diversity and alignment with
people of different backgrounds.
- Public promotion of alignment
with #BlackLivesMatter, #Metoo
Movement, and LGBTQ
community
Moral imperative. Internal motivation
Positively associated with 3
participants (+)
- Some senior leaders planned to
address diversity issues before
George Floyd's murder.
- Senior leaders created the position
before George Floyd's murder but
acted after the murder.
- DEI continued from previous high-
profile social change events.

Transformational
Factors
• What would you say are the positives and negatives of the
organizational structure as it affects diversity initiatives?
• Would you describe why you believe your organizational
leaders are focused on diversity, equity, and inclusion?
• What diversity initiatives are you working on for the
organization?
149

• What type of message is distributed from leadership about
diversity, equity, and inclusion?
• Social responsibility has become a massive part of
operations for corporations. How, if at all, does your
company integrate social responsibility into its strategy?
• What type of message is distributed from leadership about
diversity, equity, and inclusion?
Align strategy and
structure.
An important factor is the
organization's structure,
incorporating DEI positions.
- The senior position reports to the
CEO.
- The position integration with
human resources.
- Allocated resources to support
strategy.
- Defined diversity roles with
objectives.

Define DEI strategy. An important factor is
creating a DEI strategy
(strategy) (+)
- Clear DEI objectives.
- Specific focus and what addresses
it in the company.
- Base DEI strategy on internal
research of issues.
- Understanding the success
measures.
- Systems that will integrate the
change.
- Align the objectives with the
values of the company.
- Two-way communication.

Create communication. An important factor is
communicating with
stakeholders. (+)
- Open and two-way
communication.
- Define expectations.
- Create policy.
- Support changes from the top.
- Internal communication tools.

Transactional Factors /
Managerial Actions.
• What diversity initiatives are you working on for the
organization?
• Would you describe diversity issues within the organization
if they exist?
• What resources are available to employees regarding
diversity, equity, and inclusion?
• What evaluations occur within the organization to describe
cultural diversity wellness?
• Would you describe the resulting factors from implementing
diversity initiatives in your organization?
150

• Would you describe the impact diversity initiatives have on
business units?
Learning and development
are positively associated with
impact. (+)
- Employing systems like
SharePoint.
- Developing training programs.
- Creating shared language and
definition of terms.
- Building awareness among
stakeholders.
- Support development with
knowledge sharing.

People focus positively
associated with impact. (+)
- Creating ERGs to support affinity
groups.
- Supporting the development of
ERGs.
- Direct conversations to make sense
of the events ink what's going on.
- Direct conversations to build
situational understanding.
- Managers lead the DEI to change
communication daily.
- Manger communication from LMS
tools.

A focus on diversity
management strategies is
positively associated with
impact. (+)
- Hiring and retention strategies
- Building a pipeline from HBCUs
- Hiring women engineers
- Removing referrals in
homogeneous departments

151

Appendix C: Interview Protocol
Introduction to the Interview:
Thank you for meeting with me for the interview I am using for research. I am pursuing an
educational doctorate in Organizational Change and Leadership at the University of Southern
California. The study you are participating in pertains to the research for my dissertation. As
stated in the information worksheet, my research examines diversity implementation in
corporations. I am interested in understanding your organization's long-term objectives of leaders
who have added a focus on diversity, equity, and inclusion and organizational design to support
the initiatives along with the impact on the culture. Do you have any questions about the
information worksheet or anything I have said thus far? Also, thank you for sending back the
signed consent form. Do you have any questions about the consent form?
Today, I am the interviewer and have no judgments or opinions about the information you share.
I am simply asking questions to record your response to inform the research.
The interview will be confidential, and you may stop anytime. The discussion will take about 60
minutes. Is this still a suitable time for you? I want to record the interview to ensure I accurately
capture your responses. After transcribing the interview, I will delete the recording. To protect
the confidentiality of the discussion, I will not use the names of the organization, the participants,
or any person you discuss in the interview. In addition, I can provide you with a transcript if you
like. Do I have your permission to record the interview?

Interview Questions
(Merriam & Tisdell,
Chapter 5, pp. 107-
122)
Potential Probes
(Merriam &
Tisdell, Chapter
5, pp. 107-122)
RQ Addressed Key Concept
Addressed
Q Type
(Patton, 1987)
These first few questions give me background on your role.
1. Would you
describe your
organization’s
business
objectives?
What impact does
diversity have on
your internal
culture?
Why are
leaders adding
a focus on
diversity,
equity, and
inclusion?
Organizational
Structure
Background
2. Please describe
your role and
involvement with
diversity
initiatives.
What impact does
diversity have on
your internal
culture?
Why are
leaders adding
a focus on
diversity,
equity, and
inclusion?
Organizational
Structure
Background
3. Would you
describe why you
Why are
leaders adding
Need for
Diversity,
Background
152

believe your
organizational
leaders are
focused on
diversity, equity,
and inclusion?
a focus on
diversity,
equity, and
inclusion?
Equity, and
Inclusion
4. Would you
describe your
leadership
structure and to
whom your team
reports in the C-
Suite?
Would you
describe the
overall
responsibility of
your diversity
leader and their
title?
What supports
exist for
diversity,
equity, and
inclusion in the
organization?
Organizational
Structure
Background
5. What do you
think is the most
impactful event
that created a
need for your
organization to
focus on
diversity?
Would you
describe any
additional events
that may have
also impacted this
focus?
Why are
leaders adding
a focus on
diversity,
equity, and
inclusion?
Need for
Diversity,
Equity, &
Inclusion
Opinion/Belief
6. Social
responsibility has
become a massive
part of operations
for corporations.
How, if at all,
does your
company
integrate social
responsibility into
its strategy?
Why are
leaders adding
a focus on
diversity,
equity, and
inclusion?
Organizational
Structure or
Strategy
Knowledge
7. What type of
message is
distributed from
leadership about
diversity, equity,
and inclusion?
What do you
think the
messaging is
intended to
address?
What supports
exist for
diversity,
equity, and
inclusion in the
organization?
Organizational
Culture
Opinion/Belief
The following questions provide an understanding of your organization's structure and culture.
8. What diversity
initiatives are you
working to
Would you
describe if it
differs from your
perspective of
what you should
What supports
exist for
diversity,
equity, and
Organizational
Strategy
Background
153

accomplish for
the organization?
or could
accomplish?
inclusion in the
organization?
9. Would you
describe diversity
issues within the
organization if
they exist?
If they exist, how
are they
addressed?
What supports
exist for
diversity,
equity, and
inclusion in the
organization?
Organizational
Culture
Knowledge
10. What resources
are available to
employees
regarding
diversity, equity,
and inclusion?
In what way does
the company
provide diversity
training for
diversity?
What supports
exist for
diversity,
equity, and
inclusion in the
organization?
Organizational
Culture
Knowledge and
Background
11. What evaluations
occur within the
organization to
describe cultural
diversity
wellness?
If evaluations
occur, would you
describe them
(who is being
evaluated, on
what, and what is
the impact)?
What supports
exist for
diversity,
equity, and
inclusion in the
organization?

Diversity
Roles Impact
Background
12. Would you
describe the
resulting factors
from
implementing
diversity
initiatives in your
organization?
Who do you think
is most impacted?
What impact
are diversity
roles having on
organizational
performance
and culture?
Diversity
Roles Impact

Opinion / Belief
13. Who is
accountable for
implementing
diversity
initiatives?
How is that
accountability
realized?
What impact
are diversity
roles having on
organizational
performance
and culture?
Diversity
Roles Impact
Knowledge
14. Would you
describe the
impact diversity
initiatives have on
business units?
Would you
describe business
unit leaders'
involvement with
diversity
initiatives?

How are
individuals within
What impact
are diversity
roles having on
organizational
performance
and culture?
Diversity
Roles Impact
Knowledge
154

departments
involved?
15. What would you
say are the
positives and
negatives of the
organizational
structure as it
affects diversity
initiatives?
What supports
exist for
diversity,
equity,
inclusion,
accessibility,
and justice in
the
organization?
Organizational
Structure
Opinion/Beliefs
16. Are you able to
accomplish your
goals? Why or
why not?
What impact
are diversity
roles having on
organizational
performance
and culture?
Organizational
design
Opinion/Beliefs
17. Any final
thoughts you want
to share with me
before we wrap
up?

Conclusion to the Interview:
Thank you for participating in this research study. If I have questions, may I reach out to you via
email? Also, do you have any further questions before we end the interview?
Thank you again for your time.

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Irving-Hogan, Nicole Yvette (author)

Core Title An examination of the impact of diversity initiatives and their supporting roles on organizational culture: an experiential study from the perspective of diversity personnel

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-05

Publication Date 06/19/2023

Defense Date 05/02/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Burke-Litwin,cultural change.,diversity initiatives,diversity roles,equity,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,organizational change

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Kim, Esther C. (committee chair), Christian, Wilmon A., III (committee member), Phillips, Jennifer L. (committee member)

Creator Email irvingho@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113178880

Unique identifier UC113178880

Identifier etd-IrvingHoga-11975.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-IrvingHoga-11975

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Irving-Hogan, Nicole Yvette

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230621-usctheses-batch-1057 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu