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A case study to determine what perceived factors, including student engagement, contribute to academic achievement in a high performing urban high school

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A case study to determine what perceived factors, including student engagement, contribute to academic achievement in a high performing urban high school

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A CASE STUDY TO DETERMINE WHAT PERCEIVED FACTORS,
INCLUDING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT,
CONTRIBUTE TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN A
HIGH PERFORMING URBAN HIGH SCHOOL

by

David C. Chang

____________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2008

Copyright 2008 David C. Chang

ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wanted to take some time to thank all those who have made this dissertation
possible. While I could not possibly name all who have supported me in this quest, I
would first like to begin by saying “thank you” to all of you as a whole who have
encouraged me over the years to pursue my dreams and keep focused on the “big
picture.”
Thank you to Dr. C. M. Webster for recommending me to the program.
Without your support, none of this would have happened. You have been a superb
role-model and mentor. Thank You!
It is with great appreciation and admiration that I name and thank my
dissertation advisor, Dr. Stuart E. Gothold. The patience and encouragement you
have provided me over the years have been above and beyond expectations. One of
the key reasons why I have been able to complete this manuscript is because of your
leadership and guidance. Thank you for allowing me to be a member of this
wonderful team, I have learned so much in so little time. My future success will be
because of you!
To my two dissertation committee members, Dr. Stowe and Dr. Hocevar,
thank you! Thank you for reviewing and providing guidance and advice for my
study. You helped me see things that I never saw before. Your expertise and
experience were invaluable to the success of this document and my overall doctoral
experience. Much appreciation to you for reading, re-reading and re-reading this
manuscript so many times to provide feedback and counsel.

iii
I would also like to thank all of the faculty members and staff members at the
University of Southern California, University of California, Riverside, California
State University, San Bernardino, Whittier Union High School District and
California High School who have helped me in my professional and academic
development. The foundation you helped lay has provided me with this exceptional
opportunity.
Special thanks are also in order to my dissertation cohort. Without your
encouragement and motivation, this document would not have been possible. Thank
you for allowing me to call you and share frustrations and bliss. I am forever
appreciative of this experience and for meeting such great people. Best Wishes, SA,
JE, JF, KF, JH, AK, KM, TP and SVu. Please keep in touch. To the OC group,
congratulations, we did it! Thank you for your support over the last few years!
My family and I have endured so much over the last few years. You deserve
so much gratitude and praise that words cannot provide. Thank you so very much
and know that I will always love you. To my siblings, I hope this will be another
chapter to our already well established family legacy. I know you will both greatly
add to our legacy. To my maternal grandmother who passed away during this
educational pursuit, this degree is in your honor.
Thank you to all of my friends who have fostered me as I have finished this
degree. There are so many of you that I wanted to say “Thank You for Your
Support.” I will need to have you bring me back into the swing of things. I’ll catch
up, I promise.

iv
To the Forrest Family, thank you for your help and encouragement. The
doors you opened for me assisted with my final project. Fate brought us together and
as I have mentioned in the past, there is a reason for everything. J. Bradeen and K.
Forrest, thank you for providing feedback during the entire process. D. Stevens,
thank you for helping and providing me with the confidence I needed to be part of
this program.
To all my stakeholders, I wish you all the very best. Another chapter in my
life has been completed. THANK YOU!

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ……………………………………………….. ii

LIST OF TABLES ………………………………………………………. vi

LIST OF FIGURES ……………………………………………………… vii

ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………… viii

CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND, PURPOSE, AND OVERVIEW
OF THE STUDY ………………………………………………………… 1

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE ……………… 23

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ……………………………………… 50

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS ………………………………… 71

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS ………………………………………… 111

REFERENCES ………………………………………………………….. 121
APPENDICIES …………………………………………………………... 124

vi

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Students Suspensions Over Last 5 Years ………………........... 87
Table 2: Hours Spent Doing Written Homework ……………………… 100
Table 3: Hours Spent Reading and Studying for Class ……………….. 101
Table 4: Hours Participating in School-Sponsored Activities …………. 102
Table 5: School Encourages Participation in School Events and
Activities ……………………………………………………………….. 103

Table 6: Hours Spent Working for Pay ………………………………… 103
Table 7: Wrote Papers of More than 5 Pages ………………………….. 104
Table 8: Feedback from Teachers on Assignments ……………………. 105
Table 9: Students Grades ………………………………………………. 106
Table 10: Feeling Safe in School ………………………………………. 107

vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Conceptual Model ………………………………….. 55
Figure 2: Creswell’s 6-Step Model ……………………………. 61

viii
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to determine what perceived factors contribute
to academic achievement in a high performing urban high school and whether or not
there is a link between student engagement and academic achievement.
Historically, students in urban high schools have underperformed
academically in comparison to their suburban counterparts. Nonetheless, some urban
high schools, such as Trojan High School, have achieved significant gains in
academic achievement. What contributes to the high academic achievement in these
schools? Very little research has focused on urban school environments and as the
global population increases, understanding how to increase academic achievement in
these environments is paramount for future success.
This case study focused on a high performing urban high school in the
Southern California Union High School District which recently had demonstrated
steady academic achievement as measured by California’s Academic Performance
(API) index. Trojan High School met the definition for an urban school environment
and fulfilled the criteria of a high performing urban high school.
A mixed method qualitative analysis was utilized to look for common themes
and patterns to triangulate the data collected. Document analysis, observations,
surveys and interviews were conducted for the data collection. An analysis of Trojan
High School’s High School Survey of Student Engagement (HSSSE) data compared
student engagement at a high performing urban high school to student engagement
levels nationally.

ix
Factors such as campus community/culture, leadership and curriculum were
perceived factors that contribute to academic achievement at this high performing
urban high school. Conclusions utilizing the HSSSE indicated that students at a high
performing urban high school were not substantially more engaged than their
national counterparts. Other perceived factors significantly contributed to the
academic success of the institution. Students at this high performing urban high
school had the same levels of student engagement compared to the national HSSSE
data. The analysis of the perceived factors that contribute to academic achievement
played a greater role in student achievement than student engagement.
Commitment to students in a caring environment, using data to guide best practices
and instruction, and effective leadership and collaboration impacted student
achievement more than student engagement.

1
CHAPTER 1:
BACKGROUND, PURPOSE AND OVERVIEW OF STUDY

Introduction
Education in the United States is in need of severe reform. While the
American education system is a relatively new initiative with roots of less than 250
years, the education system is in need of a major overhaul as it fails to fulfill its
intent. What the education system the United States had been known for, no longer
works as effectively in this new global environment. Many researchers have noted
how other countries are coming into strength with their educational system, and
some are far superior than the American educational system. One researcher
commented on the challenges of American education; American ninth grade students
ranked next to last compared to 14 other countries. The education fabric has not
changed to adapt to the competitive global economy (Salamon, 1991, p. 23).
The purpose of this study is to examine the link between student engagement
and academic achievement and what perceived factors affect academic achievement
at one high performing urban high school. In California, some urban schools have
academically outperformed their suburban counterparts. Questions have since ensued
as to what factors affect academic achievement. Why do some high schools
outperform other similar high schools? If the American population continues to grow
and urban environments increase in the United States, now is the time to understand
and develop some research on urban students and their academic achievement. With

2
high levels of student engagement, will there be higher levels of student
achievement? What other perceived factors contribute to academic achievement?
This study will attempt to identify other factors that contribute to academic
achievement at one high performing urban high school.

Background of the Problem
A 1983 national report, A Nation at Risk, revealed the decline of the
American educational system in light of the global economy. One finding in the
report noted, in many other industrialized nations, courses in mathematics, biology,
chemistry, physics, and geography are taken in grade 6 and are required of all
students. However, students in America, who are involved in the general sciences
and advance science courses, do not begin similar coursework until they reach high
school. In American high schools, some students have the privilege of taking the
above listed courses, the same courses that are mandatory in some foreign nations.
Even then, not all American students have access to advance science courses. The
time spent on these subjects, based on class hours, is about three times that spent by
even the most science-oriented U.S. students (A Nation at Risk, 1983). If the United
States wants to maintain educational supremacy, America needs to quickly adapt to
the changing educational culture.
The United States was, at one point, a leader in the education world;
however, the distinction has greatly fallen. Today, many countries in the world
surpass the American educational system and the country as a whole has struggled to

3
find a footing in this global economy. American students struggle with core
academic subjects if they even elect to continue their education. Students in the
United States are not academically achieving in comparison to their global
counterparts as many reports have indicated. America is slowly losing opportunities
to foreign countries.
The statistics on American high school students on academic achievement is
even more alarming and troublesome. One of the goals of high schools is to provide
a student with advanced knowledge to prepare them for either higher education, a
vocation, or to train an individual directly in a profession. However, in the current
system, nearly three-quarters of a million students drop out of school each year. Of
those who remain, fewer than half read at levels that allow them to carry out even
moderately complex tasks (Salamon, 1991, p. 23). American students are losing the
opportunity to prepare themselves adequately for the future. Businesses and the
military have commented on how much remedial work is needed by their younger
employees. The population of employees in need of remedial work has steadily
increased through the years. These employers believe remedial work should have
been taught early in basic education; however, this has not been the case. What will
be the role of America in the global environment as we begin the 21st century?
Over the last few years, the federal, state and local educational agencies have
increased their efforts at reforming the educational system. In 2001, the President of
the United States reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education (ESEA) Act
to increase accountability through the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2001). The

4
ESEA Act of 1965 was the federal government’s response after research had shown
families in lower income households required more educational services than their
affluent counterparts to have the same educational opportunities. The NCLB Act
ideally provides equal educational opportunities for all children to close the
achievement gap. The legislation holds states, school districts, and the schools
themselves accountable for the academic achievement of their students.
With recent focus towards achievement and accountability in public schools,
other educational agencies have proactively developed legislation and standards to
help current students. Individual states in America have begun establishing
accountability standards for academic achievement. While the response to
accountability and achievement has varied across states, some states have developed
content standards to determine the minimum standards requirement at each grade
level to increase academic achievement of public schools.
California addressed the needs for accountability by being more responsive
and proactive to the changing environment. The California Content Standards began
in 1997 to establish the minimum educational content California students should
acquire by each grade level. The content standards began in core subject areas and
have now expanded to all academic subjects across all primary and secondary
schools.
Another effort by California to address accountability in public schools was
the Public Schools Accountability Act. In 1999, California lawmakers approved the
Public Schools Accountability Act to help schools measure and increase academic

5
achievement and close the achievement gap. The Act provided additional funding to
schools in need to address the achievement gap and to increase the achievement
levels of students attending those schools. After a few years, the Act had failed to be
sufficiently funded by legislators to provide the specified funding levels for each of
the underperforming schools. As a result, this piece of legislation had fallen from the
books.
California consistently attempted to increase student achievement. In an
effort for California to focus on high schools as the final training grounds for our
students and to improve the quality of instruction in the high schools, the California
High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE) was established. The CAHSEE was enacted to
ensure that students who graduate from California’s high schools can demonstrate
grade level competency in core subjects such as reading, writing and mathematics.
All public school students need to pass the CAHSEE to earn a high school diploma.
California has developed many new programs to improve academic
achievement. However, as programs develop, the population continues to change. As
the population and diversity in American communities continue to boom, urban
environments have now increased throughout the nation. Many more urban
communities have consumed once suburban environments. Urban schools are in
many ways different from their suburban counterparts. The demographics,
socioeconomic, and cultural risk factors are different for urban students compared to
suburban students. The fact that urban schools have different risk factors and
characteristics is a concern for practitioners, policymakers and researchers.

6
Concerns have now surfaced about students in urban environments not
achieving at the same levels as suburban students. Noddings (1997, p. 27) notes,
schools have not responded effectively to societal changes. When change has
occurred in education, the educational response is often piecemeal and designed to
address isolated bits of the problem. Since the educational system has not responded
accordingly to societal changes, there was concern about the quality of education
students are receiving. Not all students in America are receiving the same quality of
education leading to an ever-increasing achievement gap.
As California is in the forefront for immigration and population growth, it is
becoming even more important to understand how students in all environments
succeed, as increasing urban environments develop throughout the nation. As
American cities continue to be developed and higher-density housing increases,
understanding the factors that allow students to achieve will lead to not just academic
success but overall national success in both academics and post-high school careers.
Some foreign countries have adopted more rigorous academic standards compared to
American educational standards. If we want to establish a more successful national
economy, we need to help students in our schools establish their foundation even
earlier. We must also remember that we live in a global economy and the race to the
future has already begun. Education is one avenue of opportunity to help students
develop their foundation for the future.
Despite all of the challenges mentioned above, some urban schools have
achieved significant gains in academic achievement. In California, for example,

7
some urban schools have outperformed their suburban counterparts. Questions have
since ensued as to what factors affect academic achievement. Why do some high
schools outperform other similar high schools? How do we help urban students
achieve an even greater level of academic success compared to their suburban
counterparts? If the American population continues to grow and there are more urban
environments in the United States, now is the time to understand and develop some
research on urban students and their academic achievement.
Historically, students in urban high schools have underperformed
academically in comparison to their suburban counterparts. Nonetheless, some urban
high schools have achieved significant gains. It is unclear what contributes to high
performance in these schools. While there are many components to academic
achievement, we will examine what perceived factors contribute to academic
achievement in a high performing urban high school. And, is there a link between
student engagement and academic achievement in a high performing urban high
school.

Statement of the Problem
With all the various reform efforts in education, one would assume that we
are increasing student achievement and closing the achievement gap. However, this
has not been the case as mentioned above. Students in urban high schools have
continued to struggle academically in comparison to their suburban counterparts. A
large numbers of students are still not achieving in their academic environments. In

8
looking at the institutions themselves, educational research has focused on high
schools in general, but there is very little research on the urban high school. America
is losing in the global environment and we need to understand how to reverse the
trend. How do we, as practitioners, lawmakers, and researchers help students reach
new levels of academic achievement? Additional research is needed to better
understand and develop a model for high performance in urban high schools.
Much of the research available today examines the students as a whole;
however, not much research focuses on asking the students about their perceived
relationship between student engagement and academic achievement. Researchers
have examined curriculum, instruction and culture, but never asked the students for
their input on student engagement and academic achievement.
Society has always thought that as adults, we know what is best for our
students. On the other hand, it is just as easy to ask the students about how involved
they are with their academics.

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine what perceived factors contribute to
high performance in a high performing urban high school. Is there a link between
student engagement and academic achievement? What other perceived factors affect
academic achievement? The research in this paper acknowledges some factors that
contribute to academic achievement and determine whether or not a link exists
between student engagement and academic achievement.

9
This research study analyzes a high performing urban high school in the Los
Angeles area to better understand what factors contribute to high performance at that
particular urban high school. What significance does student engagement have in
academic achievement? A multi-method qualitative approach was utilized and a
variety of data analysis techniques such as document analysis, surveys, observations
and interviews were developed to collect data for this case study. A more detailed
explanation as to why a multi-method qualitative research approach was utilized is
discussed in Chapter 3.
As educational leaders, understanding the factors that contribute to high
performance can provide opportunities for other schools to replicate and increase
academic achievement in all schools across the nation. If we are able to determine
the factors that affect student achievement, education as whole stands to benefit.
This case study is one of 10 thematic dissertation case studies conducted at
the University of Southern California (USC) led by Dr. Stuart E. Gothold. The USC
cohort created the research design and instruments used for the data collection of this
research project. The document analysis provided an opportunity for the researcher
to better understand the composition and the culture at the high school through
various documents. Surveys of teachers, administrators, students and other
constituents provided specific data about the high school. Data from the high school
was compared to national data collected by an outside agency. Secondary data from
the High School Survey of Student Engagement (HSSSE) at Indiana University
provided the researcher the ability to understand student engagement at a high

10

performing urban high school and how it compares with the results of the national
data of both urban and suburban schools. The high school had already conducted the
HSSSE survey and this researcher utilized the data in the document review.
The researcher was able to spend five full school days at the urban high
school selected for this study to better understand and observe the various factors
that contribute to academic achievement. Interviews with key campus constituents
were conducted to validate the culture of this high performing urban high school.
The use of document analysis, surveys, observations, and interviews provided the
researcher with a better understanding of what factors contribute to high performance
at this specific urban high school in the Los Angeles area.

Research Questions
The study was guided by the two overarching research questions:
1. What perceived factors contribute to academic achievement in a high
performing urban high school?
2. Is there a link between student engagement and academic achievement in a
high performing urban high school.

Significance of the Study
As educational leaders and consumers of education, maximizing student
achievement is a top priority for all of us. By understanding what perceived factors
contribute to academic achievement in a high performing urban high school,

11
educators and practitioners can utilize the information to help all students reach
higher levels of academic achievement.
Much of today’s educational research focuses on circumstances beyond the
individual student. Some factors external to the student that have already been
examined are educational standards, teacher performance, parental involvement, and
pedagogy. While research provides educators with much needed data about how to
maximize student achievement, much of the research areas are external to the student
and cannot be influenced by the students themselves.
Students have very little control over teacher performance, parental
involvement or pedagogy. This researcher analyzed data about student engagement
from the student perspective and then triangulated the results with other data. The
current research examines the student within a myriad of factors that influence
student achievement; however, not much research examines what factors influence
the students themselves.
This research provides high schools across the nation with data to understand
the relationship between student engagement and academic achievement in a high
performing urban high school. What perceived factors contribute to academic
achievement? How do students from a particular high performing urban high school
compare in terms of student engagement with the national data on student
engagement? Is there a link between student engagement and academic
achievement?

12
As a practitioner in education, this researcher believes that understanding the
perceived factors that affect academic achievement can help educators provide the
right culture, leadership, and curriculum and instruction to maximize student
achievement results. The right components in education can greatly affect the
campus culture. Data from the research will help practitioners determine ways to
create more conducive learning environments and to close the achievement gap.
This study provides valuable data for policymakers to help them make better
decisions on how to help students reach higher levels of academic achievement.
What types of legislation or reform efforts help students achieve? The data notifies
policymakers as to what needs to be done in our educational system to academically
outperform our global counterparts. Concrete evidence will help policymakers create
new legislation and reform efforts to maximize academic achievement and prepare
our students for the global environment.
Researchers can better understand the perceived factors that affect academic
achievement and utilize the data in this study as groundwork for future studies on
academic achievement in urban high school environments. Researchers can utilize
the data and focus more on high achieving urban high schools. The study provides a
basis for student achievement research in urban high schools.
One source of data utilized in the document analysis section was the High
School Study on Student Engagement (HSSSE) from Indiana University. The data
from the HSSSE was compared to the national HSSSE database. The research
determined whether or not there is a link between student engagement and academic

13
achievement, and what perceived factors contribute to academic achievement in a
high performing urban high school.
A multi-method qualitative review was utilized to identify the perceived
factors that contribute to academic achievement in a high performing urban high
school and to determine if there is a link between student engagement and academic
achievement. Data for the research was collected by utilizing document analysis,
surveys, observations, and interviews. The reason why a qualitative research
approach was used was because it is easier to triangulate data to better validate the
factors that affect academic achievement. The USC cohort developed the research
design and instruments to fit the needs of this study and the other nine case studies.
The information about student engagement from one high performing urban high
school was used to compare it to the national data on student engagement.

Limitations of the Study
An array of limitations affected this research study. First, the case study only
examines one high performing urban high school at one moment in time. The study
compared the results of students at one particular high performing urban high school
versus a very limited national data. Only 300,000 students from high schools across
29 states in 2004 through 2006 completed the HSSSE survey. The national survey
did not distinguish urban high schools from non-urban environments. Thus it was
also unclear what percentage of the total respondents were from “urban” high
schools.

14
The researcher used the HSSSE survey as secondary data, and did not
administer the survey. As a result, it is unknown if the way the survey that was
administered played a role in the results of the data. The survey was administered on
a voluntary basis at the high school in English classes. Students not in attendance in
school on that particular day were not able to take the survey. No make-up surveys
were available.
In addition, the survey instrument itself has limitations. The surveys did not
allow the responder to provide detailed responses to the questions asked. The HSSSE
is a qualitative survey using a Likert scale. Likert scales usually do not provide the
opportunity for an in-depth response or to question the statement. It is unclear
whether respondents understood the statement being asked or if their interpretation
of the statement was consistent with how others interpreted the statement. While the
survey was comprehensive, it had many limitations. The HSSSE only provided
secondary information for the data analysis.
By using document analysis, surveys, observations and interviews the goal
was to triangulate the data to make reasonable interpretations on how student
engagement impacts academic achievement. Our time at the high school was very
limited and the data collected was only a snapshot of the entire academic year. It is
difficult to survey, observe and interview every constituent of the campus. As a
result, a sampling of all constituencies was utilized for the data collection.

15
Delimitations of the Study
The study was conducted with the following delimitations. Only members of
the campus community at a single high performing urban high school site were
researched for this study. The selection of the school site was based on the research
criteria predetermined by the USC cohort to define a high performing urban high
school.
The study focused on students’ perceived factors that contribute to academic
achievement at their high school. Factors beyond the high school environment can
greatly affect academic achievement and are beyond the scope of this research study.
The individuals identified for this research project were limited to that high school.
The researcher was able to spend only a limited amount of days physically at
the high school as agreed with the school site. While the researcher has attempted to
remain unbiased, the analysis is subject to research biases and interpretations. The
document analysis, surveys, observations, and interviews reflect a snapshot in time
of when the researcher was able to be at the high school for this study.
Data for the research was collected by utilizing document analysis, surveys,
observations, and interviews. The HSSSE data had been collected during the tenure
of the previous principal. A new principal had been assigned to the high school after
the research was approved. It is unclear whether or not the change in leadership
affected academic achievement at the high performing urban high school.

16
Assumptions
Some of the assumptions in this study are that all respondents were honest
and were sincere in their consideration of their responses to the surveys and
interviews. During the days the researcher was able to be at the high school, the
observations the researcher noted were typical of a regular school day and the
campus constituents behaved in a conventional manner.
The criteria established by the USC cohort to define a high performing urban
high school was not compromised at the high school. The API scores, Title I status,
and graduation rates were accurate and free from manipulations. The school was
labeled high performing based on its API scores and its similar schools ranking in
which the school to be studied met all criteria. A continuation of the school’s success
is assumed. It is also assumed that the school has programs, structures and rules that
positively support academic achievement.

Definition of Key Terms and Related Concepts
The following terminology was defined to help the reader better understand
the operational definitions of key terms. This definition of terminology will reduce
the amount of misunderstanding and provide definitions for specific terms which will
be utilized throughout the study. The following definitions were provided by
EdSource Online 2007.

17
Academic Performance Index (API)
A number summarizing the performance of a group of students, a school, or a district
on California’s standardized tests. A school’s number (or API score) is used to rank
it among schools of the same type (elementary, middle, high, or small) and among
the 100 schools of the same type that are most similar in terms of students served,
teacher qualifications, and other factors.
Accountability
The notion that people (e.g., students or teachers) or an organization (e.g., a school,
school district, or state department of education) should be held responsible for
improving student achievement and should be rewarded or sanctioned for their
success or lack of success in doing so.
Achievement Gap
A consistent difference in scores on student achievement tests between certain
groups of children and children in other groups.
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP)
Adequate yearly progress is a set of annual academic performance benchmarks that
states, school districts, schools, and subpopulations of students are supposed to
achieve if the state receives federal funding under Title I, Part A of the federal No
Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). In California, the measures include: (1) specified
percentages of students scoring “proficient” or “advanced” on California Standards
Tests in English language arts and math; (2) participation of at least 95% of students

18
on those tests; (3) specified Academic Performance Index scores or gains; and (4) for
high schools, a specified graduation rate or improvement in the rate.
California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE)
The CAHSEE is a state exam that California public high school students must pass
in order to graduate. The exit exam is not a college entrance or honors exam. Instead,
its purpose is to test whether students have mastered the academic skills necessary to
succeed in the adult world. It is a pass-fail exam divided into two sections: English
language arts (reading and writing) and mathematics. Sophomores, juniors, and
seniors can take the test. Once students pass a section of the test, they do not take
that section again.
Curriculum
Curriculum is the courses of study offered by a school or district. California has
developed a set of standards that are intended to guide curriculum and instruction.
The state also approves K–12 textbooks that reflect those standards. The ultimate
decisions regarding school curriculum, however, are the responsibility of the local
school board.
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act is federal law affecting K-12
education. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) is the most recent reauthorization
of the ESEA. Originally enacted in 1965 as part of the War on Poverty, ESEA was
created to support the education of the country's poorest children and that remains its
overarching purpose. Congress must reauthorize it every six years. Each

19
reauthorization of ESEA has made some changes, but NCLB was the most dramatic
revision of the act since its creation. Its provisions represent a significant change in
the federal government's influence in public schools and districts throughout the
United States, particularly in terms of assessment and teacher quality.
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)
The 2002 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA).
Originally passed in 1965, ESEA programs provide much of the federal funding for
K–12 schools. NCLB’s provisions represent a significant change in the federal
government's influence in public schools and districts throughout the United States,
particularly in terms of assessment, accountability, and teacher quality. It increases
the federal focus on the achievement of disadvantaged pupils, including English
language learners and students who live in poverty, provides funding for “innovative
programs” such as charter schools, and supports the right of parents to transfer their
children to a different school if their school is low-performing or unsafe.
The qualifying criteria for an high performing high school consisted of the
following two conditions:
1. the student body and demographics were consistent with characteristics of
urban-like high schools as defined by the dissertation group; and
2. the high school was exceeding expectations compared to other similar
schools.
The dissertation group defined urban or urban-like high schools to be
characterized by the following:

20
1. ethnically diverse student population;
2. a large English Language Learners (ELL) population; and
3. a significant number of socio-economically disadvantaged students as
defined by forty percent or more students qualifying for free and reduced lunches or
a numerically significant subgroup on the Academic Performance Index (API).
The High School Survey on Student Engagement (HSSSE) was developed by
the University Of Indiana, Bloomington. According to Indiana University, the
ultimate goal of the HSSSE was to “document, describe, and monitor student
engagement in educationally purposeful activities in secondary schools nationally.”
The HSSSE is a powerful tool in the assessment of student engagement. HSSSE data
properly identifies student engagement at the high school.
The definition of student engagement came from the High School Survey of
Student Engagement (HSSSE, 2007). Student engagement is defined as the time and
energy used in educationally purposeful activities.

Organization of the Dissertation
The next four chapters will focus on the literature review, methodology,
findings and a summary of the overall dissertation case study. This chapter serves as
the introduction to this research project and provides an overview of the study.
Chapter 2 focuses on the literature review or what is already known about the subject
matter. It will synthesize the literature and find relationships between the available
literature and this case study. Chapter 3 will focus on the methodology of this

21
research project. It will define the sample and population to be studied, the
instrumentation used in this research project, and the various data collection and
analysis methods. Chapter 4 will explore the findings of the research questions and
reflect on the findings in terms of this research project. At the end of research
project, conclusions and recommendations will be developed to increase academic
achievement in Chapter 5.
The purpose of the literature review is to explore the available research to
ultimately determine why historically, students in urban high schools have
underperformed academically in comparison to their suburban counterparts.
American education in the 21st century is in need of some assistance and by
understanding student engagement, we can affect academic achievement. One
researcher mentions that forty percent of the students in our cities never make it to
high school graduation (Bamburg, 1994, p. 23). This statistic is a testament to the
urgency of this issue in dealing with students from high schools and their academic
achievement levels.
Not every high school is challenged by academic achievement. Some high
schools have achieved significant gains despite the above-mentioned general trend.
Evidence indicates that children who attend urban schools possess the capacity to
learn and that many teachers believe that the students in their class can learn
(Bamburg, 1994, p. 28). However, the teachers and the pedagogical environment are
not properly engaging the students for academic success and therefore the number of

22
high school drop outs have increased. So the question remains, what role does
student engagement have in maximizing academic achievement?

23
CHAPTER 2:
REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE

Before we begin to explore the causes for the achievement gap, one needs to
understand the history of education in America, in particular the public high school
system. This chapter provides a better understanding of the American education
system and the various reform and accountability movements that have been initiated
over the last two hundred years. By better understanding the factors which create the
American education system and understanding student performance, educational
leaders can utilize the information to help students reach new levels of academic
achievement.
This review summarizes the historical aspects of high school education in the
United States that have proven to be major evolutionary steps in the educational
process. The chapter will follow with the current accountability system and how the
performance of high schools is measured both nationally and in California. The
literature review further examines the reform movement of high schools and
legislation that has impacted current education from the federal to state levels. The
future of America is in a very dire state if the educational fabric of society does not
allow it to adapt to the changing global environment.
With all the changes in reform and legislation in regards to education, one
would think that students should be high performing and reaching higher levels of
academic achievement. Many pieces of legislation and education reform focus on

24
increasing academic achievement for students. However, this is not the case, and
much research is needed to develop a model for academic excellence so other
institutions may follow suit.

History of Public Education in the United States
Education in the United States began with churches which established the
first American schools in order to educate ministers for religious reasons. The
earliest federal enactment pertaining to education is the Northwest Ordinance of
1787, which included some language encouraging schools and the means of
education (Russo, 2004, p. 2).
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 specifically mentions “schools and the
means of an education” in the law with a multitude of other individual and state
rights. This was the first piece of legislation passed by the new American
government that mentioned education in the context of individual and state rights.
In the 1840s, Horace Mann of Massachusetts published the Common School
Journal. The Journal called for a public education system available for all people.
Mann’s belief was that an educated population would create more law-abiding and
productive citizens. Gill et al., (2001) commented on how Americans see education
for their children as a public responsibility. The Common School Journal provided
the early beginnings of today’s public education system with children enrolled as
students for the sake of basic education. Education would benefit not only the
individual but society as a whole would benefit according to Horace Mann.

25
Mann’s dedication in providing education was further acknowledged when he
was elected as Massachusetts’ secretary of education in 1837 and helped established
a statewide system of commons schools that provided free education to its residents.
Mann strongly believed that everyone was entitled to the same educational
opportunities. Gill et al., (2001) confirmed Mann’s views in his research of
American education and mentions education is (in part) a public good: it benefits not
only those who are students, but society as a whole gains from having a well-
educated population.
After Massachusetts began its public education system, other states in the
union followed suit. In 1849, Connecticut adopted a similar educational system. The
Connecticut legislature agreed with Mann’s Common School Journal and believed
educational opportunities benefits society as a whole. In 1852, Massachusetts passed
the compulsory attendance law, which provided all students with access to education
regardless of their background. The Common School Journal was the beginning for
our current educational system where compulsory attendance is expected until age
16. While much discussion about educational opportunities would continue to be
discussed in the next few centuries, Horace Mann founded the idea of public
education in American society.
Mann’s initial intention was to provide education at the primary levels. He
focused on providing opportunities at the elementary and middle school grade years
to develop basic life skills (reading, writing, arithmetic, etc.) to help individuals

26
succeed. Secondary education moved much slower in its formation mainly because
only the privileged classes took advantage of the opportunities.
Reserved for the affluent and wealthy, a very small percentage of students
graduated from high schools in the early 1900s. As child labor laws began to change
and focus on education increased, more students were provided an opportunity for
secondary education. As the numbers of high school graduates increased, most states
passed laws that increased the age for compulsory attendance to age 16. Students
would receive public education up to the age of 16.
Over the last two hundred years, changes in education had evolved slowly.
One researcher noted, schools have not responded effectively to societal changes
(Noddings, 1997, p. 27). Noddings was concerned with the lack of evolution in
education. The school calendar was designed and is still reflective of an agrarian
society where students were needed to work the fields for the harvest in the summer
months. While some reform has taken place in high school education, the need to
adapt the educational system to the changing economy has failed. Noddings (1997,
p. 27) noted that when an educational response has occurred it is often piecemeal and
designed to address isolated bits of the problem. This literature review will later
focus on federal legislation designed in reforming education as a whole in the United
States.
One goal of high schools is to provide a student with advanced knowledge to
prepare them for either higher education or a vocation and to train an individual
directly for a profession. However, American society has failed to develop an

27
efficient education system as nearly three-quarters of a million students drop out of
school each year. And of those who remain, fewer than half read at levels that allow
them to carry out even moderately complex tasks (Salamon, 1991, p. 23). Indeed, our
educational system has and continues to be in need of reform as seen by recent
legislation. While reform efforts have been ongoing, the educational quality today is
still in jeopardy.
Understanding the history of high school education provides the background
for the reason and climate of educational reform. Today’s high schools have
progressed, to some extent, and the reasons for their availability has changed
compared to those of the 17th century. As we examine the importance of high
performing urban high schools, one needs to understand the history of the American
education system and the various ongoing reform efforts.

Reform Movements in Education
There have been many reforms made to the educational system since its early
inception to allow universal access and high academic achievement for all students.
Mann’s Common School Journal provided access to students seeking educational
opportunities at the primary grades and slowly moved to provide educational
opportunities at the secondary levels as the need for secondary education increased.
While we understand the evolution of secondary education at its earlier
stages, secondary education continues to struggle and face new challenges. Fast
forward one hundred years later: In 1963, the federal government responded to the

28
growing inequality of educational opportunity by creating the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965. The Act was approved because research
had shown that families of lower income households required more educational
services than their affluent counterparts to have the same educational opportunities.
The first federally funded act provided students from low-income households
additional financial resources to improve their school’s educational program to
rectify any educational inequalities. The Act allocated funds to a variety of different
programs all with the goal of improving student opportunities and to equalize the
playing field of all of our students. Since 1965, the ESEA has been reauthorized with
various changes, all with the hope of providing equal educational opportunities for
all students.
In 1983, a national report, A Nation at Risk examined the educational
challenges facing public schools and foreshadowed the future of the educational
environment in the United States. The report revealed the decline of the American
educational system in light of the global economy. America faces new challenges in
terms of educational pursuit and is losing her competitive advantage in the global
economy (A Nation at Risk, 1983). A Nation at Risk challenged the United States to
create immediate reforms in the educational process to maintain competitive
advantage and maintain preeminence in education worldwide. What happened to the
American education system? Why does the United States face these educational
challenges now?

29
The report noted that the educational foundations of our society are presently
being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity that threatens our very future (A Nation at
Risk, 1983). The largest detriment of education to our society is the lack of change.
Salamon (1991, p. 23) noted in 1991, American ninth grade students ranked next to
last compared to 14 other countries. The fabric of the American education system
has not changed to adapt to the competitive global environment.
Very little has changed since 1991 in regards to student achievement. In
America, student achievement is not being challenged as intensely as in other parts
of the world. If America does not react accordingly to the changing educational
environments, the public education system would continue to lose its point position.
The report called for increasing student achievement and providing equal
educational opportunities for all students to maintain the strength of educational
programs. According to Salamon (1991, p. 23), too little accountability for results in
the educational system and therefore too great an acceptance of failure has caused
the demise of American education. However, accountability and utilizing
achievement data is creating some change in American education.
One of the greatest concerns noted in the report of public schools was the
increasing difference between schools in suburban and urban populations. In the
ideal educational environment, the poorer populations would have the same
opportunities as the rich. Bamburg (1994, p. 1) comments that when the public tries
to assess the performance of urban schools, it finds that achievement is invariably
lower for students who are labeled poor or minority.

30
What are some of the reasons causing lower student achievement? One
researcher mentions that educational inequality caused by the disproportionate
exposure of poor and minority students (those who fill inner-city and urban schools)
to less trained and experienced teachers (Darling-Hammond, 1988). Students in
suburban areas continued to achieve academically versus the challenges that face
their urban counterparts. It was evident in the report that not all children were
receiving the same quality of education as one had originally thought.
Another indicator of the ever increasing education gap was when businesses
and military leaders complained that they are required to spend millions of dollars on
costly remedial education and training programs in such basic skills as reading,
writing, spelling, and computation (A Nation at Risk, 1983). Some of the basic skills
that businesses and military leaders thought were being taught in high schools were
not and it has become their responsibility to educate their people. If the goal of
education is to provide an opportunity for students to pursue higher education or a
vocation then the current educational system has failed to produce such productive
citizens.
Why does society place such importance on education? Low education means
low paying jobs, and this is where more and more Americans are finding themselves
(Friedman, 2005, p. 262). If we want individuals to be productive citizens in society,
we need to provide our students with the tools necessary to succeed. Horace Mann’s
Common School Journal mentioned an educated population leads to a more
productive and law-abiding population.

31
Employers and university faculty members lament that high school graduates
do not have the knowledge, academic skills and practical competencies to perform
adequately in their college or work environments. McCarthy & Kuh (1982) mention
one reason students drop out is because they are not developing the basic skills they
need to succeed in school – writing, spelling, basic math computation. Most students
are not receiving the basic educational skills needed of them to be productive citizens
in this economy. This is where various accountability reform efforts have begun to
address every level of the educational environment.
At every level – from the federal government to the local school board –
policy makers are now proposing new initiatives to raise standards while helping
more students graduate with the knowledge and skills needed for success in college,
work and life (The Education Trust, 2005, p. 40). An examination of some of the
changes at the federal and state levels will be discussed below. As a result of failing
schools and the A Nation at Risk report, national and state academic standards have
been implemented in the classroom to counteract the achievement gap and to provide
equal educational opportunities to all students.
With the various accountability systems in the different states, educators had
a difficult time assessing the educational standards for students. Students were held
to different standards with no uniform legislation to explain what exactly students
needed to know at each grade level. Each state maintained its own educational
standards, which varied greatly. Friedman (2005, p. 273) notes education in America
is relatively decentralized and fragmented. The schools are overseen by fifty

32
different state governments with no universal authority to oversee the education of
America’s children.
Standards based instruction focuses on the academic standards for students
based on grade level and in core subjects (Elmore, 2002). As mentioned earlier, there
are as many different standards as there are states in the union. HSSSE data indicated
that students in urban high school were writing very few papers longer than five
pages (What We Can Learn From High School Students, 2005, p. 13). Because
education was and continues to be so decentralized, accountability issues have now
risen. The lack of any federal oversight over the educational process of this nation
has created additional reform efforts. We will later discuss these various reform
efforts in detail.
As a result of the research conducted in the 1983 A Nation at Risk report, an
educational reform movement began in the 1990s. The next two decades would serve
as revolutionary years in terms of the development of educational standards, student
achievement, and educational equality at both the federal and state levels. Codding
and Rothman (1999) comments that the second half of the 1980s was one of the most
energetic periods in American history for educational reform. The A Nation at Risk
report has brought the future of education to the forefront of politics. One piece of
legislation, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1994 provided all
schools receiving Title I funding to have the same educational expectations as those
students from schools not receiving Title I funding.

33
In January 2002, President George W. Bush signed into law the No Child
Left Behind Act (NCLB). The No Child Left Behind Act was the latest
reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. NCLB is the most
current federal level effort in educational reform (enacted in 2006) and remains one
of the most controversial. The NCLB system results represent what an educated
person should know and be able to do by a certain grade level (Mathis, 2003, p. 683).
NCLB seeks to provide equal educational opportunities for all children to
close the achievement gap. The new legislation holds states, school districts, and
school sites accountable for the academic achievement of their students. The law has
brought high standards and accountability to our nation’s public schools and is
working to raise student reading and math achievement in the early grades. (U.S.
Department of Education, 2007). NCLB’s goal is for all children to be proficient on
stated-defined education standards by the end of the 2013-14 school year.
The purpose of NCLB is for 95% of all student groups to reach minimum
competency levels of their state test standards by 2014 (Mathis, 2003, p. 682). Each
school would receive an adequate yearly progress (AYP) score. The AYP score will
hold schools accountable to federal standards. Schools with greatest need would
receive additional federal funding to assist in the development of educational
programs. Schools are also required to yearly meet AYP scores, which increase
annually.
Schools that fail to meet their AYP scores are labeled “program improvement
(PI)” schools. PI status schools are required to perform a comprehensive needs

34
assessment of the entire school during that academic year. Parents are then notified
when their school is not meeting federal standards. In addition, parents are then
given the option to move their students to different schools in the area if they feel the
programs and academic rigor of the other school better helps their child perform
academically. Other forms of remediation such as reorganization, adoption of
successful educational strategies and dedicated funding for program improvement
are provided to schools that consistently fail to meet AYP standards. In worse case
situations, the federal government would take over the school and restructure the
entire school to proven instructional standards and methods.
The sanctions behind NCLB are heavy and can greatly affect a school. The
federal legislation focused on raising the academic standards of all students within
this nation. NCLB was the result of consistently failing students and was greatly
influenced by the report A Nation at Risk. These higher academic standards as
articulated by NCLB would allow the United States to remain competitive in the
global economy in terms of education and student achievement.
States have also put in place rigorous new accountability systems and are
implementing reading and math assessments covering all students (U.S. Department
of Education, 2007). The State of California has also made great strides to increase
accountability in its school systems. California had begun to develop accountability
and educational standards before the federal government adopted NCLB. Within the
last ten years, the State of California has passed key legislation establishing greater
accountability for all students in California. Legislation such as the California

35
Content Standards, the Public Schools Accountability Act, the School Accountability
Report Card and the California High School Exit Examination have raised the bar in
terms of academic standards and accountability.
Lawmakers in California developed the California Content Standards starting
in 1997 to ensure that all students in California are meeting the minimum standards
requirement and learning the correct educational content for their grade level.
Codding and Rothman (1999) have mentioned that instruction should begin with
clear expectations of what students should know and be able to do. By developing
the California Content Standards, teachers are given clear expectations of what
students should be able to do by a certain grade level.
The content standards were first adopted in December 1997 for English
Language Arts and Mathematics and have spread to history-social sciences, science,
and visual and performing arts. In January 2005, a physical education model content
standard was adopted by the California Board of Education. Content standards were
designed to encourage the highest achievement of every student, by defining the
knowledge, concepts, and skills that students should acquire at each grade level
(California Department of Education, 2007). Teachers teach to the content standards
to ensure all students in California are receiving the same educational content at a
certain grade level.
California’s lawmakers also approved the Public Schools Accountability Act
(PSAA) of 1999. The primary goal of PSAA was to help schools improve and to
measure the academic achievement of all students (California Department of

36
Education, 2007). The PSAA mandated public school systems to produce students
who are lifelong learners and would graduate equipped to succeed within the
economic and societal complexities of the 21st century (California Department of
Education, 2007). The Act provided additional funding for schools labeled as
Immediate Intervention or Underperforming Schools. Schools scoring below the
50th percentile on the standards could possibly receive additional financial support to
address the achievement gap.
Included in the PSAA is the School Accountability Report Card (SARC), an
accountability tool requiring schools to input its academic data (average Scholastic
Achievement Test (SAT) scores, dropout rate, number of credentialed teachers,
college-bound students, etc.) into a public database and maintained accurately on an
annual basis (California Department of Education, 2007). The SARC allows parents
and all constituents’ access to the vital statistics of the school and its student
population. The SARC allows for more transparency among the different schools
and in providing constituents the knowledge needed to assess the success of a
particular school. Schools are required to meet both the AYP and the Academic
Performance Index (API) to determine funding levels.
The State of California required graduating high school students to pass the
California High School Exit Examination (CAHSEE) in order to earn a high school
diploma. The primary purpose of the California High School Exit Examination
(CAHSEE) is to significantly improve student achievement in public high schools
and to ensure that students who graduate from public high schools can demonstrate

37
grade level competency in reading, writing, and mathematics (California Department
of Education, 2007). The examination began with the Class of 2006 and required all
public school students to pass the CAHSEE in order to earn a high school diploma.
The CAHSEE tests students on English and Math skills. It helps identify students
who are not developing skills that are essential for life after high school and
encourages districts to give these students the attention and resources needed to help
them achieve these skills during their high school years (California Department of
Education, 2007).

High Schools Today
While education reform has been strong within the last twenty years, high
schools today are still challenged and face many obstacles that obscure student
achievement. Codding and Rothman (1999) note that teaching and learning in many
American high schools, and the way schools are organized and structured, remains
just as it was when the reform period began. The educational environment has not
adapted to the changing social and economic environment. Another researcher notes
traditional organization of schooling is intellectually and morally inadequate for
contemporary society (Noddings, 1997, p. 35). Schools have not transformed
significantly from the advent of federal and state educational reform efforts.
There are a myriad of reasons why students become less engaged in learning
as they grow older, including influences from both within and outside the school
(Brewster & Fager, 2000, p. 3). Schools are plagued with influences not only from

38
within but external influences greatly impact academic achievement. Safety,
economics, and culture have greatly affected student engagement in the learning
process. According to McCarthy & Kuh (1982, p. 267), only 55% of all respondents
said they feel safe at school which is just more than half of our students. How can
students perform successfully when they do not even feel safe in their classrooms?
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs places safety as a basic need for human motivation.
Also, certain family risk factors, such as poverty or the primary language spoken in
the home, present challenges to students’ educational progress and achievement
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2007).
Other data from the National Center for Education Statistics is equally
staggering. The National Center for Education Statistics is a division of the U.S.
Department of Education and is the primary federal entity for collecting and
analyzing data related to education. The Center provides much needed information
about the current snapshot of American high schools. The National Center for
Education Statistics (2007) reported that American high school students are
challenged by subjects dealing with math and sciences. High school students in the
United States are consistently outperformed by those from Asian and some European
countries on international assessments of mathematics and science. Math and science
courses continue to challenge our students despite the various reform efforts. While
greater emphasis and increased standards have provided for more educational
opportunities in various subject areas, no change was recorded for high school
students’ performance in science and mathematics over the last few years.

39
Other factors such as pedagogy, teacher retention, and student culture have
greatly affected student achievement and success. Bamburg (1994, p. 28) noticed
that low teacher expectations for student achievement exists in America’s urban
schools to a much greater degree than anywhere else. Teachers have been quoted as
knowing that their students can succeed; however, teacher bias continues to exist as
mentioned earlier. The National Center for Education Statistics examines not only
student performance but is able to provide some facts about other factors that
affected American education in 2006.
Since the early 1980s, the proportion of 12th-graders expecting to earn a
bachelor’s degree or to attend graduate school have increased. In 2003–04, 69
percent of 12th-graders expected to attain a bachelor’s degree or attend graduate
school (34 percent expected a bachelor’s as their highest degree and 35 percent
expected to continue to graduate school). Females were more likely than males in
2003–04 to expect to attend graduate school.
Educational facilities have also been challenged. Nationally, 66 percent of
10th-grade schools had at least one unacceptable physical or structural condition
related to cleanliness, vandalism, and/or disrepair. It was interesting to note that
close to two-thirds of our students are housed in educational facilities that are
dilapidated. If the facilities are in such bad shape, how can we expect our students to
thrive in the education environment if no commitment is made to provide them with
adequate educational facilities?

40
Academic success for students is not only focused on the students or the
facilities. Teachers play a tremendous role in student achievement. As the
transmitters of knowledge, teachers have also been dealing with many educational
issues. For example, the average salary for teachers in 2004–2005 was $47,750,
about 2 percent higher than in 1994–1995, after adjustment for inflation. At the end
of the 1999–2000 academic year, about 16 percent of the teacher workforce “turned
over” or did not continue teaching in the same school during the 2000–2001 school
year.
Another interesting fact noted by the National Center for Education Statistics
is that public school teachers in high-poverty schools are twice as likely as their
counterparts in low-poverty public schools to transfer to another school. A major
contributor to many of the problems facing urban schools is their appalling lack of
resources (Bamburg, 2004, p. 11). Very few teachers stay in one work environment
in high–poverty schools for a long time. Instead, turnover is high and teachers move
out of high-poverty schools where their efforts are needed the most.
Educational leaders need to understand the issues facing students today as
they are far more severe than ten, twenty or even thirty years ago. Urban factors such
as low socioeconomic status, high poverty, and English language learners influence
academic achievement. This literature review will later provide additional examples
of the challenges facing students in the 21st century.
High school drop out rates are high as many students are disengaged with the
academic rigor provided by the high schools. School dropout is but one consequence

41
of a lack of engagement at school (Caraway & Tucker, 2003, p. 417). A review of
student performance has shown that students continue to struggle with their
academics even with the various state and federal reforms. A few of the key findings
discovered by the National Assessment of Educational Progress recorded the
following information in The Nation’s Report Card:
In overall reading performance, twelfth-graders in 2005 scored lower than in
1992, but their score was not significantly different compared to 2002. The
percentage of students performing at or above basic decreased from 80 percent in
1992 to 73 percent in 2005, and the percentage of students performing at or above
the proficient level decreased from 40 to 35 percent over the same period of time.
Male students score higher than female students overall. In 2005, at grade 12,
male students scored higher on average in mathematics than female students. The
report also shows that U.S. public schools have the most diverse student population
now than at any other time in history (The National Center for Education Statistics,
2007). However, the educational environment has failed to fully engage our students
to take advantage of the rich diversity in our schools today.

Effective Performance Factors
With all the challenges mentioned earlier and all the different reform efforts
in place, some schools are overcoming obstacles and are designated as being high
performing. While there are many case studies about the components of successful

42
high schools, some factors seem to greatly impact student performance from the
myriad of readings available.
Student success is not solely based on just the students; teachers also play a
huge role in the success of a school. Consistent factors in the various readings and
case studies show that curriculum development and a safe learning environment for
both teachers and students are crucial for student achievement. Research indicates
that engaged students get more from school on all levels than do their disengaged
peers (Fredricks, Blumenfeld & Paris, 2004). While there are many other factors to
student success, student engagement through curriculum and a safe learning
environment for both students and teachers are two key aspects in high performing
high schools.
Curriculum is one of the key components of the education landscape. While
information about various reform movements, accountability, and legislation has
been provided above, curriculum ultimately affects the educational outcomes of our
students. Whether or not students are being appropriately challenged and exactly
what they are learning all comes back down to the curriculum adopted by the
schools, the district and by the State.
Togneri and Anderson (2003, p. 3) note that high performing districts instill
visions that focus on student learning and guide instructional improvement. The
district office plays such a critical role in supporting high performing students. The
district office establishes the environment to ensure focus on student learning and

43
instructional improvement. The district sets the policies and guidelines for each of
their high schools.
One of the first things noticed in high performing high schools was that
districts had the courage to acknowledge poor performance and the will to seek
solutions (Togneri & Anderson, 2003, p. 3). Schools are making some of the
necessary adjustments within a changing global environment. At the district level,
the executive cabinet was willing to accept the data provided and make the necessary
adjustments needed to the curriculum to ensure improvement. The world is changing
and the district needs to be flexible to make the necessary changes to the academic
environment to ensure student success.
In addition, another researcher, Marzano (2003) has mentioned that
challenging goals and effective feedback along with a guaranteed and viable
curriculum, are factors critical for successful schools. Schools need to set high yet
attainable goals for academic achievement. By setting goals, all teachers, students,
and administrators can benchmark their progress in relation to others and receive the
necessary feedback to make adjustments. In this loop of continuous improvement,
teachers and students benefit because students know what is expected of them and
timely feedback is provided to the student to assist them in obtaining their goals.
With a guaranteed and viable curriculum, teachers know what the standards are and
are provided with enough instructional time to maximize student achievement.
Instructional time is valued and maximized to ensure the best opportunities for
educational attainment.

44
Another defining factor of successful schools is a safe learning environment
for both students and teachers. Students need to feel as if they are part of a greater
educational community. In Gaining Traction, Gaining Ground, (The Education
Trust, 2005, p. 21) research discovered that faculty in high-impact schools take
responsibility for ensuring that struggling students get the additional help that they
need. High-impact schools have in place early warning systems to identify students
who need help before it’s too late. The learning environment continuously provides
feedback to the students in regards to their academic standing and the pedagogy is
safe enough for teachers to take on the responsibility of educating their students.
Both teachers and students are working together in the educational environment.
In Marzano’s (2003) research of effective schools, he mentions that
successful schools include a safe and orderly environment, collegiality and
professionalism. Clear rules must be established and enforced in the classroom.
Teachers must feel they are comfortable in a professional work environment to
maximize their production. Marzano’s research on effective schools is in alignment
with the research by others. Curriculum development and a safe learning
environment for both teachers and students are crucial for maximizing student
achievement.
Teachers play such a key role in student development. By providing a safe
learning environment for the teacher, students benefit as more challenging
instruction can occur without fear or reprimand. Brewster and Fager (2000, p. 3)
noticed that when students enter school, their level of interest and desire to engage in

45
learning are heavily influenced by teachers. If teachers feel that the schools are
supportive of them, then they are able to maximize their teaching abilities and step
outside their comfort zones to ensure students receive the needed education.
However, if teachers feel their school does not respect or value them, they are
less likely to provide additional assistance to students. Darling-Hammond (2002, p.
169) notes that traditional schools provide few incentives to support the efforts of
teachers who want to know the needs of their students well, who are willing to look
for the answers to the knottiest problems of teaching and learning, and who want to
work with the students for whom attainment of an education is especially risky and
labor intensive.
Little can be gained by demanding that teachers change what they do in the
classroom until educators also commit themselves to change what schools do and
how they change. Low teacher expectations for student achievement exists in
America’s urban schools to a much greater degree than anywhere else (Bamburg,
1994, p. 28). Administrators need to initiate the change if they want teachers to
succeed and pass that success on to the students.

Student Engagement
Researchers have noted that lack of school engagement among adolescents in
this country remains a problem that can have very serious consequences including
increased risk for school dropout, substance abuse, teenage pregnancy and criminal
activity (Caraway & Tucker, 2003, p. 417). Educational researchers have focused on

46
ways of increasing student success by understanding more about the students
themselves. Indiana University’s School of Education has developed the High
School Survey of Student Engagement (HSSSE) to document, describe and monitor
student engagement in educationally purposeful activities in secondary schools
nationally (Indiana University, 2007).
HSSSE defines student engagement as “the time and energy students dedicate
to educationally purposeful activities.” To date, over 300,000 students from high
schools across 29 states have taken the qualitative survey (Indiana University, 2007).
The HSSSE asks high school students particular questions about academic rigor,
study habits, their beliefs about school and their learning environment. The data is
then compiled and given to educational leaders to provide them with a better
understanding as to the lifestyles and academics of today’s high school student.

High School Survey on Student Engagement
Comparing HSSSE results to data from college surveys reveals that high
school students are studying and writing far less than will be expected in college; yet
most high school students say they will enroll in some type of higher education
(McCarthy & Kuh, 1982, p. 267). The HSSSE began in 2004 and provides
educational administrators the background to develop educational initiatives to
increase student learning. HSSSE provides information that can be used to stimulate
discussions on teaching and learning and guide student improvement activities
(Indiana University, 2007). Some interesting highlights in the article, Getting

47
“Students Ready for College: What Student Engagement Data Can Tell Us” (2005)
indicated that 9 out of 10 respondents taking courses for college credit or enrolled in
college prep/honors courses planned to go to college. Family educational background
is a key factor that influences whether students are thinking about attending college
or not. Respondents of the HSSSE also indicated that they do not have to work very
hard to succeed in high school. The HSSSE data also shows that students enrolled in
a college preparation path tend to spend more time preparing for class, however, the
rigor of high school courses should be increased significantly.
The data captured by HSSSE can be used to better understand student
engagement and its role in student achievement. The goal of this research is to
determine if data from the HSSSE shows some links between levels of student
engagement and high levels of academic achievement. Unfortunately, HSSSE does
not distinguish its results from urban verus suburban school districts. The focus of
this paper will be on one high performing urban high school. Research has examined
high performing students as a group and not looked at urban high schools. One
important aspect of this study is that it will provide a better understanding of a high
performing urban high school.

Conclusion
Students in America are struggling with today’s educational system.
Academic achievement is at an all time low and many students do not pursue higher
levels of educational attainment. The numbers of high school drop outs have

48
increased and dropping out of school is the ultimate form of student disengagement.
What is causing this downward spiral in the educational environment? Are students
engaged in their academic pursuits and what effect does engagement have on
academic performance? This research study will add to the literature focusing on the
perceived factors that contribute to academic achievement in a high performing
urban high school and whether or not student engagement is a factor in academic
achievement. While there is data about students in general, this research project will
focus primarily on a high performing urban high school. The need for high levels of
academic achievement is great, especially in urban environments. This research
project will develop a better understanding of the perceived factors that contribute to
academic achievement in an urban environment. Students in urban high schools have
underperformed academically in comparison to suburban students but is there a link
between student engagement and academic achievement?
As leaders in education, it is our goal to help students maximize their
academic achievement. Factors such as curriculum and a safe learning environment
for both students and teachers support high-performing schools. Additional factors
such as campus culture, curriculum and instruction and leadership play a critical role
in academic achievement. To what extent does student engagement affect academic
achievement in a high performing urban high school is the focus of this study. Very
little research has focused on urban high school environments.
The next chapter will focus on the methodology of this case study, the sample
and population, the instrumentation to be used, and the data collection and analysis

49
methods. Chapter 4 will discuss the findings from the research project and
recommendations and conclusions will be offered in the last chapter.

50
CHAPTER 3:
METHODOLOGY

Introduction
Historically, students in urban high schools have underperformed
academically in comparison to their suburban counterparts. Nonetheless, some urban
high schools have achieved significant gains, while it is unclear what exactly
contributes to high performance in these schools. What perceived factors contribute
to academic achievement in a high performing urban high school? Is there a link
between student engagement and student achievement in a high performing urban
high school?
The purpose of this study is to examine the link between student engagement
and academic achievement and what perceived factors affect academic achievement
in urban high schools. Schools in urban environments have historically
underperformed in comparison with their suburban counterparts but what contributes
to high levels of academic achievement in some urban environments? With high
levels of student engagement, will there be higher levels of student achievement?
What other perceived factors contribute to academic achievement? This study will
attempt to identify other perceived factors that contribute to academic achievement at
one high performing urban high school.

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Research Methodology
The relationship between student engagement and academic achievement was
examined through a case study approach. A case study is conducted to shed light on
a phenomenon, which is the processes, events, persons or things of interest to the
researcher (Gall, Gall and Borg, 2003, p. 436). This case study examined a
particular high performing urban high school in Southern California Union High
School District to see what perceived factors contribute to academic achievement.
The high school was identified as a high performing urban high school. What is this
high school doing right relative to other high schools that have increased their
academic achievement levels? We know the high school we examined was high
performing through various accountability standards, but what processes, events,
persons or things of interest make it high performing? What is actually driving the
academic success of this high school? The goal of this paper is to understand the
perceived drivers for academic achievement.
Gall, Gall and Borg notes that researchers generally conduct case studies for
one of three purposes: to produce detailed descriptions of the phenomenon, to
develop possible explanations of it, or to evaluate the phenomenon (2003, p. 439).
In this case study, we know the urban high school has had a recent history of
academic success and our goal was to determine what perceived factors have led the
success of the urban high school in comparison with similar urban high schools with
similar demographics. If we can explain or evaluate the reasons for success in the

52
urban high school, replication of high academic achievement to other urban high
schools could be possible.

Research Development
The reason we utilized a multi-method qualitative research design is because
Creswell (1998) notes when (a) the research question is developed for a qualitative
design study, (b) the factors explored necessitated a detailed view, (c) the study was
within a relative natural context of a school and (d) the researcher’s role in the study
was that of an active learner who was able to tell the story from a participant’s
perspective rather than as an expert who passes judgments on participants, then the
design of the research can be designated as qualitative. We studied a school and tried
to determine through data what perceived factors contributed to academic
achievement. The researcher compiled qualitative data from the participants and
presented the findings in this paper.
Another reason a multi-method qualitative research design was utilized was
to triangulate the data to identify consistent themes. Triangulating data is used to
utilize the various forms of data collection procedures for a qualitative study;
document analysis, surveys, observations and interviews (Creswell, 2003). By
triangulating the data, the researchers could more fully validate the factors that affect
student achievement. Triangulation helps eliminate biases that might result from
relying exclusively on any one data-collection method, source, analyst, or theory
(Gall, Gall and Borg, 2003, p. 464). Common themes can more concretely be

53
developed by triangulating various data collection methods. By utilizing various
forms of data collection with different respondents, a clearer picture of the factors
impacting student achievement will be presented.
Understanding the educational environment and the individual student was
crucial for understanding how student achievement was impacted. The qualitative
research design allowed the researcher to look beyond the superficial characteristics
and focus more towards a specific high performing urban high school. The USC
cohort developed a conceptual model to determine the impact of various factors on
academic achievement. The conceptual model will be presented later in this chapter.
This case study is one of 10 thematic dissertation case studies conducted at
the University of Southern California led by Dr. Stuart E. Gothold. All of the
thematic cases focused on the perceived factors that contribute to academic
achievement in a high performing urban high school. The doctoral students are
student investigators in this case study examining 10 unique high performing urban
high school environments in the Southern California area. By examining 10 unique
urban high schools, the researchers hoped to find patterns in the schools and utilize
these findings to establish how various factors contribute to academic achievement.
Once we have a better understanding of how these perceived factors contribute to
academic achievement, the researchers hoped to provide a framework to increase
student achievement levels.
The researchers, from a variety of professional backgrounds, have all
contributed to the research design utilized to determine what perceived factors

54
?
contributed to academic achievement in a high performing urban high school. The
researchers developed a conceptual map to determine the link between student
engagement and academic achievement, if such a link exists. An analysis of each of
the design instruments will be discussed later. The entire cohort met as a whole on
various occasions throughout the 2007 year to focus on the research design and to
create detailed instruments to be able to help identify perceived factors that
contribute to academic achievement in high performing urban high schools.

Conceptual Framework
The USC cohort designed and developed a conceptual model to focus on
student achievement. The cohort developed the conceptual model (Figure 1) to
demonstrate the array of factors that can affect student achievement as discovered
during the literature review. The conceptual model examines the various inputs
necessary to improve student learning in urban high schools. Many factors beyond
the campus community can affect academic achievement. Curriculum and
instruction, leadership, student engagement and school culture are all factors
identified by the cohort which directly influence student achievement.
Other factors such as globalization, national/state/district influences,
accountability, and urban-like risk factors impact the educational environment. These
factors are external to the immediate campus environment but can greatly influence
what occurs in the environment. For example, accountability can greatly affect the
curriculum and instruction in the school.

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Figure 1: Conceptual Model

What schools can greatly influence is other factors such as school culture,
curriculum and instruction, and leadership. All the factors identified in the
conceptual model above are interconnected. All of these factors have a role in
affecting student achievement and affecting each other. For example, leadership can
greatly affect the school culture. And the culture of the school can be influenced by
leadership. By understanding how the various factors affect student achievement,
educational leaders could utilize the conceptual model to develop strategies to
strengthen the various factors. This paper focused on the relationship between

56
academic achievement and student engagement. What role does student engagement
play on student achievement?

Population
Two factors were utilized to determine whether or not a school was urban.
The following two factors were developed collectively by the cohort to define an
urban high school and utilized for all 10 of the case studies.
The qualifying criteria consisted of the following two conditions:
1. the student body and demographics were consistent with characteristics of
urban-like high schools as defined by the dissertation group; and
2. the high school was exceeding expectations compared to other similar
schools.
The dissertation group defined urban or urban-like high schools to be
characterized by the following:
1. ethnically diverse student population;
2. a large English Language Learners (ELL) population; and
3. a significant number of socio-economically disadvantaged students as
defined by forty percent or more students qualifying for free and reduced lunches or
a numerically significant subgroup on the Academic Performance Index (API).
Once the term urban was defined, the cohort also had to identify the criteria
needed to define a high performing high school. The following factors were used to
determine if a school was a high-performing high school.

57
For a high performing high school, the school must exhibit:
Factor 1- an API score of 650 or more
Factor 2- a school that is 2 or more points higher on their similar schools
rankings than their statewide rank.
Factor 3- a graduation rate of at least 95%.
Trojan High School
Trojan High School, a high school in Southern California Union High School
District was the subject of this case analysis. Trojan High School was examined
because it had recently had a history of high academic achievement and it possessed
the qualities defined for a high performing urban high school.
Formed in 1900, the Southern California Union High School District is
comprised of five comprehensive high schools, one continuation school, one
independent study program, and one adult school. All five comprehensive high
schools were examined by the 2007 and 2008 Ed.D. cohorts. The Southern
California Union High School District is located approximately 10 miles southeast of
Los Angeles.
Trojan High School, the subject of this case study, is a high-achieving high
school. The data below was provided by the 2005-2006 School Accountability
Report Card. Trojan High serves grades 9-12 on a traditional school schedule.
During the 2005-2006 academic year, 41% of the students were on free and reduced
lunches. Nine percent of the school’s population are English language learners and
most students at Trojan High School identify themselves as Latino/Hispanic. The

58
ethnic breakdown is as follows: 1% African American, 22% Asian American or
Pacific Islander, 79% Latino or Hispanic, 18% White, European American or other.
The campus is ethnically diverse with a wide variety of students with different
backgrounds.
One particular area of difference at Trojan High School is the various career
academies to help students pursue their careers. These programs provide students
with a focused educational experience, preparing them for the professional world and
higher education. Students are being recognized in competitions at the state and
national levels. Entry-level certifications include certified nursing assistant, Serve-
Safe (for food safety), and Automotive Service Excellence. These vocational
programs greatly differentiate Trojan High School’s curriculum from those of other
high schools in the area.
All student sub-groups, including English learners and special education
students met Academic Performance Index (API) growth targets in 2006. The API is
the State of California’s calculation of student performance by comparing schools
based on student test scores. The index was created in 1999 to help parents and
educators recognize schools that show progress and identify schools that need help.
The California Department of Education calculated API using student test results
from the California Standards Test, the California Achievement Test, and the
California High School Exit Exam. The 2005 Academic Performance Index score
was a 680 and in 2006 the API was 721, a growth of 41 points on an 800-point
growing scale.

59
On standardized tests, more students were scoring at the proficient level and
above in both English/language arts and mathematics. Fewer students were scoring
at the far below and below basic levels. Among the graduating seniors at Trojan
High School, 85% report their intentions to pursue post-secondary education. 96.9%
of the senior class in 2005 graduated and in 2006, 97.8% of the senior class
graduated with a +0.9% increase in graduation rate. For the 2005-2006 academic
year, Trojan High School scored 3 points higher on their statewide rank (9) than
similar schools ranking (6). In the 2004-2005 School Accountability Report Card,
41% of the students qualified for free or reduced-price meal subsidy. The graduation
rate for 2006’s AYP was 97.8% reflecting on the statistics for the Class of 2004-05
per California Department of Education’s website.
In addition to California’s accountability program, Trojan High School met
their Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) for all areas. AYP is the federal government’s
accountability system for measuring student achievement. As a result of meeting
AYP scores, the school is not a program improvement school.
The next two chapters of this research study determine what perceived factors
contributed to academic achievement in a high performing urban high school such as
Trojan High School.
According to their website, the mission of Trojan High School is to maintain
a safe and caring environment in which every student is academically challenged and
will achieve his or her maximum potential through a community effort to address
critical needs, to focus on essential standards and to attain the essential school wide

60
learning results. Graduating seniors must be analytical thinkers, effective
communicators, and quality producers (Trojan High School, April 12, 2007). With
the current high levels of academic success, the school is aligned with their mission.

Instrumentation
A multi-method qualitative approach was utilized because it provided for the
most valid and reliable analysis of our case study. A multi-method qualitative
approach allowed us to triangulate the data collection instruments. Document
analysis, surveys, observations and interviews were developed to begin data
collection procedures (Creswell, 2003). The cohort, as a whole, developed the
research design and the instruments to fit the needs of this study for each of the high
schools. Creswell suggested using a rigorous data collection procedure using
multiple forms of data, observation notes, surveys, interviews, and collection of
documentation to reveal best practices (1998). A chart of Creswell’s six steps to data
analysis is included in the chart below. Each cohort member used the same research
instruments but applied it to various educational institutions throughout the Southern
California area.

61

Step 1 Organize and prepare the data for analysis.
Step 2 Read through all the data.
Step 3 Begin a detailed analysis with coding process.
Step 4 Use coding process to generate a description of the setting or people as
well as categories or themes for analysis.
Step 5 Use narrative passages to convey findings.
Step 6 Interpret the data according to the researcher’s understanding.
Figure 2: Creswell’s Six Steps of Data Analysis

Some cohort members had to modify the instruments based on their research
factors. Each of the various components of the data collection was discussed in detail
and has been included in the appendix for your review.

Data Collection
Document Analysis
For the document analysis, the California Department of Education website,
the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) report, the School
Accountability Report Card, the district and school’s website, the school handbook,
and the parent/student handbook were analyzed. The documents selected for review
are both internal and external examples of communications by the school. It is
important to understand the communication to both the internal and external

62
populations. By reviewing these documents, the culture of the campus was provided
and its strengths and weaknesses identified.
Beginning with the document analysis, more detailed questions can be
formulated later for the other data collection procedures (surveys, observations and
interviews). The cohort started with document analysis because it was less obtrusive
and each step hereafter required more involvement from the high school. One can
use information from the website to ask the principal more direct questions. Patterns
of theme development could be detailed later through other data collection protocols.
With document analysis, an analysis of the culture and priorities of the campus was
analyzed as well as statistics about the high school. CAHSEE passage rates,
discipline issues, attendance and graduation rates, as well as student demographics
were able to provide a basic understanding of the characteristics of the studied high
school.

Survey
A survey about student engagement at Trojan High School was conducted of
both teachers and administrators. The cohort-developed survey questions about the
respondent role on campus and more specific questions about the students and
student workload and involvement. How teachers and administrators perceive
student engagement and culture of the campus were answered based on the questions
asked in the survey. All administrators and teachers were provided a survey in a
subject alike meeting . The survey was voluntary and respondents were provided

63
adequate time to respond and reflect on the questions. Survey data was collected and
analyzed for patterns of theme development.

Observations
Observations were utilized by investigators to determine what links, if any,
exist between student engagement and academic achievement. The researcher
conducted observations of 10 classrooms with multiple visits. The observations were
selected randomly (with approval) and represented a cross-section of grades, subject
matter, and subject complexities. The researcher spent a total of five days observing
the culture of the high school environment. Observations of the school, class,
leadership, and meetings noted any factors impacting student achievement in urban
high schools. The researcher examined factors affecting school culture, curriculum
and instruction, leadership, and student engagement, factors that have a direct impact
on student achievement. The goal of the observations was to establish a written
record of various factors that may contribute to academic achievement.
The principal issued a memo and discussed at a staff meeting the importance
of the observations for this research. Teachers could indicate to the principal that
their class was not to be observed and the researcher respected the wishes of those
teachers. Most teachers gave the researcher permission to observe their school and
classroom environment and document findings. The researcher acted in the role of
the observer documenting the interaction of students and teachers, and other campus
constituents. Observations also included teacher meetings, the time before and after

64
the school day, and unstructured student time. The observations were documented by
the researcher with a check-off sheet, observational survey and field notes that were
developed by the USC research cohort.

Interviews
Interviews with key constituents such as teachers, parents, counselors,
campus leadership and support staff helped answer specific questions the researcher
had after the other data collection procedures were exhausted. The interviews
provided more details and more direct responses as to the factors impacting student
achievement. Five interviews were conducted to ask individuals what perceived
factors contributed to student achievement. The goal was to see if the interview data
matched the data about student achievement from other data collection resources.
All interviewees were sent an e-mail about their participation and time, date
and location of the interview was established with those interested in participating in
the research process. Nine core interview questions were developed by the USC
cohort and asked during the interview period. The researcher was able to filter and
probe deeper into responses for better understanding and thoroughness. All
interviewees were provided with enough time to analyze the question and provide a
response. On average, each interview lasted for approximately one hour. Consistent
themes and patterns from the various interviews were identified and further analyzed
by the researcher.

65
The researcher was interested in understanding what perceived factors
influence student achievement. The interviews were recorded with the permission of
the interviewees and the researcher transcribed the recordings. Strict confidentiality
was provided for the interviewees, as they were to remain anonymous. The
researcher paid close attention to consistent themes and patterns by all the
interviewees and asked for additional information to better understand the
educational environment at Trojan High School. During the interview, the researcher
also made note of non-verbal cues by the interviewees.
Document analysis, surveys, observations of the school environment and
information from interviews with campus constituents provided researchers with the
ability to better understand the perceived factors that contributed to academic
achievement in a high performing urban high school. The researcher collected and
analyzed the data to determine patterns of perceived factors that affect academic
achievement.
The researcher initially met with the principal of the Trojan High School to
discuss the purpose of the research and the research design to be utilized at his high
school. At the meeting, the researcher also discussed the timeline for the research as
well as the deadlines that needed to be met for the study. It was carefully explained
to the principal why his high school had been selected for the study. The reason why
Trojan High School was selected for the study is because it met all the requirements
for a high-performing urban high school and recently had a strong history of
academic success. Approval was requested by the principal; however, due to

66
retirement, a new principal had to be hired for the forthcoming academic year. In
order to begin this research project, initial approval was given by the first principal
and the district offices. The researcher then met with the new principal and
permission was once again granted.
In the case of utilizing each of the research instruments, selection of the
individuals invited to participate was random. Invited participants were provided the
option of participating or not participating in the research study and were advised of
their rights. Confidentiality statements were provided to all individuals who
participated in this research study.
In all, over five school days were spent at Trojan High School to provide the
researcher with enough background and understanding to determine the perceived
factors that contributed to academic achievement. Document analysis, surveys,
observations and interviews were utilized in this order to begin the data collection for
the research project.
By the invitation of the principal, the researcher was able to meet with the
teachers at a teacher meeting in which the researcher was introduced and some
information about the research was discussed. Teachers were provided an
opportunity to ask questions about the research and their role in the research project.
Teachers later welcomed the researcher and offered their assistance to complete the
research project.
Data collection focused on communications from the administration to the
students, parents, teachers and staff. The data collection period began in September

67
of 2007 and concluded in March 2008. All forms of written communications were
collected by the office staff and provided to the researcher in an organized binder.
The researcher examined the California Department of Education website, the
School Accountability Report Card, the Western Association of Schools and
Colleges report, district website, high school website, and school handbooks.
The change in leadership could have greatly affected the pedagogy of the
institution. The school was in the process of looking for a new principal and the
former principal had already publicly announced his retirement. The academic
success of Trojan High School could be contributed to strong leadership. With the
changing of the guard, it would be hard to determine if the previous leadership was a
significant factor in Trojan High School’s academic success.
Southern California Union High School District administered the High
School Survey of Student Engagement (HSSSE) created by Indiana University
during the 2005-2006 academic year. The 2006 HSSSE school report was utilized as
secondary data for this study. The HSSSE defines student engagement as the time
and energy students devote to meaningful educational activities at school or school-
related functions (2000). The researcher was able to utilize the data from the HSSSE
survey for Trojan High School and then compare it to the national average.
Considering the fact that Trojan High School is a high performing urban high school,
is there a link between being high performing and student engagement? Through the
generosity of the Southern California Union High School District, each student was
provided with the opportunity to participate in the study at no cost to the students.

68
The HSSSE was completed by all attending students and completed in their
English classes as all students are required to take English. The researcher utilized
this data to determine the impact of student engagement on academic achievement.
Data about students from Trojan High School was sent to the school district and
provided to the researcher. The researcher was privy to the data gathered by the
HSSSE and utilized those results as secondary data in this research.
The HSSSE was created by Indiana University, Bloomington and already has
a database of over 300,000 respondents. The researcher examined commonalities
between the high school data to determine if their profile matched those of the
300,000 other students from across the nation who have taken the HSSSE
examination.

Data Analysis
Once all the data for the case study had been compiled, the researcher
analyzed the data. Creswell (1998) describes the progression for data analysis as data
managing, reading/memoing, describing, classifying, and interpreting. By following
this natural progression, the researcher organized and analyzed the data collected.
Data management involved organizing and categorizing the data so that the
researcher could logically represent the data in the future. For example, with the data
collection, communications to teachers, staff, parents and students were categorized
and separated. In managing the data, student data was separated from teacher data.
Interviews conducted by the researcher were transcribed. Observation notes were

69
reorganized in a clear and concise method. Documents were printed out and sorted
into categories.
In the reading/memoing portion of the data analysis, transcripts were read
and notes taken on the various documents that had been obtained. Margin notes for
surveys, observations and interviews were written by examining consistent themes
and patterns in the data collection instruments. A detailed analysis and coding of the
information provided the beginnings to developing themes and patterns.

Conclusion
The researcher described, classified, interpreted and represented the data
provided through the documents, surveys, observations and interviews. The
researcher was able to determine the culture of the organization and to describe the
findings to the reader so that the researcher and the reader could understand the
setting in which the research took place.
The most difficult job of the researcher was to maintain ongoing data
collection. It is hard to gauge when the researcher had enough data to fully describe
and analyze the situation at Trojan High School. The difficult part about data
analysis is there is no clear point at which data collection stops and the analysis
begins (Patton, 1987, p.101). Document analysis, surveys, observations and
interviews were used in the data collection to develop the data needed for a multi-
method qualitative research design. The data was presented in great detail and

70
consistent themes and patterns identified to determine what perceived factors
contributed to academic achievement in a high performing urban high school.
While this chapter focused on the methodology used for this research
project, chapter four provides answers to the question, is there is a link between
student engagement and academic achievement? What other perceived factors affect
academic achievement? The findings acknowledged some factors that contribute to
academic achievement and determine whether or not a link exists between student
engagement and academic achievement at one high performing urban high school,
thus filling in some of the gaps that exist in the available research on urban high
schools.

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CHAPTER 4:
RESEARCH FINDINGS

The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the research findings from Trojan
High School. The study focused specifically on answering the following research
questions:
1. What perceived factors contribute to academic achievement in a high
performing urban high school?
2. Is there a link between student engagement and academic achievement at
a high performing high school?
The data collection occurred over a seven-day period at Trojan High School
in the Southern California Union High School District. At first, an entire work week
was spent at the campus and two additional days were added to go into more details
about the findings and seek clarification from participants.
Two surveys, document analysis and review, observations and one-on-one
interviews helped organize this case study to discover relationships, themes and
patterns. Surveys were distributed to both teachers and administrators at the high
school by the researcher. All four administrators returned the administrators’ survey
directly to the researcher while the researcher was on campus. Eighty-one of the 100
teachers returned the teacher survey. The teacher surveys were distributed to the
department chairs and the department chairs were responsible for coordinating the
return of the surveys. The returned teacher’s surveys were all given to the Principal’s

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assistant and were then mailed to the researcher. Trojan High School’s High School
Survey of Student Engagement (HSSSE) results were used as secondary data to
answer the second research question.
Five on-site interviews were conducted with campus administrators and
parent leaders. The principal, three assistant principals, and parent leaders from the
Parent Teachers Student Association (PTSA) were all interviewed in the Principal’s
Office. Parent leaders included both the president and secretary of the PTSA. Both of
the parent leaders were elected to this body and were interviewed at the same time.
Interview time averaged around 45 minutes per person and were all completed in a
single day.
Triangulation was used to compile findings from the multiple data sources to
determine relationships, themes and patterns. Because we utilized triangulation on
the four data collection methods, validity of these results were greatly reinforced.
This study was presented in a qualitative manner using rich, thick descriptions to
provide the reader a greater understanding of the school.
In this chapter, the findings are analyzed by research question. Each of the
research questions were then organized by themes found in the study results. In some
cases, sub-themes were identified and included. An analysis of Trojan High School’s
High School Survey of Student Engagement (HSSSE) data compared to the national
HSSSE data follows. The last section provides a conclusion for this chapter and an
introduction to the last chapter of this research study. It is also important to

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understand the history of the researcher’s experience and how the relationship of the
researcher and the school affected the data collection process.
Trojan High School opened the new academic year with a new principal. The
former principal had retired at the end of last academic year. The former principal
had spent two and a half years at Trojan High School and was one of the driving
forces of the recent high academic achievement at the school.
Using previous year’s school data, the researcher identified Trojan High
School as a high performing urban high school as it had met the requirements for this
case study. The former principal had announced his retirement prior to the closing of
the previous school year. Before the former principal had announced his retirement,
the researcher had already begun working with the school district and the school site
on the approval of this research project. The former principal was unable to be
contacted after his departure from Trojan High School and was therefore unable to
provide direct data for this research project after many attempts.
When the campus administration was in limbo, the assistant principal of
curriculum and instruction (APCI), a fourteen-year veteran administrator at Trojan
High School provided the researcher with the necessary information and data to
proceed with the research project. The APCI had been at the campus through the
leadership of five principals and was a member of the tremendous growth in
academic achievement over the last few years. She was able to fill a critical role for
the researcher during the campus’ leadership transition.

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Southern California Union High School District was responsible for
recruiting a new principal once the previous principal resigned. Before the new
school year began, in the early summer months, the district announced that it had
completed its search for the new principal at Trojan High School.
The field research and data collection conducted at the high school was
within the first two months of the school year under the leadership of the new
principal who had very limited tenure. The new principal had recruited a new
assistant principal of guidance and counseling from a sister campus in Southern
California Union High School District. With two critical changes in the top
administration, no other administrative changes were made at Trojan High School
during the research period.
The researcher had worked very closely with the new principal, but she had
limited understanding as to why the school was achieving at such high levels during
the last few years. The document analysis, surveys, observations and interviews were
coordinated in the least obtrusive manner as possible with the Principal’s office staff.
Initially, five consecutive days were scheduled for the visit and the administration
coordinated the arrival of the researcher with the rest of the school. During this time
frame, interviews with key campus administrators and volunteers were scheduled,
teacher and administrator surveys were completed and observations were
coordinated with the teachers across grade and achievement levels. The week was
strategically selected so that the researcher could observe leadership meetings, late
starts, “subject alike” meetings, and a major campus event. The researcher obtained a

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copy of the school’s HSSSE report and the campus openly provided documents for
the researcher to review.
The researcher arrived at the school site on the first day and parking
arrangements were made for the researcher to park in the visitor’s parking spot
located in staff and faculty parking. When the researcher arrived, the school was
relatively quiet with the parking lots full but no sign of people at the campus. All of
the gates were locked around the school with the exception of the visitor’s door to
the Guidance Office. Upon entering the secure campus, visitors are required to
check-in with photo identification with the security staff. The security staff asked the
visitor the purpose of coming to the campus and issued a visitor’s lanyard to be worn
around the neck of visiting guests.
This was my first visit to the school and I was unsure as to where to go to
find the principal’s office. We had communicated several times but this was the first
time I had set foot on the campus. I was told by security to follow the blue line,
which was painted on the ground outside the door. Apparently, there are two lines
that run around the campus. The blue line takes guests directly to the principal’s
office, in the center of the campus. The yellow line directs guest to the guidance and
counseling office. The school colors for Trojan High School are blue and gold.
As I walked around the campus towards the principal’s office I noticed many
posters and banners announcing this week’s activities at the high school. I had
arrived during the week of their district’s College Fair on Thursday night. The
college fair is a major event for both the district and the campus. Throughout the

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week, the school had arranged activities for students to participate in focused on
post-secondary educational opportunities. Thursday, for example, provided an
opportunity for students to wear college apparel and show their school spirit. The
district office is responsible for coordinating the district-wide College Night for all
of the high schools. While College Night is predominately a junior and senior event,
the school provided different programs to also engage the underclassmen.
The principal’s office is located in the middle of campus between the two
quad areas which serve as the main social hubs. There is an upper quad and a lower
quad for the students to socialize and purchase food items during nutrition or lunch.
The principals’ office is adjacent to the “College Cubbie” where students can find
information about colleges. The assistant principal of curriculum and instruction is
located on the other extreme of the administrative block. The College Cubbie is
sandwiched in between the two administrative offices in the center of campus.
The principal’s secretary was very welcoming and eager to greet me as I
walked in for my meeting with the principal. The secretary shared that she is an
alumna, being very active in the band when she was a student. She had also
mentioned that there are approximately twenty-six staff members that are also
graduates of the high school. The ratio of staff members who were students at the
campus is relatively high.
The principal was very welcoming and we discussed calendars and schedules
to prepare for my data collection. One calendar had an interview schedule with the
various individuals I wanted to interview. The principal’s assistant scheduled these

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interviews. Another calendar had a schedule of classes I had wanted to observe with
varying grade and achievement levels. The staff was very organized and had
presented me with a packet of information about the high school. A copy of the
school’s master schedule with teacher names, number of students registered, subject
matter and degree of difficulty was also presented to me. The principal shared with
me that the campus was aware of my arrival. After a brief discussion and review of
the itinerary, the principal took me for a tour of her campus. She introduced me to
some of the staff and administrators on the campus.
The school has a traditional six period regular school day with an optional
zero-period class. Each period has 52-minutes of instructional time with ten-minute
nutrition in the morning and lunch after noon. A typical school day features an
intervention time after fourth period and before lunch. The 28-minute intervention
period is rotated amongst the different class periods each full-day with repetition on
the sixth day for the six periods.
Each regular school day, the campus hangs banners around campus informing
students about which intervention period they should go to for the day. The time
allocated for intervention is unique compared to other schools. The goal of the
intervention period is to provide students with additional time to seek assistance or
for the teacher to provide some additional learning opportunity. While the principal
believes that the intervention period is a unique idea that helps students succeed, she
had concerns about whether the time allocated was being used effectively by all the
teachers.

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The campus calendar is also very unique at Trojan High School. Every other
Friday is a late start day where the entire general staff meets for half an hour from
7:30 a.m. to 8:00 a.m. After the general staff meetings, there are “subject alike”
meetings for the teachers to use data to target students to succeed. The first late start
day of the academic year is a department meeting but after the first one, all other late
starts are for “subject alike” meetings. There were seven subject alike late start
meetings in the first semester. All subject areas use the data assessments to look for
best practices and determine areas of improvement during the subject alike meetings.
One of my observation days was a late start day at Trojan High School.
During the late start day there was a campus-wide staff meeting hosted by the
principal. All teachers, administrators and staff members attend the staff meeting
held in the cafeteria. The principal began the meeting by recognizing some
outstanding staff. The football coaches were recognized for the teams’ superb
performance during the start of the season. A teacher who picked up a state award
was introduced. The principal made an effort to publicly acknowledge staff success.
She further recalled other campus successes such as the athletic programs and other
the department successes.
The principal also presented an “Apple Award” where she shared three things
about a distinguished staff member on the campus. Information and an update about
campus events were presented to the staff. At this specific meeting, California
Distinguished School shirts were distributed to those staff members who had ordered
a shirt. The union representative provided an update about union initiatives.

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After the meeting, subject alike teachers went into collaboration teams to
discuss student progress based on assessment data. Department chairs were
responsible for leading discussions on student progress in their areas. Each of the
subject areas had a wide range of achievement levels. The discussion provided more
of an overview as to how each of the subject areas was performing relative to the
California standards. The chairs made copies of assessment reports by teacher and
distributed them to their appropriate teachers.
Conversation ensued on student achievement with respect to student strengths
and weaknesses. While I did not visit every subject area, the subject areas that I had
the chance to listen in on were in sincere discussion about student strengths and
weaknesses. I was very impressed about the depth of their conversations as this was
only their second subject alike meeting. There was open discussion on how to help
students succeed through best practices. The teams had reviewed the areas of the
California standards and examined how students within each area had performed
based on their classes. The teachers examined the test questions on the assessments
and then examined why students selected their answers.
The teachers then had a discussion of best practices if one teacher had
students performing higher than others. The teachers in their collaboration groups
examined every question and student response. If a majority of the students were
doing well with a question, the teachers simply moved forward. But in areas where
the results were mixed, the teachers reviewed the question and the responses and put
themselves in the place of the students to determine why a particular answer was

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selected. After reviewing all the questions, the teachers discussed how they would
address the issues in their intervention periods. They further discussed how to
reinforce a concept or fact so those students would reach mastery in that standards
area.
After looking at the data, developing an action plan, and ways to improve
student understanding, teachers reviewed the standards that need to be covered prior
to the next subject alike meeting. Teachers discussed areas of the subject matter they
had concerns about and how other teachers had addressed those areas. Areas where
history has shown student confusion were addressed and teachers reviewed the
schedule to teach to the standards. What I witnessed during the late start and subject
alike meeting was very well organized and demonstrated teacher commitment to
assist students in achieving to their highest potential.
In addition to the late start/subject alike meetings, monthly leadership
meetings provide an opportunity for department heads and campus administration to
discuss opportunities and challenges for the school. This group is much smaller with
only 25 campus leaders in attendance. The principal leads these meetings and
provides focus for the discussion. Teachers are allowed to discuss any issues they
might have with the administration through their department heads. These leadership
meetings provide an opportunity for the campus to get together to examine long-term
initiatives and priorities with a representative body. It also provides an opportunity
for teacher recognition in a smaller group to share with the larger campus community
in a future meeting. The recognition varied from drama performances to scholarly

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leadership. Department heads relayed information from the administration to their
colleagues. Student of the month awards occur in the morning of the leadership
meetings.
Another unique opportunity that exists at Trojan High School is the
“Freshman 1
st
Day.” The day before the beginning of the academic year, new
incoming students are welcomed to the campus by the administration, teachers and
staff. This event allows freshman students to be quickly acclimatized to this new
educational environment. The freshman students are provided information on
expectations at the high school level. One of the greatest benefits to this day is that
new students are together on the campus before the seasoned students return. They
can quickly make new friends, interact more intimately with teachers and
administrators, and familiarize themselves with their new home and new routines
that last them for four years.

Findings by Research Question
Question 1: What perceived factors contribute to academic achievement in a high
performing urban high school?
The purpose of research question number one was to determine what
perceived factors individuals felt contribute to academic achievement in a high
performing urban high school. All of the individuals we asked to participate in this
study were from or involved with Trojan High School, a campus identified as a high
performing urban high school. The word “perceived” was added to the research

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question because individuals themselves from their standpoint cannot know exactly
what factors contribute to academic achievement. Perception is a way for individuals
to identify what they feel are factors contributing to academic achievement.
It was very apparent in the surveys and interviews that everyone has their
own idea of what factors contribute to academic achievement. However, three
consistent themes emerged in answering this research question. Campus
community/culture, leadership and curriculum were three main perceived factors that
contribute to academic achievement in a high performing urban high school. Under
each theme, sub-themes were also identified and to provide the reader a more
comprehensive understanding of the perceived factors that contribute to academic
achievement at Trojan High School.

Campus Community/Culture
Campus Community
To understand the various factors that contribute to student achievement, we
need to understand the community and culture. One of the consistent themes from
the various data collection instruments and from the interactions with all those
involved in the data collection was that the campus community and culture played a
key role in student achievement.
Trojan High School is fortunate to enjoy a “respectful relationship with the
community, the community is generally supportive of the school” mentioned the
assistant principal of business and activities (APBA). The APBA is a member of the

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community and a neighbor to the school. He introduced himself as the “unofficial
caretaker of the school” with community members contacting him if something does
not seem right. The assistant principal for curriculum and instruction (APCI)
mentioned the reputation of the high school in the community is one area she is
proud of at the high school. Her own children have graduated from Trojan High
School and she is a proud resident of the area served by the school.
Teachers also have students contribute actively in the community by reaching
out to the community through various community programs. A PTSA representative
shared a classroom assignment her son completed which required him to reach out to
the community.
Students at Trojan High School are very fortunate that the campus
community has taken a huge role in the success of the individual student. The
community, teachers and staff emphasize the “three As” – attendance, activities and
academics. The football games are always crowded with parents and community
coming out to support the students. It was interesting to note that some individuals
from the community have continued to support the high school by attending athletic
events even though their own children have moved out of the district. The principal
mentioned that at her first few home football games, she was surprised by the
number of community members who came and supported the high school team.
Generations of families continue to live in the local community and fuel the support
of the campus community.

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When one of the assistant principals was asked to describe Trojan High
School, she mentioned that this was a “neighborhood school.” Some families had all
their children graduate from they high school and they continue to live and
participate in the school system.
The students are the dependent variables and the outputs to the educational
system. The inputs that affect student achievement are the various factors that
comprise the campus community and culture. These inputs include individuals such
as families, teachers, administrators, staff and faculty, peers and community leaders.
The assistant principal for counseling and guidance (APCG) mentioned in her
interview, “the teachers really push students; they push students to their maximum,
but not push them over the edge.” What I learned at Trojan High School was that the
campus community and culture play a key role in student success. This pride in the
campus demonstrates that role the campus has played in the success of its students
and of the community. The fact that so many teachers are graduates of the institution
shows this is a community in which you want to come back and contribute. The long
history of teacher tenure at the high school was another indication that something
was right at the high school.
When administrators were asked what factors do they feel contribute to
student achievement, each and every one of these senior level leaders mentioned that
the campus culture plays a critical role in student achievement. The surveys,
interviews, and observations indicated that the culture at Trojan High School was
especially unique.

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Care of Campus Community
One factor that really sets Trojan High School apart from other schools is the
care provided to the students. The teachers and staff really care about the students at
Trojan High School. It is because of this care that respondents perceived students are
rising to higher levels of student achievement. In many of the interviews and
surveys, respondents answered that when they first arrived at the high school, they
were impressed by the “shared drive for student success.” Staff was committed to the
students and they have the best interests of the students in their hearts. The APCG
mentioned that based on her experience, the parents seem to be more involved here
than at her previous institution. She also explained, “the teachers have become
surrogate parents of the students,” indicating the care of the overall campus
community.
The PTSA has also benefited from the commitment of the campus
community. The PTSA board members noted a tremendous growth in membership
numbers over the last few years. A PTSA board member commented, “parents really
care about their students and making a better life for them through education.”
Parents are involved in the educational process and attend student related events. The
parents, as role models for the students, prioritized education and educational
opportunities ahead of other activities. The parents are supportive and attend various
extra-curricular activities. While many parents are involved, there can always be
more parents who participate in the PTSA.

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The assistant principal of business and activities mentioned, “the home
environment impacts student achievement. The parents emphasize the importance of
learning, respecting the privilege and the right to learn, respecting the privilege of
property and of the future and to make a better life.” Parents push students to excel
and respect the educational institution. Parents help students understand the
importance of education and its impact education has on the future of their lives.
Over the last few years, the school has really focused on communicating with
different members of the campus community. In the 2005-2006 School
Accountability Report Card, one area the campus focused on improving was on
communication with parents, students and the community. The school began
recognizing the importance of communicating with their parents through the usage of
Tele-Parent, a parent notification system. Tele-Parent allows teachers and
administrators the ability to record voice messages for parents to retrieve. These
messages can include anything from student progress to campus updates. The
messages did not have to be negative; teachers commented on student successes and
wanted to share those successes with the parents. Teachers cared about the students
to provide their parents with the information they needed to know about their
student’s success. The investment in technology to communicate with the parents
was another example of the care of the campus community.
Safe Schools
On the administrator survey, all four respondents answered they felt school
safety is clearly a priority for the campus. Of the 76 teachers who chose to respond to

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the question, 72 of the teachers agreed that school safety is clearly a priority for the
campus. Many respondents answered that providing students with a safe learning
environment is critical to student success.
The campus has really taken a strong stance on a zero tolerance attitude of
violence towards students. Over the last few years, the number of suspensions for
violations of CA Education Code 48900 (A-C) has increased tremendously at the
high school. In the 2006-2007 academic year, over 121 suspensions occurred due to
violations of the education code at that high school.

02-03 03-04 04-05 05-06 06-07
67 69 36 90 121
Table 1: Students Suspensions Over Last 5 Years at THS

The representatives from the PTSA shared parents generally feel their
students are safe at campus. At Trojan High School last year, there was an increase
in the amount of expulsions. In the 2006/2007 academic year, there were 15
expulsions at the high school compared with eight for the 2005/06 year and only four
expulsions in 2004/05. A close to a four-fold number of expulsions last year as
compared to two previous years ago shows the strong stance the campus has taken
on violence. The school has really taken a strong stance to increase the safety of the

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campus so that all students have a safe place to learn. Across the school district, the
number of expulsions has doubled over the last two years, from 15 in 2004/05 to 35
in 2006/07. These numbers are factored as drop outs in the district and provide an
indication of the challenges in the current educational environment.
Continuous Improvement - Room for Growth
Strength in the academic achievement scores at Trojan High School,
demonstrates the belief of all stakeholders in the continuous improvement of the
school and for each student. The general consensus is that while the school is doing
well, there is room to grow to reach even higher levels of student achievement. Many
individuals mentioned that the foundation has been laid or they have begun the
“building blocks.” Much more room for improvement and growth is available for the
students. The idea of continuous improvement came across through the various data
collection instruments by the administrators, the parents, and the teachers. The
subject alike meetings are another example of continuous improvement in
instruction. The teachers continuously engage in discussion to determine the best
practices so that all students can succeed.
The APCG noted that the high school is “performing at a descent level” but
she does not consider it high performing. “There is always room for improvement
and the school needs to develop the building blocks to be even higher achieving.” It
was common to hear remarks that while performance has been good over the last few
years, “student achievement is not as high as it could be.” The stakeholders consider
Trojan High School to be well performing with opportunity to do even better. This

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continuous improvement attitude has created an environment where campus
leadership has focused on improving the academic achievement of its students.

Leadership
District Leadership
The school district and the Superintendent play an important role in providing
overall leadership to Southern California Union High School District and its schools.
The principal shared with me one reason she joined Trojan High School was because
of the “clear, laser-like focus from the district and the Superintendent.” The District
approved an academic calendar providing time for teacher collaboration and to
identify best practices with its late start days. The Superintendent and administration
of the district has a clear goal of helping students excel.
Every year, each high school develops an annual report based on measurable
objectives from the Board of Education and the Superintendent. It is rare to hear of a
Board of Education and a Superintendent that works so intimately to create
accountability at individual school sites. The annual report allows administration an
opportunity to look forward and make improvements for the upcoming year at the
beginning of the academic year. Each of the annual reports from the high schools is
put into a district binder. In my interview with the principal, she was able to retrieve
her annual report immediately and knew exactly the measurable objectives for her
school site.

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Within the school’s annual report, subject departments include their goals and
measurable objectives for the academic year. Each of the subject-area departments is
required to review their goals with other teachers and sets guidelines for their
classrooms and departments to reach their goals. Teachers contribute to and know
the expectations for the year with this measurable data. The Superintendent openly
shares her belief with the principals, “all students can do it and we will not let them
fail.” The “Freshman 1
st
Day” is another example of district and site leadership
assisting students to succeed.
Site Leadership and Commitment
The school site leadership is another factor for high levels of academic
achievement in a high performing urban high school. Two of the administrators have
been at the campus for a very long time and are very well respected in the campus
and in the community. A large number of staff members are also alumni from the
campus.
Right after I selected Trojan High School as my school of study, I asked
friends who graduated from the school to tell me about the school. Their eyes lit up
as they reminisced about the teachers that they had and the administrators they
fondly thought of. After spending some time at the high school, it was easy to
understand why these individuals were so well respected and well liked. Individuals
at the high school sincerely cared about the successes of the students. Former
students could return to the high school and the staff not only remembered the
students but remembered their names and their life’s goals.

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The APCI remembers many of the families and the students who have
graduated from the high school. She personally knows the families as many have
sent their children through the school at various times. Her time and experience at
Trojan High School has made her critical to the leadership team. The principal noted
in her interview, “clear instructional focus and leadership were two important parts
of this school.” The focus and leadership from the school site was one reason why
she elected to take on the position as principal of the high school.
The administration is very proactive and moves quickly on issues. In a staff
morale survey conducted at the end of the last academic year, only 14% of staff
respondents were happy with discipline at the school. Many individuals thought that
discipline was inconsistent. When the principal recruited the new assistant principal
of guidance and counseling (APGC), the APGC developed a discipline matrix to
institutionalize the way discipline was handled. The APGC commented that before,
there was very little confidence from staff in the administration. She feels that over
the last few weeks, the confidence level has greatly increased. The APGC also
shared that when school first started, the faculty/staff parking lots were filled with
student vehicles and staff had complained about the lack of parking for them. The
school leadership quickly developed a new parking program at the school to ensure
that faculty and staff had parking when they arrive at work.
Another interesting phenomenon at Trojan High School is when the bell
rings, students are rarely seen walking around or hanging out during instructional
time. The staff and administration has made this a top priority of the campus over the

92
last few years. If staff or administration sees students not moving quickly to class,
staff encourages the students to go quickly. Teachers have also played a role in being
at their classrooms before the bell rings to ensure students have access to their
rooms. Both the principal and assistant principal mentioned in their interviews how
they are proud that students are in their classrooms during instructional time.
The principal and assistant principals are constantly in the classrooms. The
principal commented that she makes an effort to visit all classrooms on a regular
basis unless there is a substitute. The administrators are all strong role models for
both the teachers and the students. The principal visited various classrooms for about
3-5 minutes to ensure that the students are on task.
The assistant principal of business and activity (APBA) commented on how
he will help teach a class or help with lunch duty, going above and beyond his job
description. In the interview with the APBA, he mentioned that while the school has
many outstanding teachers, he wishes he could see more leadership from the newer
teachers. His philosophy is that when people “expect leadership, you get leadership.”
He constantly encourages teachers to be more involved by supporting a club or
attending a campus event. He models the behavior he wishes he could see in more
teachers.
Many teachers shared that the high levels of academic achievement are the
result of “systematic interventions for struggling students.” On the teacher survey,
one teacher writes, “teachers use a variety of teaching strategies, a variety of

93
assessments and technology to help students succeed.” Because of the commitment
by the teachers to help each student achieve, students are achieving at a higher rate.
In the 2005 Trojan High School Annual Report, 86% of the teachers were
rated as “Highly Qualified Teachers.” The school made a commitment to increase
the percentage of highly qualified teachers as a measurable objective for that school
year. In the 2006 Annual Report, 97% of the teachers were rated as Highly Qualified
Teachers. The Annual Report mentioned how the school “encourages teachers to
improve pedagogical strategies and develop leadership skills that foster a culture
characterized by trust, professionalism, and high expectations for all students”
(Trojan High School Annual Report, October 2006).
The initiative by the teachers and the department chairs to share best
practices and review assessment data to make changes in the academic program have
led to increased student achievement. There is collaboration amongst the teachers all
focused on the common goal of learning. Input from leadership meetings and general
staff meetings are considered and followed up on. Students believe they can succeed
and the school site leadership reinforces that belief. In the interview with the APCI,
she concluded that “every student who crosses the stage knows their next step and is
prepared to take the next step.” Much thank is given to the school site leadership to
prepare the student for the future.
At the end of each academic year, there is an “End of the Year Banquet” for
the top 25 students in each class hosted by the high school. In attendance at the event
are the top 100 students and their families. These high caliber students have

94
academically distinguished themselves from their peers. One parent noted that her
younger child aspired to be like his older sibling and have his parents attend the
event in his honor in the future.

Curriculum
When teachers were surveyed about what factors they felt contribute to the
high academic achievement at Trojan High School, one teacher commented, “the
preparation for career and transition to post secondary educational settings are our
two top priorities for the campus.” Through the entire research project, this statement
accurately described one of the critical factors which had made this high school so
successful. The campus has focused on providing students with the skills and talents
necessary so “when they walk across the stage at graduation, they know their next
step and are prepared.” The curriculum at Trojan High School is relevant and is
focused on helping students prepare for the next step either in post secondary
education or in their careers.
Career Academies
A unique program at Trojan High School is the five different career
academies. Through the various data collection methods, the career academies were
continuously mentioned as a perceived factor in student achievement. The academies
offer relevance to the curriculum and motivate students to succeed. A teacher
commented, “a major portion of the student achievement is due to the driving force
of our academies. Because academies provide real world training, students are

95
motivated because it directly benefits their future.” The five career academies focus
on business, health, hospitality/culinary arts, automotive technology or architecture
and engineering.
Students in the career academies are engaged with the campus. During the
visit, I was impressed to see students involved in the health academy wear scrubs
during the school day. During one of the visits to the hospitality/culinary arts
classroom, students were busily working on various projects and the classroom had
been modified to help them succeed in their work. In the business academy
classrooms, students understood the accounting work assigned to them and were
fully engaged in discussion. When a student was asked what he was learning, he was
able to tell me exactly what the class was studying and what they have studied over
the last few weeks.
Students self select into these optional academies at the end of their freshman
year. An overview of the academy is presented to the freshman students and students
are interviewed by their academy of choice. While the academies provide students
with many career opportunities, some campus leaders have concern. One assistant
principal commented that she was concerned that the academies were taking students
out of “more rigorous” courses.
The academies are academic programs within the school to provide students
with the opportunity to develop “real-world” experience to prepare students for
entry-level careers. The business, health, hospitality/culinary arts, and architecture
and engineering academies are funded through a grant from the California

96
Partnership Academy. The automotive technology academy is in a partnership with
the Regional Occupational Program (ROP). Approximately 500 students are enrolled
in some type of career academy out of the population of 3,000 students. In addition,
the career academy programs integrate core subject matters such as English, social
studies, and sciences into their academic programs.
Senior Project
The school district requires high school students to “complete a senior project
in order to pass English and thus graduate from high school” (Student Accountability
Report Card, 2005-2006). According to the Student Accountability Report Card, the
senior project is the culminating project for all graduating students. Students are
required to select a topic, design a project around the topic and conduct appropriate
research. The earlier high school years prepare seniors for the senior project.
At each of the earlier grade levels, projects are assigned to help students with
various aspects of the senior project. The senior project is a culmination of all the
skills learned from their previous tenure at the high school. PTSA leaders noted that
the school helps “prepare students for beyond high school more than just
academically. The school helps students become positive contributors to society with
the self-confidence to succeed.” Students gain confidence and appreciation during
this year long assignment. At the end of the senior project, students must present
their findings publicly to a board of staff and community members. Only when their
project is approved can they graduate from high school.

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Advanced Placement (AP) and Honors (H) Classes
For junior and senior level students, Trojan High School offers an array of
Advanced Placement (AP) and Honors (H) classes. There are currently 13-14
different AP/H classes during the academic year. One of the assistant principals
mentioned that more students need to take part in AP/H classes. The Student
Accountability Report Card (2005-2006) notes, “the number of AP courses offered is
one indicator of a school’s commitment to prepare students for college.”
Only 17% of students at Trojan High School enrolled in AP courses and
completed the final exams for college credit. The County average in 2005-2006 was
28% while the State average was 25%. The master schedule is built around student
request for these classes. Students are not requesting as many AP/H classes as many
of the administrators would have hoped for. One of the concerns made by an
assistant principal was that students were not hitting the rigor because they were
involved in the academies. The assistant principal noted, “academy students are
AP/H students but have taken students out of that achievement level.” The assistant
principal said the administration is working diligently to encourage students to
participate in AP/H classes.

Question 2: Is there a link between student engagement and academic achievement
in a high performing urban high school?
The purpose of the second research question was to determine if there is a
link between student engagement and academic achievement in a high performing

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urban high school. Trojan High School has already been identified as a high
performing urban high school. It met the criteria set forth by the dissertation cohort
for participation in this research study.
The 2006 base API score for Trojan High School was 709. In 2007, Trojan
High School had a growth of 5 points to increase their API base score to 714. The
school met their AYP growth target for the 2007 academic year. This continuous
increase in API scores has been a recent trend at the high school. One teacher
commented in their teacher survey, “efforts of engagement have increased
substantially through academies, athletic programs, clubs and other interventions.”
The teacher further commented that because efforts to engage students have
increased substantially, student achievement is at an all-time high at the school.
When the various administrators and PTSA representatives were interviewed,
one of the questions asked was if they felt a link existed between student engagement
and academic achievement. One person commented, “it is essential for students to be
connected to the school in order for them to do well academically.” Another
commented, “higher levels of engagement equate to higher levels of academic
achievement.” The assistant principal of curriculum and instruction noted, “student
engagement is essential to student achievement. Students must be connected to some
aspect of school, either through an adult, for the love of learning or even a sports
program.” The overall consensus was that student engagement has a direct impact on
academic achievement.

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In the interview with the assistant principal of business and activities
(APBA), he mentioned, the campus tries to “engage freshman students when they
come in. Each student is required to participate in two different activities to keep
them involved in the family.” He mentioned this tradition of engagement was
something he was most proud of at the high school. Staff members serve as advisors
for the various clubs on campus. There were approximately 39 clubs with over 800
students involved according to the APBA during the 2006-2007 academic year. In
addition, approximately 1,100 students participate in athletic programs offered at the
school. 35-38% of the student population is active in clubs and athletics. In his
tenure at Trojan High School, the APBA has seen the amount of students involved in
extra-curricular activities decline. He claims that it is becoming increasingly harder
to engage students as our environment, economy and our society has changed.
Trojan High School participated in a district-wide 2006 High School Survey
of Student Engagement (HSSSE). The data from Trojan High School was analyzed
to determine if students in a high performing urban high school have higher or lower
levels of student engagement as defined in the HSSSE. If a relationship exists, other
high schools can use the information to increase their academic achievement levels.
The data from Trojan High School was compared to the national HSSSE
2006 which records the frequency of response and percentage of the frequency to a
statement from all those that participated in the 2006 High School Survey of Student
Engagement. The grade levels, ages of the students and mix of genders at Trojan
High School were consistent with the national data. However, Trojan High School

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was an urban high school and had met the criteria the USC cohort set as an urban
educational environment. The responses to the HSSSE from Trojan High School
students are different from what one would think.
On the HSSSE survey, section 5 questions focused on the number of hours
performing different activities. A question about how many hours a student spends in
a typical week doing homework showed that at Trojan High School very few
students spent more than one hour per week completing written homework. In fact,
more students identified spending one hour a week on completing written homework
which compared to the national average.
When we asked teachers to identify the extent to which students spend time
on studying and schoolwork, teachers assumed that quite a bit of time was devoted to
studying or working on school work. Of the 74 teacher who responded to the
question, 57 believed that quite a bit of time was spent by students on studying and
doing schoolwork. However, the data shows that the 83% of students spend less than
an hour a day on completing written homework.

Hours Spent Daily Doing Written Homework Trojan H.S. % National %
0 6.27 6.98
1 41.66 35.74
2-5 36.71 39.99
6-10 8.93 12.48
10+ 6.43 4.81
Table 2: Hours Spent Doing Written Homework

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On a similar question, the amount of time a student spends each week on
reading and studying for class is none to very little at Trojan High School. Over two-
thirds of the students spend less than one hour per typical week reading and studying
for class. A far smaller percentage of students spend more than two hours compared
to the national average.
On the teacher survey, one of the questions asked teachers how many hours
of reading is assigned during a typical week. Of the 82 teacher responses, 17
assigned zero hours, 24 assigned one hour, and 32 assigned 2-3 hours. 73 of the 82
teacher responses assigned anywhere from 0-3 hours of reading per week.

Hours Spent Reading and Studying for Class Trojan H.S. % National %
0 20.04 12.41
1 47.46 42.95
2-5 25.07 35.03
6-10 5.61 7.29
10+ 1.81 2.32
Table 3: Hours Spent Reading and Studying for Class

If the students are not reading, studying or doing written homework, then
maybe the students are spending their time participating in school sponsored
activities such as athletics, clubs, student government, etc. On the HSSSE, a
substantially larger amount of students at Trojan High School do not participate in

102
any school-sponsored activities compared to their national counterparts. And of those
students that do participate, they spend far less time participating in those activities.

Hours Participating in School-Sponsored Activities Trojan H.S. % National %
0 41.74 32.20
1 17.67 17.18
2-5 21.06 21.43
6-10 7.97 12.59
10+ 11.56 16.59
Table 4: Hours Participating in School-Sponsored Activities

Teachers reported that students are constantly encouraged to participate in
school events, activities, and leadership in the teacher survey. 80% of students spend
less than an hour a week participating in any school-sponsored activities. Almost all
teachers have encouraged students to participate in some school-sponsored activity.
The administrator survey reinforces the fact that students are encouraged to
participate in some sort of school-sponsored activity. However, the HSSSE data
shows that compared to other students in the nation, who participated in HSSSE
2006, students at Trojan were less likely to be encouraged to participate in school
event and activities than the national average.

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School Encourages Participation in School Events and
Activities
Trojan H.S.
%
National
%
Very Little 21.33 15.87
Some 25.73 27.58
Quite a Bit 30.36 33.08
Very Much 22.58 23.67
Table 5: School Encourages Participation in School Events and Activities

Because we are studying an urban school district, it was a likely assumption
that more students would need to assist with their economics. However, it was
interesting to note that the majority of students did not work at all at Trojan High
School. In fact, students at Trojan High School spent less hours working for pay
compared to other students on the HSSSE.

Hours Spent Working for Pay Trojan H.S. % National %
0 53.19 33.94
1 12.68 13.25
2-5 16.24 18.46
6-10 8.12 12.94
10+ 9.78 21.41
Table 6: Hours Spent Working for Pay

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Thirty percent of Trojan High School students have never written a paper of
more than five pages while the national average is 26.21%. On the other hand, over
14% of the students at Trojan High School have often written papers of more than
five pages. More students frequently write papers of more than five pages compared
to other schools across the nation. These numbers are consistent with the teacher
surveys which report that 90% of the teachers have handed out zero to two
assignments of more than five pages during the entire school year.

Wrote Paper of More than 5 Pages Trojan H.S. % National %
Never 29.96 26.21
Rarely 26.63 31.31
Sometimes 29.32 30.48
Often 14.09 12.00
Table 7: Wrote Papers of More than 5 Pages

HSSSE data from Trojan High School shows mixed results when it comes to
students receiving feedback on assignments. More students responded that they have
never received feedback from teachers on assignments or other class work compared
to the national average. But, more students from Trojan High School claim that they
often receive feedback from teachers on assignments compared to the national

105
average. The views from teachers, administrators and students differ greatly when it
comes to providing students with prompt and personal feedback on assignments.
On the teacher survey, 40 of the respondents marked “very often” for giving
prompt, personal feedback to students on assignment. 26 teachers marked that they
frequently provide feedback while 11 teachers say they sometimes provide feedback
to students on assignments. Administrators feel that students are not given prompt,
personal feedback on assignments. Administrator’s responses skewed to the lower
end of the curve while the teachers skewed themselves to the higher end of the curve.
Students’ responses were at one extreme or the other.

Feedback from Teachers on Assignments Trojan H.S. % National %
Never 6.80 5.43
Rarely 19.42 19.31
Sometimes 46.43 48.49
Often 27.35 26.76
Table 8: Feedback from Teachers on Assignments

While we have already identified Trojan High School as a high performing
urban high school, it was interesting to note that students who received high
achieving grades at Trojan were less than the national average who participated in
the HSSSE survey. Trojan High School students earned lower achieving grades

106
compared to their national counterparts. Of the 70,000 respondents who took the
HSSSE nationally, most of the students were high performing in terms of academic
marks at their schools.

Grades Trojan H.S. % National %
Mostly Ds and Below 5.51 2.68
Mostly Cs and Ds 16.32 10.41
Mostly Bs and Cs 34.68 29.45
Mostly As and Bs 32.28 39.33
Mostly As 9.18 16.93
Table 9: Student Grades

Students at Trojan High School feel less safe in their schools compared to
their national counterparts. In the statement, “I feel safe at my school,” 28% of the
students at Trojan High School strongly disagreed or disagreed with the statement
while the national data had 22% of the respondents strongly disagreed or disagreed
with the statement. Of those that felt safe in their schools, Trojan High School 72%
of the students agreed or strongly agreed with the statement compared to the national
average of 77%. The national data from the HSSSEE does not segregate urban and
non-urban high schools.

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Safe In School Trojan H.S. % National %
Strongly Disagree 8.09 6.66
Disagree 19.64 15.18
Agree 62.33 61.55
Strongly Agree 9.94 16.61
Table 10: Feeling Safe in School

Discussion of Findings
Upon overall review of the national data compared to Trojan High School’s
results on the HSSSE 2006, students at Trojan High School did not necessarily have
higher levels of student engagement. In fact, high school students at a high
performing urban high school had similar levels of student engagement as their
national counterparts. In some instances, students at Trojan High School were less
engaged on a typical seven-day week than their national counterparts who
participated in the study.
Other factors pertaining to the campus had a more profound impact on
student achievement. The campus community/culture, leadership and curriculum
play a greater role on student achievement than student engagement. Commitment to
students in a caring environment, using data to guide best practices and instruction,

108
and effective leadership and collaboration impacted student achievement more than
student engagement and were themes found consistently through the campus.
Administrators, teachers, parents, and staff members at Trojan High School
were very committed to ensure that students succeed. The school culture established
the critical importance of student success and the commitment of the institution to
the success of their students. Commitment to students in a caring environment was a
common theme when all the various factors were triangulated. The belief that
students have the ability to succeed and that all stakeholders were there to help the
students in their pursuit have led to the success of Trojan High School. From the way
the school schedule allows for intervention in a regular school day to parental
involvement and communication, it was very evident that Trojan High School had
placed importance on student success through the school culture. School culture is
one of the factors that affect student learning according to the conceptual model.
Over the last few years, the high school has focused on increasing student
achievement. One of the most popular indicators used by stakeholders is the API
score. The API score shows an increase in academic achievement at Trojan High
School over the last few years. When the researcher was on campus, he noticed that
teachers and administrators at the high school used data to improve instructional
practices. Time was allocated for the teachers during the late start days for teachers
to gather and review student comprehension levels of different questions. Teachers
then shared why students would have missed a question. It was very impressive to
see educators using data to guide best practices and instruction. Data about academic

109
achievement was quickly reviewed and discussions about best practices occurred
immediately so that students could still benefit from the discussions. After the
discussion about student comprehension, teachers then collaborated and discussed
what the next few weeks of instruction would entail and how to best educate the
students about the upcoming content standards. The school has focused on
improving curriculum and instruction which was indicated in the conceptual model
as having an impact on academic achievement.
The principal is concerned with the academic achievements of her students
and in making sure that the school functions smoothly and that there are proper
communications channels. But more than just the principal, the entire campus
community shows leadership and collaboration. Effective leadership and
collaboration was a common theme that was found at Trojan High School during the
data analysis. This is exemplified by the regular meeting the principal has with
individuals, departments, other administrators and the entire school. The principal
goes inside classrooms on a daily basis to interact with teachers and students. The
subject alike teachers take charge of making sure that the teachers discuss issues
relevant to academic achievement during subject alike meetings. Teachers interact
and share best practices in meetings after reviewing achievement data. Recognition
is acknowledged publicly in front of peers for both teachers and students. Parents are
committed to helping the students achieve their full academic potential. Students
take leadership roles in the campus community and are involved with various

110
campus programs and initiatives. Leadership was one of the factors recognized in
student achievement in the conceptual model created by the USC cohort.

Conclusion
Commitment to students in a caring environment, using data to guide best
practices and instruction, and effective leadership and collaboration impacted student
achievement more than student engagement at Trojan High School. The cohort had
developed a conceptual model to show that those factors impact academic
achievement. Students at Trojan High School did not necessarily have higher levels
of student engagement than their national counterparts. In fact, urban high school
students had similar levels of student engagement as those who took the HSSSE in
2006. In the last chapter, a summary, conclusions and recommendations were
developed to help other schools reach higher levels of academic achievement.

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CHAPTER 5:
CONCLUSIONS

Summary
Over the last few years, American students have been comparatively crippled
as countries throughout the world have increased the academic achievements of their
students. The high performing American educational environment has lost its
competitive edge. Academicians and employers complain that high school graduates
do not have the basic skills necessary to perform well in professional environments.
As we move towards a more global environment, American students are not
performing as well as their counterparts and they have suffered in their careers. But
their career is not all that will suffer if reform is not implemented quickly. The
American economy may lose its footing as a global power in the future. American
students lack focus towards core subject areas such as language arts, mathematics,
and sciences. A check on the American educational system showed that students
were at a great disadvantage compared to other nations based on subject matter
comprehension.
Various reform movements have occurred to ensure students compete
competitively at the national and state levels. The national report, A Nation at Risk,
began the accountability movement in the United States to increase the achievement
of students today. No Child Left Behind and the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act increased accountability at the federal level. In California, the

112
California Content Standards, Public Schools Accountability Act, and California
High School Exit Exam challenged educators to provide the highest caliber of
education and accountability for all students.
High schools today have also evolved. Many high schools face more
challenges and have more obstacles that obscure student achievement. Many of these
obstacles are within and/or external to the campus environment. The ever-increasing
high percentage of high school drop outs is a consequence of student disengagement.
Student performance data shows that students continue to struggle with academics
even with various federal and state reforms

The Statement of the Problem
Various reform efforts have already been implemented with the goal of
increasing student achievement and closing the achievement gap. Yet, even with the
various reform efforts, large numbers of students are still not excelling in their
academic environments. In an examination of the institutions themselves,
educational research has focused on high schools in general, but very little research
has focused on the high performing urban high school. As the population continues
to grow, there is an increasing need to focus on urban environments and assuring
students in urban environments to succeed in their educational pursuits.

113
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to determine what factors contribute to high
performance in a high performing urban high school. Is there a link between student
engagement and academic achievement? What other perceived factors affect student
engagement? This research study analyzed a high performing urban high school in
the Los Angeles area to better understand the various factors that contribute to high
performance at Trojan High School. The high school was selected because it had met
the definitions of a high performing urban high school as defined by the USC cohort.

Methodology
The analysis utilized a variety of data analysis techniques such as document
analysis, surveys, observations and interviews. Standard interview questions were
developed by the doctoral cohort and asked respondents about their perceptions of
academic achievement and whether student engagement was a factor in academic
achievement. The observations provided a greater understanding to the campus
community/culture. The surveys provided the researcher with insight into perceived
factors from various points of views including those of administrators, teachers and
parents. The document review provided insight and perspective from the student
perspective through the High School Survey of Student Engagement (HSSSE) data.
The document review also allowed the researcher to better understand the foundation
of the high school. Collectively, the data collection instruments recognized some

114
perceived factors that contribute to academic engagement and determined the link
between student engagement and academic achievement.

Research Questions
The research study focused specifically on answering the following
questions:
1. What perceived factors contribute to academic achievement in a high
performing urban high school?
2. Is there a link between student engagement and academic achievement at
a high performing high school?

Instrumentation
The relationship between student engagement and academic achievement was
examined through a qualitative case study approach. The qualitative mixed-methods
case study examined Trojan High School, a high performing urban high school, to
understand the factors that contribute to academic achievement. The USC cohort
designed the research instruments to be utilized for the study. Each cohort member
used the same research instruments across various high performing urban high
schools in the Southern California area. A conceptual model was also created to
determine the impact of various factors on student achievement such as curriculum
and instruction, school culture and leadership.

115
Data Collection
Through the use of data collection, the researcher was able to better
understand the factors that contributed to academic achievement at a high performing
urban high school. The researcher reviewed documents from the high school to better
understand the culture of the campus and its strengths and weaknesses. The
researcher spent a total of seven days at the high school to better understand the
educational environment at the campus. The researcher was very fortunate to be able
to observe a cross section of the campus. The observation week was selected
strategically to expose the researcher to different aspects of the campus culture.
Surveys were conducted with teachers and administrators.
The results of the High School Survey of Student Engagement (HSSSE) were
provided to the researcher and utilized as secondary data from the high school.
Interviews with administrators, representative teachers and parents allowed for a
better understanding of the campus culture and for the identification of consistent
themes.

Findings
The campus community/culture, leadership and curriculum contributed more
greatly on student achievement than student engagement. Administrators, teachers,
parents, and staff members at Trojan High School were very committed to ensure
student success. The school culture established the critical importance of student
success and the commitment of the institution to the success of the students.

116
Commitment to students in a caring environment, using data to guide best practices
and instruction, and effective leadership and collaboration impacted student
achievement more than student engagement.
Commitment to students in a caring environment was a common theme when
all the various factors were triangulated. The belief that students have the ability to
succeed and that all stakeholders were there to help the students in their pursuit have
led to the success of Trojan High School. Parents, teachers, administrators, other
constituents and the campus culture were all committed to the students.
Teachers and administrators at the high school used data to improve
instructional practices. Time was allocated for the teachers during the late start days
for teachers to gather and review student comprehension levels of different
questions. Time allocated for planning allowed educators to utilize data to identify
challenges and opportunities. Teachers were willing to utilize the data to drive
instructional practices.
The entire campus community demonstrated high levels of leadership and
collaboration to increase student achievement. Effective leadership and collaboration
was a common theme that was found at Trojan High School during the data analysis.
Leadership and collaboration was found among all of the campus’ stakeholders.
Parents were involved with campus activities, teachers collaborated and utilized best
practices, and the administration worked closely to ensure academic achievement.
Overall review of the national data compared to Trojan High School’s results
on the HSSSE 2006, indicated that students at Trojan High School did not

117
necessarily have higher levels of student engagement. In fact, high performing urban
high school students had similar levels of student engagement as their national
counterparts.

Recommendations
Review of the data and findings indicated that commitment to students in a
caring environment, using data to guide best practices and instruction, and
effective leadership and collaboration impacted student achievement more than
student engagement. Factors such as school culture, leadership and curriculum and
instruction play a critical role in academic achievement as exemplified in the
conceptual model. It is important for educators to understand how to increase the
academic achievements of all students. Trojan High School has had a recent history
of academic success despite its urban challenges. The researcher has identified areas
which have made Trojan High school successful in terms of academic achievement.
Some of the recommendations from the researcher for other urban schools are:
• A relevant and rigorous curriculum for students. The career academies
played a major role in keeping students engaged at Trojan High School.
• Allocation of time for teachers to collaborate to identify best practices.
Subject-alike meetings provide collaboration time for teachers and open
discussion of both the past and the future

118
• Constant and open communication from the campus administration to its
stakeholders such as parents, teachers, community and students. Parents
want to be involved with the academic environment of their children.
• Teachers need to provide students with consistent and immediate
feedback. Administration needs to work closely with all its constituents to
ensure open communication and understanding. Administration needs to
show support for parents, students and teachers.
• Intervention time to assist students in need of additional guidance. The
intervention time at Trojan High School allowed teachers the opportunity
to reflect with the students on the successes or failures of their
understanding with the content standards.
• Safe environment for students with appropriate resources available to all
students. Students need to feel safe in their schools to maximize the
educational opportunities available for them. Facilities need to be
available for students to use.
• Protected instructional time where teachers utilize every minute of
instruction to provide students with academic materials.
• Recognition and acceptance of the fact that educational environments are
subject to continuous improvement and best practices continue to evolve
as society evolves.
• A welcoming environment for ideas, stakeholders and educational
practices.

119
• The availability of advanced knowledge courses such as Advanced
Placement and Honors.
• Teachers exemplifying leadership by being involved with critical roles
such as club advisor, coach or mentorship.

Suggestions for Future Research
While this research project focused on the perceived factors of academic
achievement and whether or not student engagement was a factor, there are other
opportunities for future research that focuses on increasing academic achievement.
Suggestions for future research are listed below.
• A longitudinal study is needed to determine if there was an increase in the
amount of student engagement activity to the point where it is relatively
consistent with the national average. Before the high school became high
performing, what were their student engagement levels?
• Focus a study on just one factor of student achievement based on the
conceptual model and provide a more detailed understanding of the
matter. Analyze the impact of leadership, school culture, or curriculum
and instruction on student achievement to identify best practices and
increase student achievement.
• Compare student engagement levels of a high performing urban high
school with that of a high performing suburban high school.

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Conclusions
Commitment to students in a caring environment, using data to guide best
practices and instruction, and effective leadership and collaboration impacted student
achievement more than student engagement at Trojan High School. Therefore, one
can conclude that other factors such as leadership, school culture and curriculum and
instruction play an important role in academic achievement for our students.
As educational leaders, we are committed to ensure that all students have an
equal opportunity for academic success. All students should have the same
opportunity to succeed. While urban students face greater challenges than their
suburban counterparts, all students have the right to educational opportunities. As
society and the global environment continue to evolve, educational institutions must
change with them. Students greatly benefit from an evolving environment. An
evolving environment benefits the educational opportunities of all students. We have
much to gain from the achievements of all students as they become the leaders for
the future.

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Marzano, R.J. (2003). What Works in Schools: Translating Research Into Action.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Department.

Mathis, W.J. (2003). “No Child Left Behind: the Costs and Benefits” Phi Delta
Kappan 84(9).

McCarthy, M. & Kuh, G. (1982). “Where is the Public in Public Education” Clearing
House; v55 n6 p267-68. Feb. 1982

National Assessment of Educational Progress (2007). The Nation’s Report Card
Retrieved July 24, 2007, from
http://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reading_math_grade12_2005/s0202.asp

The National Center for Education Statistics (2007). Condition of Education 2006.
Retrieved July 24, 2007, from
http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/press/highlights.asp

The National Center for Education Statistics (2007). Fast Facts. Retrieved July 23,
2007 from http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=94

National Commission on Excellence in Education, A Nation at Risk; The Imperative
For Educational Reform (1983). National Commission on Excellence in
Education. Washington, D.C.; Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O. distributor, 1983

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Noddings, N. (1997). Reprinted from Clinchy, Evans, ed. “Transforming Public
Education: A New Course for American’s Future.” New York: Teachers
College Press, pp. 27-37.

Patton, M. Q. (1987) How to Use Qualitative Methods in Evaluation. California:
Sage Publications, Inc.

Russo, C.J. (2004). Reutter’s The Law of Public Education. New York: Foundation
Press.

Salamon, L.M. (1991). Overview: Why Human Capital? Why Now? In D.W.
Hornbeck and L.M. Salamon (eds.), Human Capital and America’s Future.
Baltimore, MD. Johns Hopkins University Press.

Stein, M.K., Hubbard, L., & Mehan, H. (2004). Reform ideas that travel far afield:
The two cultures of reform in New York City’s District #2 and San Diego.
Journal of Educational Change, 5, 161-197.

Togneri, W., & Anderson, S.E. (2003). Beyond Islands of Excellence: What Districts
Can do Improve Instruction and Achievement in All Schools. Washington
DC: The Learning First Alliance and the Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.

U.S. Department of Education (2007), FY 2006 Performance and Accountability
Report (PAR) including the FY 2006 Program Performance Report.
Retrieved July 24, 2007, from
http://www.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/2006report/index.html

U.S. Department of Education (2007), Strengthening Education: Meeting the
Challenge of a Changing World, February 2006. Retrieved July 24, 2007,
from
http://www.ed.gov/about/inits/ed/competitiveness/challenge.html

What We Can Learn From High School Students (2005). Center for Evaluation and
Education Policy. Indiana University.

124
APPENDICES

Interview Questions
Suggested personnel to interview: Superintendent, Assistant Superintendent
of Educational Services, Principals, Assistant Principals, School Board Members,
Counselors, Teachers, Support staff, Parent groups and community groups, Extra-
curricular Activities Leaders (minimum of 5 interviews)—maybe focus group or
department chairpersons or during a designated prep period.
Questions:

Tell me about this school/school district

What are you most proud of at this school/school district? What areas would you like to
improve within the school/school district?

What is the vision or mission of the school? Are there common goals in which all
stakeholders are focusing upon? If so, please tell me about them.

What are the factors that you feel contribute to student achievement at your
school/school district?

What role do you feel student engagement (defined by cohort group) contributes to
student achievement at your school/school district?

What do you feel are the strengths of the school/school district?

Would you consider your school/school district high performing? Why or why not? If
so, how?

Is your school/school district unique? If so, how?

How does the school/school district prepare students beyond high school?
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education

125

Survey of High School Administrators Regarding Student Engagement

This survey asks questions about how you perceive the high school experience for the
students at your high school. The information provided by these surveys will be
compiled to be shared with site and district stakeholders. Thank you for your thoughtful
responses.

1. What areas do you supervise?
2. Are you _____ Female ______ Male
3. What is your racial or ethnic identification? (Mark all that apply.)
______American Indian/other Native American
______Asian American or Pacific Islander
______Black/African American ______White
______Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin ______Other, specify: ___________
______Prefer not to respond
4. Is English the main language used in the majority of your students’ homes?
_____ Yes _____ No _____ I do not know
5. Do the majority of your students have a computer with Internet access at home?
____ Yes ____ No ____ I do not know
6. During this school year, about how many writing assignments are students
given?
0-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11+
a. Written papers/reports of
more than 5 pages
b. Written papers/reports of 3 to
5 pages
c. Written papers/reports of
fewer than 3 pages

7. How much reading are students assigned in a typical school week?
# of hours of assigned reading
____0 ____1 ____2-3 ____4-5 ____6-7 ____8-10 ____11+
8. During this school year, how often do teachers utilized strategies to encourage
all students to participate in class?
____Very often ____Frequently ____Sometimes ____Never

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education

Focus: Factors Impacting Student Achievement at
Urban High Schools

126
9. During this school year, how often are students given prompt, personal feedback
on assignments?
____Very often ____Frequently ____Sometimes ____Never
10. School safety is clearly a priority on this campus?
____I agree ____I disagree

For numbers 11- 21, check the response that best identifies the extent to which this high
school emphasizes the skill or learning activity mentioned.

11. Students must spend a lot of time studying and on school work.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
12. Students are provided the support needed to succeed in school.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
13. Students are encouraged to participate in school events and activities (athletics,
music, etc.).
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
14. Students are encouraged to get involved in school leadership and governance.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
15. All adults on campus treat students fairly.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
16. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful opportunities to learn work-
related skills.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
17. Students are encouraged to write effectively.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
18. Students are encouraged and provided the support to use information technology.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
19. Students are encouraged and provided opportunities to solve real-world
problems.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
20. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful opportunities to develop clear,
sequential career goals and prepare for appropriate post-secondary education or training.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
21. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful opportunities to make their
community a better place.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

22. What are the factors that you feel contribute to student achievement?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

127

Survey of High School Teachers Regarding Student Engagement

This survey asks questions about how you perceive the high school experience for the
students at your high school. The information provided by these surveys will be
compiled to be shared with site and district stakeholders. Thank you for your thoughtful
responses.

1. What subject area do you teach? ____________________________________
2. Which category represents most of the classes you teach?
_____ General/Regular _____ Special Education
_____ Remedial _____ Honors/College Prep
_____ Career/Career Technical Education
3. Are you _____ Female ______ Male
4. What is your racial or ethnic identification?
(Mark all that apply.)
______American Indian/other Native American
______Asian American or Pacific Islander
______Black/African American ______White
______Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin
______Other, please specify: ___________
______Prefer not to respond
5. Is English the main language used in the majority of your students’ homes?
_____ Yes _____ No _____ I do not know
6. Do the majority of your students have a computer with Internet access at home?
____ Yes ____ No ____ I do not know
7. During this school year, about how many writing assignments have you given?
0-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11+

a. Written papers/reports of more
than 5 pages
b. Written papers/reports of 3 to
5 pages
c. Written papers/reports of
fewer than 3 pages

8. How much reading do you assign in a typical school week? # of hours of
assigned reading
____0 ____1 ____2-3 ____4-5 ____6-7 ____8-10 ____11+
9. During this school year, how often have you utilized strategies to encourage all
students to participate in class?

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Focus: Factors Impacting Student Achievement at Urban High Schools

128
____Very often ____Frequently ____Sometimes ____Never
10. During this school year, how often have you given prompt, personal feedback to
students on assignments?
____Very often ____Frequently ____Sometimes ____Never
11. School safety is clearly a priority on this campus?
____ I agree ____ I disagree

For numbers 12-22, fill in the response that best identifies the extent to which this high
school emphasizes the skill or learning activity mentioned.

12. Students must spend a lot of time studying and on school work.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
13. Students are provided the support needed to succeed in school.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
14. Students are encouraged to participate in school events and activities (athletics,
music, etc.).
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
15. Students are encouraged to get involved in school leadership and governance.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
16. All adults on campus treat students fairly.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
17. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful opportunities to learn work-
related skills.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
18. Students are encouraged to write effectively.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
19. Students are encouraged and provided the support to use information technology.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
20. Students are encouraged and provided opportunities to solve real-world
problems.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
21. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful opportunities to develop clear,
sequential career goals and prepare for appropriate post-secondary education or training.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
22. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful opportunities to make their
community a better place.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little
23. What are the factors that you feel contribute to student achievement?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

129

Documents
How we would identify high performing schools?
API score
Similar School Ranking

What do we need to know?
CAHSEE passage rate
Discipline (suspensions, expulsions, rewards)
School sponsored activities
Attendance
Graduation rates
Student Demographics (SES, free/reduced lunch, mobility, ELL)
Parent education level
Course grades (GPA)

How would we find this information?
California Department of Education (Data Quest- http://dq.cde.ca.gov/dataquest/)
WASC Report- Self study report & recommendations
School Accountability Report Card
District Website
School Website
School Handbook
Student/Parent Handbook
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Focus: Factors Impacting Student Achievement at Urban High Schools

130

Date: _______________________________________ Page ________ of ________

Observation Log: School Class Leadership Meetings

School
Culture
Curriculum &
Instruction
Leadership Student
Engagement
Additional
Observations

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Focus: Factors Impacting Student Achievement at Urban High Schools

131
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
UNIVERSITY PARK INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD
FWA 00007099

Approval Notice for Exempt Applications (Contingencies have been met)
Date: Thu Aug 30 16:20:18 2007
Principal Investigator: Stuart Gothold

Co-Investigators:
Talin Pushian
David C. Chang
Katherine Frazier, Administrative Services,
Multiple Subjects, Resource Specialist
Anne Kershner
Sharon Anderson
Juliette Ett
Jose Hernandez
Amicia Lambert
Stephania Vu
Jolie Pickett
Kelley Mayr
Julio Fonseca
Annette Alpern

Project Title: Student Engagement USC UPIRB # UP-07-
00236
The University Park Institutional Review Board (IRB) designee requested
modifications/clarifications to the above referenced study on 8/24/2007.
It is noted that the required responses were provided as requested by the
IRB. The IRB determined that your project meets the requirements outlined in 45
CFR 46.101 categories (1, 2 & 4) and qualifies for exemption from IRB Review.
IRB Exemption of this study was granted on 8/30/2007.
This study has been approved to be conducted at the following sites:
Clark Magnet High School
Kennedy High School
Whittier Union High School District
The information sheet has been included so that you may begin your research at the
approved sites. Once additional sites have been identified, those sites should be
added to the application with an amendment before the research study can be

132
conducted at those sites. As noted previously, researchers are reminded that
permission must be obtained from each entity and the researchers should have the
site permission letters available.

Sincerely,

Scott Maul, Ph.D.
Program Specialist
University Park IRB

133
University of Southern California

INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
Student Engagement in High Performing Urban High Schools
You are asked to participate in a research study conducted by Annette
Alpern, Sharon Anderson, David Chang, Juliette Ett, Julio Fonseca, Katherine
Frazier, Jose Hernandez, Anne Kershner, Amicia Lambert, Kelley Mayr, Jolie
Pickett, Talin Pushian, Stephania Vu and Stuart Gothold, Ed.D., from the Rossier
School of Education at the University of Southern California. Results from this
study will contribute to the Co-Principal Investigators’ dissertation. You were
selected as a possible participant in this study because you are a administrator or
teacher with at a high performing school in this study. A total of approximately 20
subjects will be selected from district administrators and school administrators or
teachers to participate. Your participation is voluntary.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
We are asking you to take part in a research study because we are trying to
learn more about the school factors that contribute to increased student engagement
and increased student achievement.
Completion and return of the questionnaire or response to the interview
questions will constitute consent to participate in this research project.
PROCEDURES
You may be asked to do one or more of the following:
Interview: Participate in a one-time, one-hour interview in a place
convenient to you. There are three main questions with additional questions if
needed to provide additional information. Questions are related to school factors that
contribute to increased school engagement and increased student achievement.
Sample questions may be “Your school has been identified as a high performing
urban high school. What school factors do you think contribute to this
identification?,” “What school factors contribute to student engagement at this
school?” and “Are there any aspects to the school culture or school atmosphere that
contribute to higher student engagement?
Survey: Participate in a one-time, 15-question survey of your perceptions as
a teacher regarding student engagement and student achievement taking
approximately 20 minutes to complete. Survey will be completed either at the end of
a teacher meeting or at a place convenient to you. Sample questions include: “I am
able to help students care about their schoolwork” and “My students attend class
with readings and/or assignments completed.”
Observation: Allow researcher to observe (no interaction) your classroom
during instructional time, a faculty meeting and general campus environment. Each
observation should take no longer than one hour, one time during this study.
Document Review: Make available to researcher documents such as School
Accountability Report Card, Master Schedules, and standardized test scores. None
of the documents requested will have any student identifying information.

134
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks to your participation; you may experience some
discomfort at completing the questionnaire or participating in the interview or
observation phase of the study or you may be inconvenienced from taking time out
of your day to complete the questionnaire/survey instrument.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
You may not directly benefit from your participation in this research study.
This study may help to identify school factors that contribute to increased
student engagement and increased student performance.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not receive any payment for your participation in this research
study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Only members of the research team will have access to the data associated
with this study. The data will be stored in the investigator’s office in a locked file
cabinet/password protected computer. No information will be released which will
identify you. Audio-tapes will be destroyed upon transcription. You will not review
or edit the tapes. Only the researcher will have access to the tapes and will only be
used for educational purposes. No names will be collected on survey, your identity
will be coded on interview sheets and observation charts. The coding sheet linking
your code to your identify will be destroyed upon transcription.
The other data will be stored for three years after the study has been
completed and then destroyed.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no
information will be included that would reveal your identity
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in
this study, you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You
may also refuse to answer any questions you don’t want to answer and still remain in
the study. The investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances
arise which warrant doing so.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation
without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of
your participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding your rights
as a research subject, contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for
Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146,
(213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.
IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to
contact Stuart Gothold, Annette Alpern, Sharon Anderson, David Chang, Juliette Ett,
Julio Fonseca, Katherine Frazier, Jose Hernandez, Anne Kershner, Amicia Lambert,
Kelley Mayr, Jolie Pickett, Talin Pushian, Stephania Vu at the Rossier School of

135
Education, USC, WPH 902C, Los Angeles, California. You may also contact all
investigators at 213-740-3451.

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to determine what perceived factors contribute to academic achievement in a high performing urban high school and whether or not there is a link between student engagement and academic achievement.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Chang, David C. (author)

Core Title A case study to determine what perceived factors, including student engagement, contribute to academic achievement in a high performing urban high school

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/01/2008

Defense Date 03/19/2008

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag campus culture,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,student engagement,urban high school

Place Name California (states), school districts: Southern California Union High School District (geographic subject), USA (countries)

Language English

Advisor Gothold, Stuart E. (committee chair), Hocevar, Dennis J. (committee member), Stowe, Kathy Huisong (committee member)

Creator Email changdc@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m1067

Unique identifier UC1159612

Identifier etd-Chang-20080401 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-44268 (legacy record id),usctheses-m1067 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Chang-20080401.pdf

Dmrecord 44268

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Chang, David C.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu