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A case study on influences of mainstream teachers' instructional decisions and perceptions of English learners in Hawai'i public secondary education

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A case study on influences of mainstream teachers' instructional decisions and perceptions of English learners in Hawai'i public secondary education

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Content Running head: INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS 1
A CASE STUDY ON INFLUENCES OF MAINSTREAM TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL
DECISIONS AND PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS IN HAWAI’I PUBLIC
SECONDARY EDUCATION
by
Dalvin L. Butler, Jr.
_______________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2019
Copyright 2019 Dalvin L. Butler, Jr.
INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

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DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my entire family who have provided unconditional love
and support to me throughout my academic affairs of attaining a doctorate. First I would like to
thank my parents for emphasizing the importance of education and its lifelong impact on my
cognition and perception. Mom, you taught me to be independent and methodical in my
decision-making and thinking. You taught me to be courageous and tenacious against all
obstacles. Those skills were exercised during my time in the doctoral program. Dad, your
stories of attending college as an active football player inspired me to take initial steps toward
pursuing higher education. I hold you in high regard; as a great thinker and a trailblazer in
athleticism. This study represents the foundation you gave me as a child. A child with endless
dreams. It was you, Dad, who knew my dreams of becoming a doctor could become reality. I
may not be Otto Porter Jr. (a Georgetown University classmate), but I aspire to be an Otto of
academia. Love you.
To my sisters, you each have been a breath of fresh air and a source of hope during this
glorious, yet challenging journey. I recall nights where I relied on each of you to help me
refocus on the work ahead. Your love and care have meant the world to me. Each of you are
talented members of society, and I am proud to say I am your brother. The world is your oyster.
To my Grandfather Donald, your relentless words of encouragement have helped me
excel in life and in academia. You have always pushed me to strive for excellence and exercise
my full potential. Thanks for serving as a beacon of hope, wisdom, and inspiration. You rock!
To my Aunt Patricia, you have been an exemplary role model for me, in terms of
embodying the ideals of a humanitarian, a servant leader, and a graceful warrior. You taught me
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to be patient, put others before self, and have strong core values. Your love and compassion
know no bounds. You strive to care for all of mankind, and you are the heart of our family.
To my Aunt Brenda, you are responsible for my passion for social justice and love of
American history. You have taught me to be a voice for the voiceless, and speak truth, even if it
is unpopular. I have always admired your strength, intellect, and courage. You are my hero!
To my Uncle Mark, you have taught me to have a sense of humor and the importance of
enjoying life. You are a gifted individual; who has transformed the art of comedy, and your
talent has impacted millions of lives through entertainment. I have a greater appreciation for
performing arts and comedy due to your creative vision. I am proud to be your nephew!
To my Cousin Dora, you have always embraced me and encouraged me to remain
focused, and keep my eyes on the prize. I certainly have listened over nearly three decades. You
have taught me the importance of having discipline and drive to achieve any goal in life. In my
lifetime, you have demonstrated the attributes of a selfless individual who has given countless
years to ministry and community service. You are a true Disciple of Christ!
To my Cousin Takisha, you have always stressed the importance of exemplifying
exceptional work ethic and punctuality in life. You have taught me to be unbiased and suspend
judgment. You have challenged me to have the ability to evaluate issues from multiple
perspectives before drawing conclusions. So I am pleased to assure you that all claims in my
dissertation are substantiated and grounded in empirical research. Continue to inspire others!
To Uncles: Dedric, Garland, Nickolas; Aunts: Tao, Caren, Deborah Kay, Beverly, Fern;
and Cousins: Ashanique and Patrick; thank you so much for sharing this journey with me.
Finally, to my extended family, thank you for your unrelenting voices of encouragement
and everlasting love throughout this ride. I may be the first to do many things in our family, but
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I know I will not be the last. I hope this study serves as a source of inspiration and motivation
for future generations, just as Dr. W.E.B. Du Bois and President Barack Obama have inspired
me.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The journey of becoming a doctor with a summa cum laude honor has been humbling and
enlightening. I would like to extend gratitude to my dissertation committee: Dr. Tracy Poon
Tambascia, Dr. Artineh Samkian, and Dr. Lawrence O. Picus, who have dedicated countless
hours to providing me with descriptive feedback, unconditional support, and unwavering care.
To Dr. Tambascia, who chaired my dissertation committee, mahalo nui loa for believing
in me and our entire Hawai’i cohort. You convinced me to do things that appeared to be
unimaginable, and pushed me to conceive new ideas on the topic of my doctoral study when I
thought I exhausted all possibilities. Most importantly, you demonstrated the hallmarks of an
extraordinary researcher and leader in academia who has an extensive knowledge base on a
range of topics. I admired this quality and intellectual talent most about you. You led my
dissertation committee with such grace and dignity, and continued to be a calm presence during
challenging moments. I am grateful and appreciative to have gotten the opportunity to have you
serve as chair of my dissertation committee. You were meticulous, dedicated, and organized.
To Dr. Samkian, you are one of the premier research methodologists in higher education,
and I am very humbled to have had you as a member of my dissertation committee. You helped
me understand the fundamentals of qualitative research, and made me become more intentional
about word choice when writing research papers and simple questions. Thank you for your
invaluable advice and academic guidance that has always been grounded in scientific evidence.
To Dr. Picus, I am truly honored to have had you as a member of my dissertation
committee, and having had the opportunity to develop a professional relationship with one of the
best associate deans at USC. As a result of your leadership, I have developed a greater passion
for equity and adequacy on the topic of school finance, and have a better understanding of school
INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

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funding models. I will continue to admire your extensive body of research, effect size charts,
and witty sense of humor. Thank you for dedicating your career to “developing human capital.”
To Dr. Carole Ward Allen, a longtime mentor of mine, thank you for having been patient
with me as I discussed learning theories and research methodologies over the past three years.
There have been countless times when I have asked for advice on life and doctoral matters, and
you have always given me sound recommendations. You have been a role model for me my
entire teenage and adult life. Your work as a policy-maker and social justice advocate has
transformed education, local politics, and collective bargaining units in the Bay Area. You have
developed a reputation of breaking down barriers limiting the upward mobility of women and
people of color, and I thank you for being a profile in courage. You are a phenomenal educator
who emphasized the importance of valuing the essence of Sankofa! Now, Sankofa is my motto.
To Mrs. Mary Maultsby, a high school history teacher of mine, thanks for serving as a
ray of sunshine and a source of ingenuity during inflection moments. You have strengthened my
communication skills, and are responsible for me becoming a lover of social sciences, and arts
and humanities. It is important to note that you are among the most patient and noble people I
know. You have taught me that leaders are open to differing views, while serving as a source of
unity among followers. Most of all, you taught me leadership is the art of making what appears
impossible, possible. Thanks for epitomizing decency and humility. You are a giant among us.
To Mrs. Wendy Tokuda, a mentor and dear friend, thanks for your relentless support,
uncompromising integrity, and selfless service. You have modeled the function of leadership in
the context of being driven by the ideal of service of others, coupled with activating virtue. You
have taught me the meaning of principled leadership, and the value of advocacy. You are truly
INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

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an unsung hero to many in the San Francisco Bay Area. Rejoice in the Earth’s euphoria and
elation.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 5
List of Tables 10
Abstract 11
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 12
Background of the Problem 13
Statement of the Problem 16
Purpose of the Study 17
Research Questions 17
Significance of the Study 18
Limitations 19
Delimitations 19
Assumptions 20
Definition of Terms 20
Organization of the Dissertation 22
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 23
Defining English Learners 24
Equity and Access for English Learners 28
Teacher Demographics in Hawai’i 32
Teacher Preparation to Support English Learners 33
Mainstream Teacher Perceptions of ELs 34
Teacher Motivation 37
Instructional Strategies and Practices 43
Professional Development 48
U.S. Based Academic Culture 50
Theoretical Framework 52
Figure 1. Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecology Theory 56
Conclusion 57
Chapter 3: Research Methods 58
Purpose of the Study 58
Research Questions 58
Research Design 59
Site Selection 60
Population and Sample 62
Instrumentation and Data Collection 64
Data Analysis 71
Validity of Findings 73
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Role of Researcher 74
Conclusion 76
Chapter 4: Research Findings 77
Participant Profile 77
Visual Strategies 82
Teacher Empathy and Motivation 90
Teacher Efficacy and Growth Mindsets 93
Federal Language Development Targets 101
Teacher Perceptions 106
Conclusion 110
Chapter 5: Summary of Findings and Discussion 111
Research Questions 111
Summary of Findings and Discussion 112
Review of Findings 113
Recommendations for Practice 119
Recommendations for Future Research 122
Conclusion 123
References 125
Appdendices 141
Appendix A: Recruitment Email 141
Appendix B: Screener 142
Appendix C: Scheduling Email — Interview 143
Appendix D: Information Sheet 144
Appendix E: Interview Questions 147

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Characteristics and Instructional Issues of EL Subgroups 26
Table 2. Participant Profiles 79
Table 3. Common Instructional Strategies and Best Practices that Emerged from 83
Interviews and Document Analysis
Table 4. Influences on Mainstream Teachers’ Instructional Decisions from Interviews 106

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ABSTRACT
This qualitative case study examined influences on mainstream teachers’ instructional decision-
making and perceptions of English Learners (ELs) in Hawai’i public secondary education.
Several influences on mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions were explored in this case
study, including federal policy, teacher motivation, teacher perception, efficacy, mindsets,
teacher empathy, and a monolingual culture in the American educational system. Additionally,
this study investigated the extent to which mainstream teachers were implementing best practices
and receiving professional development to support students who were not proficient in English.
Mainstream teachers at a public secondary school in Hawai’i participated in semi-structured one-
on-one interviews, and five participants voluntarily supplied lesson plans for document analysis.
The study found that federally mandated language development targets and a monolingual
culture in American academia had little to no influence on instructional decisions of mainstream
teachers in Hawai’i. This study identified six factors of influence on mainstream teachers’
instructional decisions, and aimed to understand the differing perceptions mainstream teachers
have about English learners while supporting second language acquisition. Urie
Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecology Theory was used to interpret and make sense of data
collected. Recommendations to increase teacher practice were discussed based on research
findings to support English learners as well as recommendations for future research.

Keywords: achievement gap, culturally responsive teaching, efficacy, English Learners (ELs),
instructional strategies, motivation, professional development, sheltered instruction

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CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
The achievement gap of English Learners (ELs) in K-12 public institutions is a serious
concern in the American educational system. Students who are English learners in the K-12
educational settings are classified as Limited English Proficient (LEP) or Immigrant Children
and Youth (Mississippi Department of Education, 2011). In the United States, two out of every
ten children come from homes where languages other than English are spoken as the primary or
heritage language (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2006). There has been an
influx of new EL students in the United States; roughly four million children are in the process
of becoming proficient in English and are classified as ELs (NCES, 2015). The increasing
numbers of ELs in the United States demands that teacher education programs and K-12 public
institutions prioritize professional development among their mainstream teachers. There has
been a national focus on professional development to ensure mainstream teachers are
appropriately equipped with research-based practices to meet the diverse needs of EL students
(Tellez & Waxman, 2005). The American Association for Employment in Education (2005)
validated this problem by stating many ELs are being taught by mainstream teachers who feel
unprepared to teach these students without proper training and understanding of appropriate
pedagogy.
According to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), the achievement gap
between EL and non-EL students was 36 points at the fourth grade level and 44 points at the 8th
grade level (NCES, 2011). The disproportional assessment results between EL and non-EL
students on standardized tests demonstrate the noticeable achievement gaps affecting the
American educational system. In 2014, 73.8% of EL students in grades three through eight did
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not meet the standards on the English Language Arts (ELA) assessment (New York City
Department of Education, 2014). Meanwhile, a mere 3.4% of EL students in grades three
through eight met or exceeded the ELA standards. Furthermore, EL students score 41% below
their non-EL counterparts on the eighth grade National Assessment Educational Program reading
assessment (National Assessment of Educational Progress, 2007). It is clear there is an
achievement gap between EL students and non-EL students, but the achievement gap is widening
(Kim & Garcia, 2014). The empirical data show a significant national problem with respect to
addressing the achievement gaps of English learners in K-12 public institutions.
Background of the Problem
In the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case Lau v. Nichols (1974), the court ruled that
engendering equality of treatment in public schools goes beyond supplying students who do not
understand English with the same facilities, textbooks, and curriculum. The U.S. Supreme Court
cited Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibits discrimination on the basis of
race, color, and national origin in any federally funded program. Public schools were mandated
to take steps to properly educate students learning the English language as a second language.
This ruling requires mainstream teachers in the U.S. to provide EL students with a world class
education, irrespective of linguistic differences. In addition, the ruling stated that English-only
programs must include accommodations to EL to ensure access to core content. The three areas
of concern for court-mandated equitable education for EL students included classifying students
as EL and then reclassifying them as English proficient, accessing grade-appropriate instruction,
and using students’ primary languages for instructional purposes. Mainstream teachers have
instructional autonomy over two of the three areas of concern to ensure equity and access among
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ELs. These two areas are access to grade appropriate instruction and using EL students’ primary
language to increase comprehensible input and language acquisition.
Classification as EL and Reclassification as English Proficient
For decades, policy-makers have been tasked with one of the most fundamentally
challenging issues, which is to determine which students should be classified as EL and receive
services. An equally challenging task is determining initial classification and reclassification
criteria, and projecting how many years it would take EL students to become proficient in
English. Attaining English proficiency would take several years. However, to determine how
soon an EL student could reclassify once becoming proficient is based on prior language
acquisition, in both native language (L1) and English. Hakuta, Butler, and Witt (2000) studied
cross-sectional data and projected that oral English proficiency would take between two to five
years for the average EL student. However, attaining proficiency in English language arts (ELA)
would take approximately four to seven years for the vast majority of ELs (Hakuta et al., 2000).
There are varying state model projections regarding the median time to attain the required level
of English language proficiency (ELP) based on criteria established by different districts and
states.
Research suggests ELP assessments should be the primary instrument of reclassification
decision-making, as the test measures English proficiency in the four language domains and
determines language development (Linquanti & Cook, 2015; Umansky & Reardon, 2014). The
ELP measure is an accurate predictor of the amount of time EL students would receive services
and support. ELP levels are non-English proficient (NEP), limited English proficient (LEP), and
fully English proficient (FEP). ELP levels are the most common form of assessing attainment of
English proficiency to reclassify and exit EL programs in public schools. Another component of
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reclassification decision-making is academic assessment. While some districts and states include
academic assessment in the reclassification criteria, Umansky and Reardon (2014) found that
student achievement measures (e.g., ELA assessments) tend to take a dominant role in
preventing reclassification eligibility for ELs at higher grade levels. Another form of student
achievement measure, core content assessments, have also stifled high performing ELs who have
acquired English proficiency from advancing to reclassification.
EL students in grades three to eight are required to be assessed annually in ELA and math
under the Every Student Succeeds Act. There are “adequate yearly progress” targets schools are
expected to meet based on student performance on standardized assessments. Yet, most
mainstream teachers lack adequate EL training to increase language proficiency and student
achievement. Moreover, there are concerns about EL students taking standardized assessments,
which may be invalid and unreliable, as the assessments do not take into account EL students’
linguistic, cognitive or cultural backgrounds. Standardized tests exclude exited EL student test
scores, which undermines and inaccurately reports academic progress of ELs (Hopkins,
Thompson, Linquanti, Hakuta, & August, 2013). There is a direct correlation between content
assessment scores and English proficiency levels, so it is unlikely for EL students classified as
non-English proficient to meet grade level standards on ELA and math assessments (Hopkins et
al., 2013). As a result, accountability ratings for schools are not equitable as they rely solely on
student proficiency of content standards on standardized tests without taking into account
linguistic and cognitive diversity. Test developers, mainstream teachers, and school leaders
should be more aware of second language acquisition and should use ELP levels to inform their
accountability measures around EL performance, especially beginning English learners (Hopkins
et al., 2013). Mainstream teachers have a legal duty to contribute to moving EL students from
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NEPs to FEPs under Lau v. Nichols (1974). However, mainstream teachers should be provided
professional development in best practices to increase language development and second
language acquisition before EL students are enrolled in their classes.
Often, EL students are reclassified in high school to proficient English speakers and this
error in the reclassification results in low scores (O’Conner, Abedi, & Tung, 2012). There is a
significant number of EL students who are underperforming in comparison to their non-EL peers
upon entering high school (O’Conner et al., 2012). The barrier is English literacy and poor
mathematical skills. The English language has become a barrier to learning in American K-12
public schools, and mainstream teachers have been ill-prepared to deliver instruction to EL
students who are not proficient in English (Blanchard & Muller, 2015; Garcia-Nevarez, Stafford,
& Arias, 2005). Moreover, EL students pass the exit mathematics exams at 30 or 40 points
lower than non-EL counterparts (Xiong & Zhou, 2006). These achievement gaps are largely
attributable to language and literacy barriers, and have the potential to stifle the progress of ELs
professionally, economically, and socially after high school (Hart & Eisenbarth Hager, 2012).
Statement of the Problem
The problem presented in this study concerns factors that either positively or negatively
influenced mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions and perceptions of supporting English
learners, which had an effect on EL student achievement. Emerging themes that served as
potential influences on instructional decisions and perceptions from the literature were efficacy,
teacher motivation, instructional strategies from professional development, and a monolingual
culture plaguing U.S. academia. The parameters of this study focused specifically on influences
in the school setting, not outside influences in society.
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The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) found that only 30% of
eighth-grade English learner students in the country achieved the basic level in reading, as
compared to 84% of their non-EL counterparts in 2007 (NAEP, 2007). Mainstream teachers
must be prepared to educate a population that faces significant barriers to graduating from high
school. In the United States, the EL high school graduation rate is 65%, which is representative
of EL students being reclassified as fluent English proficient students in high school, even
though they may not be English proficient (NCES, 2015). In addition, EL students have
disproportionately higher rates of poverty, segregation in schools, and low performance on
standardized tests in K-12 schools in comparison to non-EL students (NAEP, 2007). Yet, in
most cases, ELs are not receiving access to core content nor given instruction in their primary
language in mainstream classroom settings (Gandara & Hopkins, 2010).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to examine mainstream teachers’
instructional decision-making and their perceptions of teaching English learners in one
secondary public school in Hawai’i over the course of one academic year. Additionally, this
study explored several factors that influenced mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions and
perceptions of ELs, such as teacher motivation, mindsets, instructional strategies from
professional development and a monolingual culture plaguing U.S. academia. Bronfenbrenner’s
Human Ecology Theory was used to interpret data gathered from interviews and documents.
Research Questions
1. How are mainstream teachers supporting students classified as English learners in a
Hawai’i public secondary school?
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a. What influences mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions to support
students classified as English learners in a Hawai’i public secondary school?
2. How are mainstream teachers’ perceptions of supporting students classified as
English learners influencing their instructional decisions in a Hawai’i public
secondary school?
Significance of the Study
This study was important for the State of Hawai’i because of the dearth of literature on
whether secondary mainstream teachers understand second language acquisition to intentionally
implement instructional strategies and practices to support ELs. This study contributed to the
overall literature relating to mainstream teachers’ understanding of instructional strategies and
practices that increase language development based on their individual knowledge of second
language acquisition.
As the English Learner student population grows in the United States, the absence of
teacher support systems and professional development has stifled EL needs and academic
achievement (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986). Klingner, Artiles, and Barletta (2006) found that 20% of
people above the age of five spoke a language other than English in their homes and 43% of the
general education classrooms contained at least one student classified as an English learner.
Most states require a minimum amount of professional development for mainstream teachers in
the area of EL and multiculturalism. In the State of Hawai’i, mainstream teachers are
recommended to attain at least twelve credits of professional development in the area of EL.
Yet, 12.5% of mainstream teachers in the United States received eight or more hours of training
to support ELs (NCES, 2008). It can be detrimental to student learning if teachers have not been
trained to support the needs of one of the most academically disadvantaged student subgroups in
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public schools nationally (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986). Haycock and Peske (2006) found that teacher
quality plays a significant role in increased student achievement. Teachers who are exposed to
quality teaching have a significantly higher likelihood of closing the achievement gap of poor
and minority students in comparison to those who are unexposed to quality instruction (Haycock
& Peske, 2006).
Findings of this qualitative case study may be useful to administrators, educators, and EL
specialists in K-12 public institutions in the United States. Additionally, research findings of this
study may inform state superintendents of public instruction, and district personnel of identified
factors that influenced mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions while supporting second
language acquisition in a Hawai’i public secondary school.
Limitations
A limitation of this study was self-reported experiences and perceptions from mainstream
teachers as the sole source of data collected regarding their approach to supporting students
classified as English learners. Documents and artifacts of instructional plans were collected in
lieu of classroom observations, given the researcher’s instructional schedule as a secondary
educator did not permit two or more weeks in the field. Another limitation resulted from only
five of 12 teachers voluntarily supplying lesson plans and instructional materials to the
researcher.
Delimitations
This study was limited by the amount of time the researcher spent in the setting of the
phenomenon at one secondary public school in Hawai’i. The data collection methods were
interviews and document analysis, and observations were not conducted due to the significant
time required in the field to collect meaningful data. This study also involved only teachers, and
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not students or parents, though they were clearly stakeholders in this educational process.
Lastly, one secondary school was selected in Hawai’i. Conducting this study at two or more
secondary schools may have strengthened the research findings.
Assumptions
In this study, it was assumed that mainstream teacher responses to the screener and
interview were honest and accurate based on their individual experiences. Also, instructional
materials, including lesson plan(s), voluntarily supplied to the researcher were assumed to be
credible and authentic evidence of teaching ELs in the absence of conducting observations.
Definition of Terms
Achievement Gap: Achievement gap is a consistent difference in scores on student
achievement tests between different groups of children.
Collective Efficacy: Collective efficacy is shared perceptions or beliefs among teachers to
execute tasks or to rally around school-wide initiatives that increase student learning (Goddard,
Hoy, & Woolfolk-Hoy, 2000).
Culturally Responsive Teaching: Culturally responsive teaching is integrating cultural
characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse students as conduits for
teaching effectively (Gay, 2002).
Efficacy: Efficacy is the practitioner’s beliefs in his or her ability to successfully execute
the required action of any given task, especially, as it relates to pedagogy (Bandura, 1997).
English Learner: English learners are students classified as Limited English Proficient
(LEP) or Immigrant Children and Youth who are enrolled in K-12 educational settings
(Mississippi Department of Education, 2011).
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Instructional Strategies: Instructional strategies are tools to effectively enhance learning
and acquisition of knowledge (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollack, 2001).
Long-Term English Learners: Long-term ELs have been enrolled in U.S. public schools
for more than six years, but have not acquired English proficiency (Olsen, 2014).
Motivation: Motivation is the internal condition that helps learners prioritize meeting
goals and aspirations (Mayer, 2011).
Professional Development: Professional development is a process of changing teaching
practice in ways that positively support the learning of all students, irrespective of language
barriers or cognitive impairments (Little, 1993).
Recent Arrivals: Recent arrivals are immigrants who have been a part of the U.S.
education system for less than two years. This category of EL students may struggle to learn the
English language, cultural and societal norms, and academic language in a new country (Kim &
Garcia, 2014).
Reclassified English Learners: Reclassified ELs are students who have acquired
proficiency in English and met all reclassification criteria to not be classified as EL. These
students are enrolled in mainstream courses with little to no monitoring (Soto, 2011).
Sheltered Instruction: Sheltered instruction is designed to equalize instruction among ELs
with the same quality academic opportunities as non-ELs (Hansen-Thomas, 2008). Sheltered
instruction is about scaffolding and breaking down content and language to make it more
comprehensible for English learners (Hansen-Thomas, 2008).
WIDA ACCESS for English Learners: English learners are defined as students with
limited English language proficiency on the World-class Instructional Design and Assessment
(WIDA) ACCESS test (Hawai’i State Department of Education, 2014). The WIDA ACCESS
INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

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test assesses English language ability in four language domains: reading, writing, speaking and
listening. WIDA ACCESS tracks and measures language growth among ELs over time based on
its six-category continuum.
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation is presented in five chapters with an introduction of the problem and
significance of the study in the first chapter. The second chapter provides an overview of the
relevant literature used to inform and guide the current study regarding factors influencing
mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions and perceptions of supporting students classified as
English learners. This inquiry gathered data to understand mainstream teachers’ approaches to
supporting ELs, and analyzed documents and artifacts to understand implementation of best
practices to support ELs outlined in the third chapter. The third chapter prescribes the research
methods, instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis process that were implemented by
the researcher. The fourth chapter documents analyzed data and reveals emergent themes from
the research findings to address the research questions of this study. The study concludes with a
discussion of the findings, recommendations for practice, and recommendations for future
research.

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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
English Learners (ELs) have unique needs due to cultural and linguistic differences from
native English speakers. In the United States, one in five students enrolled in public schools
speak a language other than English at home (Ryan, 2013). EL students are different from non-
EL students in that they must acquire content vocabulary and common language used on a daily
basis to navigate the world. Given EL students’ low rates of academic achievement and high
dropout rates across the country in secondary institutions, mainstream teachers must be trained
and well-equipped to educate EL students (Major, 2006). However, mainstream teachers lack
appropriate assessments and curricula to support this population (Lopes-Murphy, 2012;
Rubinstein-Avila, 2006). Low EL achievement results from teachers lacking appropriate
training and instructional strategies to effectively teach this population (Berg, Petron, &
Greybeck, 2012; Lopes-Murphy, 2012; Rubinstein-Avila, 2006). There is a need for more
university teacher preparation programs to provide secondary level training on second language
development, EL modifications and accommodations to meet language and academic needs of
ELs (Reeves, 2006).
This chapter provides a review of the literature that focuses on influences that affect
secondary mainstream teachers instructional decision-making, such as implementing
instructional strategies and practices to support English learners. The literature review begins
with defining English learners and discussing equity and access for English learners, and
includes background information on teacher efficacy to professional development. The
theoretical framework centers on Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecology Theory, which is featured at
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24
the end of this chapter. The research gaps in the existing literature are highlighted in the
conclusion to discuss the relevance of this study.
Six major themes emerged from the literature review of understanding mainstream
teaching to support English learners, including (1) equity and access for English learners;
(2) teacher preparation to support English learners; (3) teacher perceptions of ELs; (4) teacher
motivation; (5) instructional strategies and practices; and (6) the United States-based academic
culture. These themes were relevant to the context of understanding how secondary mainstream
teachers were educating English learners in secondary public institutions. In addition, the
literature discussed instructional strategies and practices that can be implemented by secondary
mainstream teachers to increase language development and student performance.
The research questions guiding this study were: How are mainstream teachers supporting
students classified as English learners in a Hawai’i public secondary school? The sub question
aligned with the first research question was: What influences mainstream teachers’ instructional
decisions to support students classified as English learners in a Hawai’i public secondary school?
The second research question central to this study, included, How are mainstream teachers’
perceptions of supporting students classified as English learners influencing their instructional
decisions in a Hawai’i public secondary school?
Defining English Learners
English learners (EL) are defined as students with limited English language proficiency
on the World-class Instructional Design and Assessment (WIDA) ACCESS test (Hawai’i State
Department of Education, 2014). The WIDA ACCESS test assesses English language ability in
four language domains: reading, writing, speaking and listening. WIDA ACCESS tracks and
measures language growth among ELs over time based on its six-category continuum.
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25
Nationally, there are three primary categories of EL students at the secondary level: recent
arrivals, long-term ELs, and reclassified ELs. Recent arrivals are immigrants who have been a
part of the U.S. education system for less than two years. This category of EL students may
struggle to learn the English language, cultural and societal norms, and academic language in a
new country (Kim & Garcia, 2014). However, there are recent arrivals who are classified as
fully English proficient (FEP) or limited English proficient (LEP) students after having taken an
EL screener test. This suggests that these students learned English in their native country, and all
recent arrivals cannot be classified as non-English proficient (NEP).
The second category of ELs enrolled in public schools are deemed long-term ELs. Long-
term ELs have been enrolled in U.S. public schools for more than six years, but have not
acquired the necessary English skills to be proficient (Olsen, 2014). Researchers estimated that
the bulk of secondary ELs, between 50% and 70%, are considered long-term ELs (Kim &
Garcia, 2014; Olsen, 2014; Soto, 2011). This population of ELs are widely characterized as
transnational students because they may have moved back and forth between their native country
of origin and the United States, ultimately attending schools in both countries. The third
category of ELs, reclassified ELs, are students who have acquired proficiency in English and met
all reclassification criteria to not be classified as EL. These students are enrolled in mainstream
courses with little to no monitoring (Soto, 2011). However, reclassification requirements differ
by state and districts, leaving these students entering and exiting EL programs. Typically, states
and districts use various methods to determine if a student is eligible to exit EL programs,
including an assessment of English language proficiency, teacher evaluations, parent opinion and
consultation, and a comparison of performance on basic academic skills over time (Kim &
Garcia, 2014). The characteristics and instructional issues regarding each EL group are
INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

26
illustrated in Table 1. In most cases, mainstream teachers primarily teach long-term English
learners, but it is possible to have the gamut of ELs with varying levels of English acquisition.

Table 1
Characteristics and Instructional Issues of EL Subgroups
Group
Newly Arrived
with Adequate
Schooling
Newly Arrived with
Limited Formal
Schooling
Long-Term English
Learner
Years in U.S.
Schools
Less than 5 Less than 5 7 or more
Characteristics Continuous
schooling in
native country
Native school
system parallels
U.S. schools
Schooling in native
country may be limited or
interrupted
Lack a sense of school
culture and routines
May have attended
multiple schools
Experienced multiple
curricula and methods of
English-language
instruction
Instructional
Issues
Make steady
academic progress
May still have
difficulty on
standardized tests
in English
Limited literacy and math
development, which may
lead to poor academic
achievement in U.S.
schools
May have unrealistic
perspective on demands
of school
Achieves conversational
fluency, but not
academic fluency
needed for success in
school
Note. Table found in Cobb (2004), p. 2.

Diversity of ELs in the U.S.
ELs are one of the fastest growing populations in the United States (Rhodes, Ochoa, &
Ortiz, 2005). According to Kena et al. (2014), the EL population increased by 51% between
1999 and 2009; ELs account for 9% of the primary and secondary student population in the
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27
United States, and 7.4% in Hawai’i (NCES, 2015). Despite significant differences in learning
needs, EL students are viewed as one uniform group with one defining educational characteristic:
the pursuit to be deemed proficient in English by the federal educational system, regardless of
cultural background and family heritage. EL students make up a diverse subgroup in America
given the various languages, cultural practices, and academic competencies acquired in their
primary language and English (Abedi & Gandara, 2006).
There is a wealth of diversity among the EL population. Educational decisions must
incorporate the whole identity of the EL learner, including ethnic group affiliation, gender,
cultural heritage, individual learning abilities, and choice in language proficiency (LaCelle-
Peterson & Rivera, 1994). Verdugo and Flores (2007) indicated that it is a great challenge to
educate students from diverse backgrounds and cultures, especially if the teachers are not
familiar with customs and practices. EL students are also diverse in terms of socioeconomic
status, linguistic and cultural background, English language proficiency levels, and educational
attainment (Cobb, 2004). However, research indicates that EL students receive inadequate and
incomprehensible instruction, and are frequently taught by inexperienced mainstream teachers
who lack appropriate teaching credentials (Abedi & Gandara, 2006; Gandara & Baca, 2008;
Verdugo & Flores, 2007). Therefore, EL students may not be receiving access to the same
academic content as their non-EL peers.
ELs in Hawai ’i
In the State of Hawai’i, 19,092 EL students were enrolled and met eligibility
requirements to receive EL services in 2010–2011 (Ryan, 2013). In the 2010–2011 academic
year, EL students in Hawai’i spoke over 53 languages including Ilokano, Chuukese, Marshallese,
Tagalog, Samoan, Japanese, Mandarin, Cantonese, Vietnamese, and Korean (Ryan, 2013).
INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

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Nationally, there are over 450 languages that are spoken by EL students in public schools
(Kindler, 2002). EL students must complete a WIDA ACCESS Placement Test, which is
utilized as a screening test in K-12 institutions to determine language levels of students entering
schools and the results serve as a tool to determine whether students qualify for EL services
(Hawai’i State Department of Education, 2014). The Hawai’i State Department of Education
(2014) designed a statewide EL Program that is charged with ensuring three objectives for
students with limited English proficiency. First, EL students are provided access to language
services and educational opportunities to advance language proficiency. Secondly, students have
the ability of demonstrating high levels of academic achievement in the English language.
Thirdly, EL students are to master the same challenging statewide content and national standards
all students are expected to meet in class and on standardized tests.
Equity and Access for English Learners
The inequities and lack of access to grade appropriate instruction has stifled the academic
progress of English learners in public schools in the United States. Ensuring access to core
content is at the center of federal laws regarding EL students receiving language
accommodations and an equitable education. Federal law regulating English language learning
is framed around a two-pronged approach, which is to support English language development
(ELD) and to grant ELs access to core academic content in public schools. Yet, upholding ELs’
equitable rights under federal law has proven to be problematic. Mainstream teachers across the
United States have expressed how they are ill-equipped and ill-prepared to provide
comprehensible instruction and academic content to their EL students (Gandara, Maxwell-Jolly,
& Driscoll, 2005).
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29
EL Access to Content
There have been increasingly lower expectations for ELs in comparison to native English
speakers, resulting in inferior instruction that denies ELs equitable education and access to
grade-level content (Blanchard & Muller, 2015; Garcia-Nevarez et al., 2005). The “sink or
swim” mantra has dominated some core subject areas, such as math, where ELs are not always
given accommodations (Hopkins, Lowenhaupt, & Sweet, 2015). These accommodations include
extended time to complete assignments and/or quizzes, translation of words, scaffolding of
content, and one-on-one academic support. However, the frequency of this “sink or swim”
practice varies by schools, but when it is practiced it limits EL students’ ability to access and
learn content.
The vast majority of EL students are placed in courses with primarily other EL students
where classes offer slower-paced, reduced curriculum, and less rigorous content (Dabach, 2014).
Mainstream teachers find it challenging to provide EL students with access to grade-level
academic content due to the fact this population is not English proficient (Gandara et al., 2005).
Dabach (2014) found that EL-specific courses are taught by inexperienced and ill-qualified
educators. It is clear that some EL teachers and mainstream teachers lack professional
development on ways to provide grade-level content to EL students. Furthermore, failing to
provide EL students exposure to interact with English speaking peers, which is critical to
acquiring English, is not the answer to increasing language acquisition.
Another inequitable practice affecting the EL population is the disproportionality in
course placement. Thompson (2015) discovered remedial and low-track classes are over-
populated with EL students when compared to advanced placement and honors courses. ELs
have a greater likelihood of being enrolled in classes that teach material more slowly than
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30
accelerated courses (Thompson, 2015). However, EL students have lower performance due to
material taught in English without sufficient accommodations and modifications (Thompson,
2015). EL students are more likely to perform at grade-level if they were given modified grade-
level content instruction. The lack of modified grade-level instruction plays a significant role in
EL misclassification and has become a root cause for EL students not reclassifying to English
proficient in the projected timeframe (Umansky, 2014). Providing diminished curriculum that
lacks modified grade-level content is not equitable, and does not offer access to the quality
instruction they are entitled to under federal law. School leaders and mainstream teachers must
not advance school practices that exclude ELs from core content and instruction, which will
stifle EL academic progress in the United States. This exclusionary practice of pulling EL
students out of mainstream classroom settings contributes to EL students being unable to meet
graduation and post-secondary enrollment requirements to advance in academia and in society
(Umansky, 2014). ELs benefit from being in mainstream classroom environments with their
English-speaking peers (Umansky, 2014).
Language of Instruction
Policy-makers have engaged in a host of debates regarding the extent to which students’
first languages (L1) should be used for instruction. Proponents of English-only models assert
that increased exposure to the English language will result in a faster attainment of English
proficiency (Rossell & Baker, 1996). Several states prohibit the use of languages other than
English when providing instruction to students in school (Crawford & Krashen, 2015; Gandara
& Hopkins, 2010), which means some states do not provide schools with language choice. Two
studies concluded that there are initial advantages to implementing English-only educational
programs in the primary stages of EL students’ academic journey. However, there has been
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31
differing effects and outcomes on language acquisition at the secondary level (Umansky &
Reardon, 2014; Valentino & Reardon, 2015).
Proponents of bilingual education emphasize the need for EL students to learn academic
language and content in their primary language while developing English proficiency (Crawford
& Krashen, 2015; Cummins, 2001a; Greene, 1997). Supporters of bilingual education suggest
EL students will have the advantage of learning academic content and transferring knowledge
from their first language (L1) to English (Adesope, Lavin, Thompson, & Ungerleider, 2010;
Barnett, Yarosz, Thomas, Jung, & Blanco, 2007; Cummins, 2001a). Five meta-analyses studied
bilingual programs over a 30-year period and found that there no negative effects on English
language acquisition among ELs (August & Shanahan, 2006; Greene, 1997; Rolstad, Mahoney,
& Glass, 2005; Slavin & Cheung, 2005; Willig, 1985). However, bilingual education had small
to moderate positive effects on outcomes in English proficiency scores (August & Shanahan,
2006; Greene, 1997; Rolstad et al., 2005; Slavin & Cheung, 2005; Willig, 1985). Moreover, a
separate meta-analysis indicated that bilingual education had negative effects on language
acquisition and student achievement (Rossell & Baker, 1996). Some researchers questioned this
experimental study and suggest the research findings are invalid (Callahan & Gandara, 2014;
Greene, 1997).
Umansky and Reardon (2014) studied EL students who enrolled in English-only
programs, and these students were initially expected to meet English proficiency criteria before
students taking bilingual programs. However, ELs in bilingual programs were deemed more
likely to surpass the English-only learners by high school. Additionally, Valentino and Reardon
(2015) conducted a comparative analysis of EL performance on ELA and math assessments
between students enrolled in bilingual programs, particularly dual immersion programs, and
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32
students receiving English-only instruction. Their findings were congruent with Umansky and
Reardon’s (2014) findings that these ELs in bilingual programs performed lower on ELA and
math in elementary school than ELs receiving English-only instruction. Nonetheless, there was
significant academic and language growth among ELs in bilingual programs on secondary level
assessments in comparison to students in English-only classrooms (Valentino & Reardon, 2015).
Overall, these studies illustrated several positive effects of bilingual programs on English reading
scores for both ELs and native English speakers. EL students in Valentino and Reardon’s study
(2015) entered middle school with a greater likelihood to be reclassified as English proficient
than students enrolled in non-bilingual programs.
Teacher Demographics in Hawai ’i
Hawai’i is a multicultural society with mixed ethnic backgrounds and socio-economic
status. According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2000), the ethnic composition of the general
population in Hawai’i includes 24.3% White, 16.7% Japanese, 14.1% Filipino, 9.4% Native
Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 4.7% Chinese, 21.4% mixed race, and 1% other ethnic
group. Socio-economically and politically, the ethnic groups characterized as privileged were of
Japanese, Chinese, Korean, and White descent due to being over-represented in administrative
and executive positions (Haas, 1992). Meanwhile, Filipinos, Native Hawaiians, and Samoans
were disproportionately represented in employment positions that were considered low status in
comparison to Japanese and Chinese citizens (Haas, 1992). The ethnic demographics of public
school teachers in Hawai’i were 40% Japanese, and 25% White (Hawai’i State Department of
Education, 2003). The vast majority of White teachers, presumably, lacked cultural
understanding of Hawai’i having been originally from the continental United States (Haas,
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33
1992). The student population in Hawai’i public schools were 26% Hawaiian or part Hawaiian
and 20% Filipino (Hawai’i State Department of Education, 2003).
Teacher Preparation to Support English Learners
In this study, teacher preparation is broadly defined; any mainstream teacher who has
received any form of training or coursework in the area of second language acquisition in order
to understand EL pedagogy has the potential to increase student achievement and English
proficiency scores. In an era that is mired in educational reform with an increased emphasis on
accountability, teacher preparation is critically important to improve student performance.
Traditional teacher preparation programs service students at the undergraduate level with the
goal of students obtaining a bachelor’s degree or a teaching credential (Shuls & Trivitt, 2015).
Alternative preparation programs provide in-service or professional development opportunities
to classroom teachers with the objective of increasing their knowledge, skill-set, and competency
in a particular discipline (Shuls & Trivitt, 2015).
While the vast majority of mainstream secondary teachers have a positive outlook on
teaching EL students, it is clear that teachers hold a range of perspectives and viewpoints toward
teaching this population (Reeves, 2006; Yoon, 2007). For example, Yoon’s study surveyed
mainstream teachers on their perceptions toward educating EL students, and found that some
teachers embraced cultural diversity and differences of their EL students. These teachers took
responsibility for teaching ELs and believe they can learn from their students’ cultural and
linguistic backgrounds (Yoon, 2007). However, some teachers felt it is not their responsibility to
advance language development, instead, leaving it solely upon the EL teachers (Yoon, 2007).
This belief is evidenced in the statement by one study participant, who said, “I have never seen
myself as an ESL teacher” (Yoon, 2007, p. 218). Secondary single-subject teachers must receive
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34
more training and preparation for teaching content to EL students, and learn the instructional
strategies needed to teach this population (Newman, Samimy, & Romstedt, 2010; Rubinstein-
Avila, 2003). Rubinstein-Avila and Leckie (2014) said all educators must be prepared to provide
academic and linguistic scaffolds for EL students at the secondary level to help this population
succeed.
Rubinstein-Avila and Leckie (2014) suggested that secondary teacher preparation
primarily focuses on the development of academic content and not language development. This
may explain the language and achievement gaps among EL students. Single-subject secondary
teachers find it difficult to prioritize language development over content instruction (Rubinstein-
Avila & Leckie, 2014). Some mainstream teachers do not prioritize language development at all.
According to Valdes (2004), in order for EL students to be successful at the secondary level, it is
necessary for these students to master academic language skills in school. In addition, teachers
must identify instructional strategies that will support and engender language development, thus
increasing the likelihood of ELs becoming proficient in content standards. Before mainstream
teachers can implement instructional strategies to support the EL population in education,
mainstream teachers must acknowledge that it is their duty to educate all children despite cultural
or linguistic differences (Valdes, 2004).
Mainstream Teacher Perceptions of ELs
Teachers who believe that classroom instruction can transform lives and increase student
achievement are deemed to have positive attitudes (Dweck, 2000). However, teachers who
believe student learning is the responsibility of students and whether they believe they can
achieve are more likely to be characterized as having negative perceptions about learning
(Dweck, 2000). Self-efficacy drives the instructional decisions and perceptions teachers have in
INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

35
the classroom with students (Bandura, 1997). Teachers who have high self-efficacy are more
likely to form positive perceptions about student learning than those who have low self-efficacy
(Dweck, 2000). Walker, Shafer, and Liams (2004) surveyed secondary level teachers and found
that 87% of teachers had not received professional development or preparation from a university
teaching program on supporting EL students. Some secondary educators, in both Walker et al.
and Yoon’s studies lacked self-efficacy to attend professional development to enrich their
scaffolding skills and increase their understanding of second language acquisition due to
identifying themselves as content specialists as opposed to EL teachers (Walker et al., 2004;
Yoon, 2007).
In Walker et al.’s (2004) study, 51% of respondents expressed resistance to professional
development. Given the lack of teacher training, many educational practitioners are not aware of
the academic needs of English learners. They found teachers “often feel overwhelmed when an
[EL] is first placed in their classroom” (Walker et al., 2004, p. 142). However, some teachers in
this study expressed their confidence in educating EL students (Walker et al., 2004). Teachers
who were confident articulated a practical approach to teaching ELs, stating, “Common sense
and good intentions work fine” (Walker et al., 2004, p. 145). Findings from the study suggested
that teachers expressing disinterest in EL training may feel they are overwhelmed with many
demands and pressures on their existing instructional time with inadequate compensation and
lack of job security, ultimately feeling devalued. Several teachers indicated that there was very
little support from school districts and school administrators with respect to training mainstream
teachers in the area of EL in this study (Walker et al., 2004). Various teachers characterize ELs
as a population of academic underperformers, which is a deficit belief that influences their
behavior and teaching (Garcia, 2015).
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36
Nieto (2013) found that teachers’ personal perceptions frame their instructional practices.
Findings from the study argued data should direct instructional decisions and practices, not
biased perceptions and potential misjudgments. However, Yoon’s (2007) study highlighted
mainstream teachers who were pleased to teach all students, despite backgrounds or
classifications. One teacher, in particular, took full responsibility for educating EL students; she
stated, “I am a teacher of children; I don’t care if they are ESL, Special ed., regular ed., or gifted
and talented children” (Yoon, 2007, p. 222). Furthermore, she embraced how EL students are
resourceful in her classroom (Yoon, 2007). Some mainstream teachers recognize their area of
teaching, as one teacher confessed that she has never seen herself as an EL teacher (Yoon, 2007).
Incentives for EL Training
There are few mainstream teachers seeking professional development to enhance their
knowledge and skill-set (Newman et al., 2010). As a result, researchers’ findings have revealed
negative perspectives about mainstream teachers’ ability to increase language acquisition and
content knowledge among their EL students (Cummins, 2001b; Gandara et al., 2005; Rubinstein-
Avila & Leckie, 2014). University teacher preparation programs in general identified the need to
train secondary educators on how to use instructional strategies to support the EL population,
and school districts should require training, not simply recommend it (Reeves, 2006).
Rubinstein-Avila and Leckie (2014) noted that teacher programs should provide training on
Common Core Standards, which would require some level of linguistic and academic scaffolds
to achieve proficiency on those standards.
In order to increase participation of mainstream teachers in the area of EL, some
universities provided incentives. Ohio State University conducted a needs assessment and
gathered data through surveying mainstream secondary teachers in six public school districts in
INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

37
Ohio (Newman et al., 2010). The program increased teacher participation by virtue of providing
incentives, such as funding tuition costs and textbooks, and offering graduate level credit to
encourage teachers to pursue a Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)
endorsement or a master’s degree in second language education. The program admitted only
teachers from the six districts and established cohort teams (Newman et al., 2010). EL personnel
and teachers spearheaded collaborative coaching and discussions with mainstream teachers in the
field. According to Newman et al., mainstream teachers from the six school districts in Ohio
were expected to continue to collaborate with the program after having completed coursework.
The continued collaboration was necessary in order for teachers in the field to remain engaged in
the latest EL research and professional development opportunities that sought to improve
instruction for the benefit of teaching EL students.
Teacher Motivation
Motivation is the internal condition that helps learners prioritize meeting goals and
aspirations (Mayer, 2011). Teacher motivation is measured by teachers’ enthusiasm for
teaching, resiliency in the face of obstacles, and satisfaction with the teaching industry (Guskey,
1984; Onafowora, 2004). There are many factors that can affect motivation, and one of the most
influential variables is the perception of value (Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman,
2010). Mayer (2011) argued learning and motivation are enhanced if the learner values the task.
According to Ambrose et al. (2010), personal value has served as a chief motivator to achieve a
goal or fulfill a task. There are several forms of value and varying levels of importance teachers
associate with specific tasks, taking into account interests as it relates to intrinsic value to the
teacher and how useful the task is to supporting student outcomes for the teacher (Rueda, 2011).
INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

38
Nonetheless, other motivational variables impact task value including self-efficacy and
resources.
Teacher efficacy is the practitioner’s beliefs in his or her ability to successfully execute
the required action of any given task, especially as it relates to pedagogy (Bandura, 1997). Self-
efficacy is important to contextualize (Bandura, 1997). While mainstream teachers can have
high levels of teaching efficacy when working in a general education setting, teaching ELs can
significantly lower their efficacy if teachers lack professional knowledge to support this
population (Haworth, 2009). Increasing self-efficacy will not occur overnight; it will take small
gains and victories before teachers reach the finish-line over time. Modeling learned strategies
or behaviors improves self-efficacy, learning, and performance (Bandura, 1997). A confident
teacher generally has higher self-efficacy and performs better than teachers with lower self-
efficacy (Haworth, 2009). This has the potential to impact student performance positively in a
measurable or sizable manner. Highly efficacious teachers have a willingness to support
students socially, emotionally, and academically, which results in higher levels of student
engagement and student autonomy (Poulou & Norwich, 2002).
Fullan (2001) believed that “changes in actual practice along the three dimensions — in
materials, teaching approaches, and beliefs, in what people do and think are essential if the
intended outcome is to be achieved” (p. 46). Mainstream teachers have the ability to make
modifications to curriculum in order to make content comprehensible to ELs, and implement
strategies that include “sheltering” techniques (Echevarria, Vogt, & Short, 2008). Sheltering
techniques are teaching practices created to make curriculum accessible to EL through
discussion, text, and environmental adaptations (Echevarria et al., 2008). In addition, schools
must adopt school wide strategies and practices that prioritize academic language tasks, print
INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

39
modifications, total participation techniques, and culturally responsive practices. These practices
have been recognized as the catalyst for increased student achievement (Baecher, Farnsworth &
Ediger, 2013).
Teacher Efficacy
Allinder (1994) and Milner (2001) found a high level of efficacy among educational
practitioners contributed to high performing classroom learning environments that are structured
and organized to meet the needs of all students. Teachers with a higher level of efficacy have
greater success with academic activities that foster student learning as opposed to prioritizing
classroom management or controlling student behavior (Onafowora, 2004). However,
Woolfolk-Hoy and Spero (2005), found that developing or maintaining a high level of efficacy
can be challenging to teachers who are faced with behavioral situations or classroom
management issues when supporting low achieving students who are not intrinsically motivated
to learn.
Collective efficacy is shared perceptions or beliefs among teachers to execute tasks or to
rally around school-wide initiatives that increase student learning (Goddard et al., 2000).
Bandura (1995) argued that collective efficacy has the ability to increase student achievement
among students characterized as low achievers if all teachers executed the same courses of action
that would positively affect student learning. McIntyre’s research (2011) had similar findings,
suggesting collective efficacy can have a high effect size on learning, irrespective of socio-
economic status or income. Developing a sense of collective efficacy around teaching practice
with ELs may be instrumental in shifting the paradigm for teachers who believe they cannot
teach EL students. Teachers’ self-perceptions affect their behavior and instructional decisions,
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40
but collective efficacy has the potential to bridge the gap in teaching students (Woolfolk-Hoy &
Spero, 2005).
Efficacious teachers have a greater likelihood of organizing their own behavior to teach
EL students with confidence in their teaching strategies, expectations of success in themselves
and their students, and innovations in their pedagogical practices (Woolfolk-Hoy, 2000).
Teachers with high levels of self-efficacy are more likely to have well-managed classrooms with
purpose and control, and have satisfaction in their jobs after teaching EL students (Baecher et al.,
2013). Mainstream teachers who are registered for professional development opportunities in
the area of EL have higher levels of efficacy in their instructional roles. Efficacy determines
where teachers are willing to explore new methods of teaching and ideas, and it also an indicator
of effort teachers are putting into instruction (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy, & Hoy, 1998).
Growth Mindset and Fixed Mindset
Among educators, one of the most prominent indicators of student achievement is the
motivational levels of teachers (Dweck, 1986). Teachers either have high or low motivational
levels with respect to delivering instruction. Motivational levels of teachers have the potential to
increase or deter student achievement over time. Dweck (2000) suggested mindsets or beliefs of
individuals are not static or fixed; an individual’s schema has the ability to change and develop
new cognitions. Intelligence is not fixed, it is a malleable quality that can be strengthened
through practice and effort, commonly referred to as a growth mindset (Dweck 1986; Hattie,
2012). A teacher’s mindset has the potential to impact practice, and ultimately student learning
(Hattie, 2012). These mindsets can positively or negatively affect learning. An individual’s
ability to accomplish a task is dependent upon their mindset and their efficacy level (Furnham,
2014). Many mainstream teachers have the belief that teaching EL students is difficult due to
INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

41
language barriers, and these beliefs influence teaching practices among the EL population
(Shumow & Schmidt, 2013). Holding a growth mindset fosters resilience, perseverance, and
motivation toward learning while facing challenges with respect to teaching students classified as
EL (Dweck, 2000).
Teachers’ attitudes about instructional tasks and persistence is a direct result of their
beliefs about their nature of intelligence and abilities (Dweck, 2000). It is important to note that
mainstream teachers who believe they cannot teach EL students will most likely fail, based on
Dweck’s research, because they do not have a growth mindset. Some teachers are easily
dissuaded from implementing new ideas or strategies, given their fixed mindsets that are guided
by prior negative experiences (Dweck, 2000). Learners with a growth mindset continue to
participate in an activity in the face of a challenge, perceiving the situation as a learning
opportunity and a chance to expand their horizons. Individuals with fixed mindsets interpret an
obstacle as a sign of inadequate ability and respond by withdrawing from the task (Dweck,
2000). On the contrary, Shumow and Schmidt (2013) found that positive student-teacher
interactions have positively influenced mindsets among students and teachers.
Teachers must implement intervention techniques and strategies to ensure students
understand content (Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2007). Therefore, teachers must
receive training on teaching practices and strategies that generate the highest effect size on
student learning (Hattie, 2012). Although teachers with fixed mindsets are more likely to
prioritize performance over learning, they frequently resist substantive recommendations when
faced with obstacles and setbacks (Donohoe, Topping, & Hannah, 2012), while teachers with
growth mindsets exemplify a mastery-oriented perspective to learning and seek challenges in
learning.
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School Support
As the EL population continues to increase, leaders of schools have the challenging
responsibility to guide their faculty and staff on how to support this population. Many school
leaders lack personal and professional experience in delivering linguistic instruction to diverse
students (Reyes, 2006). According to Fry (2008), administrators across the United States are
interested in identifying specialized instruction as well as instructional strategies to support ELs’
language development and academic growth, but are ill-prepared to provide solutions. McCarthy
and Forsyth (2009) highlighted that the majority of school leadership programs have not
historically focused on the needs of EL in their program design, and as a result, administrators
struggle to address EL supportive instructional programming that generates culturally relevant
pedagogy or language growth. One study found that school leadership preparation that benefits
EL students the most is administrators who develop an understanding of second language
acquisition that goes beyond multiculturalism (McGee, Haworth, & MacIntyre, 2015). Teaching
ELs standard English has the potential to positively influence classroom instruction and student
learning due to EL students having the ability to share their native languages and cultures with
non-EL students (McGee et al., 2015). As a result of EL students and non-EL students sharing
their linguistic and cultural practices with each other, a diverse learning community manifests
that embraces pluralism.
Administrators at large are the gatekeepers for educational change, and it is incumbent
upon them to provide teachers with the necessary tools to increase student achievement (Fullan,
2001). Administrators who are instructional leaders are effective in education because they
prioritize instruction (Fullan, 2001). Instructional leaders understand that it is a shared
responsibility to effectively teach EL students; therefore, it is equally important for teachers and
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administrators to be trained in pedagogy for ELs (Fry, 2008). School leaders who serve as
instructional supervision in classrooms with students classified as EL, must begin to articulate
specific teaching practices that result in improved language comprehensibility, student
engagement, and student achievement for EL students (Fry, 2008). Yates and Muchisky (2003)
found that effective teaching of ELs is more than cultural sensitivity; basic recommendations for
teaching ELs has to do with facilitating language development, language comprehensibility, and
understanding second language acquisition design.
If schools would like to engender transformational change within their institutions,
professional learning communities must be formed where educators can discuss pressing issues
about teaching and learning (DuFour & Eaker, 1998; Fullan, 2001; Hord, 2009; Schmoker,
2006). It is important for teachers to determine their underlying biases and assumptions about
their EL students as they relate to languages, cultures, and experiences (Hord, 2009). Cummins
(2001b) concurred with the idea of changing school-wide practices to meet the needs of EL
students, stating teachers and administrators must alter their worldview of languages and cultures
of EL and integrate students’ language and culture into curriculum and instruction (Cummins,
2001b). In addition, Cummins encouraged teachers and administrators to build relationships
with parents of EL students and teach EL students critical thinking skills, whereby students
question the validity of their reality.
Instructional Strategies and Practices
Teachers are charged with the ability to increase student achievement over time by
implementing instructional strategies and practices to promote student learning (Mayer, 2011).
Instructional strategies are tools to effectively enhance learning and acquisition of knowledge
(Marzano et al., 2001). In the United States, the growing numbers of English learners increases
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the significance of using strategies to advance language acquisition, effective reading instruction
and assessment in K-12 public institutions (Kern & Friedman, 2009). Reading is the catalyst for
comprehension, language learning, and visual input (Brown & Doolittle, 2008). The EL
achievement gap is wide and it will continue to widen if there is lack of reading intervention
(Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986). EL and non-EL students are required to be given equal opportunities to
grow academically with proper intervention and instructional support. Student achievement is
impacted by teacher-student relationships and teachers are only as effective as their instructional
strategies.
Sheltered Instruction
Sheltered instruction is designed to equalize instruction among ELs with the same quality
academic opportunities as non-ELs (Hansen-Thomas, 2008). It is a research-based framework
that has aided millions of ELs with mastering content and the English language for decades.
Hansen-Thomas advised teachers to use the sheltered inclusion model to close the achievement
gap with the following recommended practices for ELs: use of cooperative learning activities
with appropriately designed heterogeneously grouping of students and focus on academic
language and key content vocabulary (Hansen-Thomas, 2008). Further practices include use of
hands-on learning activities with relevant materials, models and demonstrations and judicious
use of ELs’ first language as a tool to provide comprehensibility (Hansen-Thomas, 2008).
Research indicates that cognitive tools support, extend, and enhance cognitive thinking processes
in order to organize and acquire knowledge (Torres, Forte, & Bortolozzi, 2009). Concept maps
results in visual frames of how ELs mentally structure, arrange, and represent basic concepts
from text (Baharom, 2012).
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Studies have demonstrated that for ELs, effective teaching practices that include
instructional activities that promote active and effective student learning result in increased
academic outcomes (Doherty, Hilberg, Pinal, & Tharp, 2003; Hansen-Thomas, 2008; Torres et
al., 2009). Sheltered instruction is also about scaffolding and breaking down content and
language to make it more comprehensible for English learners (Hansen-Thomas, 2008).
Sheltered instruction activates prior knowledge, builds academic and cultural background,
develops language fluency and breaks down content into manageable steps and pieces. Bandura
(1997) noted the importance of outcome expectations is a result of the decisions people make
about what actions are acceptable and what should be suppressed. An individual’s perception on
the projected outcome is solely derived from perceived self-efficacy. Self-efficacy relates to an
individual’s belief in their capabilities to achieve a given level of success performing a certain
task (Bandura, 1997).
Teachers who are practitioners of sheltered instruction have increased student
achievement among the EL population (Echevarria et al., 2008; Hansen-Thomas, 2008). This is
a result of teachers gathering data on EL students’ personal and academic backgrounds to tailor
their instruction to students’ needs. Science and math classes are more comprehensible for EL
students, and tend to use more sheltered instruction techniques (Hansen-Thomas, 2008). In
science classes, students usually work in pairs or in small groups to dissect frogs, grow plants
and sort items. By virtue of the project-based, hands-on, and kinesthetic practices, ELs are far
more successful in science than any other class (Hansen-Thomas, 2008). On the other hand,
English and social studies courses are more challenging for ELs due to the heavy emphasis on
reading and writing.
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Reading Strategies
Teachers have to begin early intervention reading targets with English learners and
identify what academic challenges these students are facing to begin to move ELs forward
(Klingner et al., 2006; Linan-Thompson & Ortiz, 2009). Third grade is a critical year in the
scope of reading education, due to the transition from learning-to-read to reading-to-learn (Fuchs
& Fuchs, 1986; Pang, 2013). In addition, students take the first high stakes test during the third
grade. The EL achievement gap is well documented beginning in the third grade in the United
States. In an effort to close the EL achievement gap, Pang (2013) suggested that educators must
practice basic phonics in the form of verbal exercises and prioritize academic vocabulary.
Research has shown that when ELs struggle with phonological knowledge in English, they have
a difficult time pronouncing vocabulary words accurately and will have difficulty becoming
fluent readers (Freeman & Freeman, 2002; Pang, 2013). Teachers who practice phonological
verbal exercises in class contribute to closing the EL reading gap and increase English language
proficiency (Pang, 2013). In addition to phonics, Pang argued EL understanding of the meaning
of vocabulary is the first step to increasing reading comprehension, but it is far from sufficient
(Pang, 2013). Pang’s study further recommends ELs acquire cultural heritage and cultural
enrichment in order to completely comprehend the English language. These basic skills have
aided reading fluency. Reading intervention strategies and methods are half the battle; teachers
have to receive training and professional development that support them with teaching ELs.
Visual Aids and Pictorial Strategies
Visual aids can support ELs’ understanding of vocabulary when depicted on note cards
with English translations and during classroom instruction to further support language
acquisition (Pang, 2013). Picture books help aid ELs’ understanding of text. EL students like
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most students are visual learners. Often, effective educators have their students draw pictures on
worksheets to assess student comprehension of concepts and content (Pang, 2013). EL students
typically enjoy drawing activities because they do not need to use the English language to
understand the image. Drawings are not simple assignments. Teachers can deepen their
understanding of the illustrations by asking “why did you draw this picture?” or “how might you
explain this historical event?” This triggers the critical thinking on the part of students. Studies
have demonstrated that students master content and concepts at higher levels if they are
supported by visual representations (Pang, 2013). Other visual aids are graphic organizers and
thinking maps. These are tools to support scaffolding and organization of information.
Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices for ELs
Culturally responsive teaching is integrating cultural characteristics, experiences, and
perspectives of ethnically diverse students as conduits for teaching effectively (Gay, 2002).
Most students, including ELs, are more likely to flourish in an environment they perceive to be
familiar and relatable to their personal narratives (Gay, 2002). Studies have shown that students
have successful school experiences and master content at higher rates when their teachers are
culturally sensitive and utilize culturally relevant pedagogy (Gay 2002; Howard, 2001). Cultural
responsiveness increases appreciation and understanding of other cultures (Gay, 2002). EL
students benefit from culturally responsive lesson plans and equally benefit from teachers
making conscious efforts to connect curricula to EL students’ lives. Additionally, teachers must
develop strategies to increase EL student participation in class while understanding that the
language barrier is contributing to the low participation. If all educators teaching EL students
valued cultural pedagogical approaches, the EL achievement gap would narrow significantly.
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According to Villegas (1991), there are five cultural criteria that teachers should
engender and practice in order to instruct effectively in a multicultural society. The first criterion
is educators must value and respect cultural differences and understand that all students are
capable of learning. Teachers who understand the backgrounds of students are more likely to
structure curriculum and learning activities that will support needs (Villegas, 1991). Villegas
further suggested that learning personal narratives and looking at the whole child is important
while assessing mastery of content standards and skills. The second recommendation for
teachers to take into account is their students are diverse members of society and some serve as
cultural experts of their heritage to make the class more intellectually and culturally diverse.
Whereas, the third and fourth criteria encourage curriculum and content standards to be
culturally compatible to the EL student population being taught. The last recommendation is to
evaluate EL students’ ability to express cultural knowledge. Overall, the culturally responsive
framework is grounded in the belief that schools are agents that promote inclusiveness, equity,
and pluralistic values to societies and civilization (Gay, 2002).
Professional Development
Professional development is a process of changing teaching practice in ways that
positively support the learning of all students, irrespective of language barriers or cognitive
impairments (Little, 1993). The purpose of professional development is to enhance teacher
knowledge and increase student outcomes (Guskey, 2000). Professional development has the
ability to help teachers engage in inquiry, problem-solve, and increase their knowledge based on
educational and psychological research (Little, 1993). Darling-Hammond (2000) wrote that the
country’s new educational reforms are requiring teachers to rethink their own practice, to form
new classroom expectations about student outcomes, and teach in ways they have never done
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before. Nevertheless, professional development cannot be guided by new federal and state
mandates. Professional development must be a bottom-up approach as opposed to top-down
approach in order to honor all voices in the teaching industry. Effective professional
development requires teachers to be students. Teachers learn by doing, reading research, and
reflecting on their practice (Darling-Hammond, 2000).
Some general education teachers have argued that teaching EL students is not their
complete responsibility, but partially EL teachers’ responsibility (Constantino, 1994). English
teachers and general education teachers have felt for decades that their primary responsibility is
to teach content, not language, and argued that EL students require a separate environment to
learn (Constantino, 1994). There has also been criticism that English and general education
teachers “watered down” content for ELs and some do not take EL students into consideration
when planning lessons (Constantino, 1994). General education teachers are more likely to
continue to not use processes and strategies that support second-language acquisition and
equitability of coursework, as a direct result of not having EL professional development provided
and without proper training.
In 2002, the Center for Research on Education, Diversity and Excellence (CREDE)
published a report on teacher education preparation programs. One of the major findings of the
CREDE study was that education programs have failed to prepare teachers to work with EL
students. Therefore, all teachers who teach EL students need increased professional
development and training in order to be effective on how these students learn (Reeves, 2006). It
is important that all teachers are prepared to address social, cultural, linguistic, and economic
backgrounds of students. Observational Learning/Modeling asserts that people learn through
observation. Observation of second language acquisition strategies has the prospect of changing
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an individual’s instruction and approach to supporting EL students. According to Bandura
(1997), observational learning takes place when an individual attends to a model’s behavior,
retains the observation, processes the observation, and finally engages in the new skill learned.
U.S. Based Academic Culture
Language plays a prevalent role in how society identifies others and how people gain
access to power and opportunities. Many students in America will articulate that English is the
most important language in United States, and other languages are subservient (Spring, 2001).
The vast majority of standardized exams and formal papers are evaluated in English in the
United States, and English learners are not given an opportunity to take exams or write papers in
their native languages (Macedo, 2000). In most cases, ELs have to learn English in order to be
assessed in public schools by teachers, let alone be deemed proficient on content standards in
America (Stubbs, 2002). If English learners do not speak standard English fluently, other
Americans may misidentify them as unintelligent or mentally challenged (Macedo, 2000). It is
clear that the English language has been characterized as superior in the United States by average
Americans (Tamura, 1996).
Broken English is frowned upon in the American educational system and in society
(Tamura, 1996). For example, in 1987 Hawai’i’s statewide Board of Education attempted to
prohibit the use of pidgin English or Hawai’i Creole English in public schools because it was
perceived as intolerable language (Tamura, 1996). This suggests that pidgin English is a dialect
of the lower social class and not a member of a dominant group with power and status (Connor
& Baglieri, 2009). Some students in Hawai’i have been taught to believe that speaking pidgin
English is inferior to standard English and an abnormal practice (Tamura, 1996). The dialect of
English has been the “gatekeeper to positions of authority and privilege, illustrating the primacy
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of power and status in the politics of language” (Tamura, 1996, p. 432). Most Americans have
been conditioned to accept these cultural practices and societal norms regarding the English
language, virtually forming their identity based on Americanized culture as a means to surviving
in a country driven by economic power and social status (Macedo, 2000).
Monolingual Culture
The American educational system values a monolingual and mono-cultural model to
educating children (Macedo, 2000). Culture reflects the values, beliefs, and shared knowledge
among a group, it includes language and cultural norms. In the United States, language has been
utilized to characterize people based on social class and status, and if used incorrectly, language
can be an indicator of inferiority by the dominant group (Christensen, 1995). EL students’
linguistic backgrounds are usually deemed inferior by mainstream society in the United States
where the English language reigns supreme (Spring, 2001). English is taught in America not as a
second language, but is meant to replace EL students’ native language (Spring, 2001). Soto
(2002) argued that the United States sought to maintain English as the dominant language, and
feared the power of bilingual education programs. Bilingual education programs were perceived
as eliminating English cultural roots and threatening its dominance in the United States, given
the influx of immigrant students (Soto, 2002). A political landscape that enables language
domination and cultural elimination among EL children in public schools is a clear disregard of
linguistic human rights to learn their native language or any other language (Spring, 2001).
Language can either enhance a child’s educational experience or it can damage her or his
progress in school. Stubbs (2002) pointed out schools that prohibited ELs from speaking their
native language to uphold the monolingual culture in academia had a negative emotional and
psychological impact on EL students’ views of their language and cultural identity. This school
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policy disenfranchised the value of other languages, and shifted the views of some EL students
regarding their native language. The idea of mastering English was prioritized as a measure of
one’s economic status and academic success in the world (Stubbs, 2002). Occasionally, teachers
correct ELs who are not speaking standard English, which has the potential to discourage or
silence them from speaking or writing in their primary language or in the English language
(Christensen, 1995). EL children who are silenced by school policies and school officials are
denied the ability to partake in school activities, instead becoming a member of the powerless
and voiceless (Soto, 2002). Linguistic marginalization can affect personal and professional
identity, and strip ELs of their worldview or group identification.
Theoretical Framework
This study used Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecology Theory (1994) to examine the
instructional decision-making and influences of secondary mainstream teachers supporting
English learners. The framework of Human Ecology Theory emphasizes the contextual
influences on individuals’ human development and posits the idea that humans interact with their
environment to create an ecosystem, and the ecosystem influences their development
(Bronfenbrenner, 1976).
Human Ecology Theory
Bronfenbrenner’s theory is comprised of a variety of contexts that correspond to different
characteristics and influences in concentric systems. These four interconnected structures
include microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem with the developing person
being the mainstream teacher enclosed at the center of the ecosystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1976).
Among the four interconnected structures, this study largely centered on the microsystem and the
macrosystem to ground the data analysis and research findings.
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Human Ecology Theory was originally created to describe the development of children,
adolescents, and their families (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). However, this study used the theory to
describe the ecosystem of secondary mainstream teachers in the context of educating English
learners in Hawai’i public secondary education. Mainstream teachers’ ecosystem is their school
community. The school community consist of students, colleagues, their classroom, the campus,
local neighborhood, community leaders, and other stakeholders (e.g., principal, classified staff,
and parents).
Bronfenbrenner defined ecology of human development as demonstrating “how
environments change, and the implications of this change for the human beings who live and
grow in these environments” (Bronfenbrenner, 1975, p. 439). This theory described human
development in context of the developing person and the changing ecosystem. Mainstream
teachers have the ability to maintain growth mindsets to address the challenging issues in
classroom settings with English learners. Also, teachers have the potential to adjust their
instructional decisions based on the needs of their developing students. Teachers can change
their mindsets and views on educational matters based on professional development and
research. Bronfenbrenner (1976) described the ecosystem to be connected to individuals within
it, typically using the term ecology to describe the environment. He did not seek to solely view
the context, or environment separately, but focused on the entire ecological system that included
the developing person at the core (Bronfenbrenner, 1976). The developing person at the center
of this study is the mainstream teacher. However, there is an interdependent relationship
between mainstream teachers and EL students. Both stakeholders are being influenced by their
environments and ecological systems.
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In the first part of Bronfenbrenner’s theory, mainstream teachers are interacting with
English learners, non-EL students, parents, district personnel, and the principal. The
microsystem is defined as direct face-to-face interactions between the developing individual and
other stakeholders or objects, typically in a workplace environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1976).
Mainstream teachers are responsible for delivering instruction to EL students in the microsystem
as well as receiving professional development to increase language acquisition in this phase
directed by actions of the principal or district personnel. Instructional decisions occur in the
microsystem, whether it be in a classroom environment or in department meetings with
colleagues. EL coordinators would ideally supply mainstream teachers with English language
proficiency scores in this phase to inform their instructional decisions and understanding of each
individual EL student when lesson planning and creating assignments.
The mesosystem is the second interconnected structure of this ecological human
development, that features the progressing and growing individual as an active participant in
relations among two or more microsystems. According to Bronfenbrenner (1976), the difference
between the microsystem and the mesosystem is that the mesosystem has an ecological transition
from one setting to the next. For example, a mainstream teacher could go from a school setting
to their home. This is clearly a change in environment, which has the potential to cause
biological changes on the individual (Bronfenbrenner, 1976). The interconnected activities and
interpersonal relationships are linked to multiple settings in the mesosystem (Bronfenbrenner,
1976). This study will exclude the mesosystem, instead, studying mainstream teachers in a
secondary public school setting.
The third interconnected structure is the exosystem. The exosystem is an ecological
setting that influences the actions of developing individuals, but excludes them from being active
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participants in the creation of policies or systems that affect their livelihood (Bronfenbrenner,
1975). The exosystem demonstrates how laws are manufactured in the United States by policy-
makers who often fail to involve or seek the advice of developing people who will be directly
affected. Mainstream teachers are able to describe how federal and state policies influence their
instructional decisions in the exosystem, and what perceptions they have formed having served
as non-participants in the creation of these policies by individuals who are not in classroom
environments on a daily basis.
The final part of the Human Ecology Theory is the macrosystem, which differs
significantly from the other systems. The macrosystem promotes the institutional systems of
culture and norms, including social, economic, and political systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1976). Its
primary ecological function is grounded in ideology, and a system of beliefs people value and
uphold corresponding with their identity. These ideologies, beliefs, and perceptions run the
gamut for mainstream teachers. For instance, some mainstream teachers believe their duty is to
educate all students, including English learners, while others identify themselves as content
specialists, not EL teachers (Yoon, 2007). The macrosystem is grounded in the idea of
ecological influences changing individuals occurring within the phenomenological settings and
perspectives of those in the ecosystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). The researcher of this study
analyzed the influences of school culture on mainstream teaching, which occurred in the
macrosystem to understand mainstream teachers’ approach to supporting ELs. Key influences
on instructional decision-making and perceptions of mainstream from the review of literature
include growth mindset, fixed mindset, and monolingual culture, which reside in the
macrosystem of the Human Ecology Theory. These emerging themes have the potential to be
school-wide norms that influence instruction and perceptions that support or deter language
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development among ELs. Research questions for this study are influenced by the work of
Woolfolk-Hoy (2000), Fullan (2001), and Gay (2002) on EL achievement, teacher efficacy,
school support and instructional strategies to support this population.

Figure 1. Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecology Theory

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Conclusion
This chapter reviewed existing literature and examined research known regarding
mainstream teachers’ perceptions, motivation, and preparation to support English learners in
secondary schools. However, there were several gaps in the literature with respect to what
influences mainstream teachers’ instructional decision-making to increase English proficiency
and how to elevate standardized test scores among English learners to close the achievement gap.
In addition, there was underdeveloped literature on whether secondary mainstream teachers
understand second language acquisition to intentionally implement instructional strategies and
best practices to support ELs in the State of Hawai’i. The theoretical framework used in this
study provides guidance and a lens to make sense of the data collected. This study sought to
understand the influences of mainstream teachers’ instructional experiences while teaching EL
students.
In Chapter 3, the researcher of this study explains the research design, site selection,
description of the participants, instrumentation, and data collection processes that were
implemented to understand the experiences of mainstream teachers who have EL students at one
secondary public school in Hawai’i.

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CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODS
This study was prompted by the problem of practice well known in the field related to
challenges with underprepared mainstream teachers who are responsible for educating English
Learners (ELs). This chapter describes the qualitative methods used in this study. First, the
researcher of this study explains the rationale for conducting a qualitative study, and provides a
description of site selection and clearance to conduct the study. Also, this chapter explains
population and sampling data, instrumentation techniques, data collection methods and
processes, data analysis, steps taken to maximize validity of research findings, and role of
researcher.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the influences that shape
mainstream secondary teachers’ instructional decisions and perceptions of supporting language
acquisition among EL students. This study investigated the extent to which mainstream teachers
were implementing instructional strategies and receiving professional development to support EL
students. Data were collected by interviewing and gathering voluntarily supplied documents
from mainstream teachers at one Hawaii public secondary school.
Research Questions
The research questions determine the design, data collection techniques, sampling
methods and analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To better understand the experiences of
mainstream teachers supporting EL students, the researcher of this study conducted a qualitative
study at one public high school in the state of Hawai’i. The guiding research questions for this
study were:
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1. How are mainstream teachers supporting students classified as English learners in a
Hawai’i public secondary school?
a. What influences mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions to support
students classified as English learners in a Hawai’i public secondary school?
2. How are mainstream teachers’ perceptions of supporting students classified as
English learners influencing their instructional decisions in a Hawai’i public
secondary school?
Research Design
The purpose statement and research questions determine the appropriate research design
(Creswell, 2014; McEwan & McEwan, 2003). In this study, a qualitative approach was the most
appropriate in order to fully understand the participants’ experiences as educational practitioners
and to attain the narratives behind instructional strategies and practices used to support EL
students. This study sought to understand participants’ instructional decision-making and
perspectives of supporting EL students, while capturing the influences that impact their teaching
of EL students. A qualitative study allowed the researcher to make meaning of a phenomenon
via participant-researcher interactions, and documented how participants understood their
professional lives teaching EL students. Qualitative researchers are concerned with how to
interpret and make sense of people’s experiences, perceptions, and how their lives construct
meaning (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This study exemplified the nature of qualitative research as
its researcher is primarily focused on making sense of mainstream teachers’ perceptions about
what influences their instruction when teaching ELs, and understanding their knowledge, skills,
and dispositions in the area of second language acquisition. A qualitative design requires
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detailed data about the topic of study, setting, and subjects involved in the data collection process
(Maxwell, 2013).
This study investigated how mainstream teachers attribute meaning to their experiences
with EL language development from factors that influence instructional decisions and
perceptions of their EL students. In addition, this study was concerned with understanding the
knowledge, skills, and dispositions mainstream teachers had regarding second language
acquisition. It shall be noted that an experience a person has shall be interpreted through their
perspective (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This qualitative study used a case study approach to
gather data and use the data to arrive at its findings. Case studies strive to understand an
experience from differing perspectives in order to gather data on a phenomenon of interest
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Interviews captured mainstream teachers shared and differing
experiences teaching EL students, and document analysis triangulated self-reported interview
data. A case study approach allowed the researcher of this study to develop an adequate
description and interpretation of participants’ ideas, perceptions, and feelings.
Site Selection
The site for this study was Aloha High School (pseudonym). Aloha High School was a
Title I public school in Hawai’i educating a student body of approximately 1,000 students every
year. Aloha was established in the mid-twentieth century and served students in grades 9–12.
The public secondary institution was located in a suburban neighborhood, yet received the
majority of its students from low-income housing areas. More than 51% of students received
free or reduced lunch and were from low-income households according to Aloha’s
Comprehensive Needs Assessment report. During the 2018–2019 academic year, 92 (9%)
students within the student population were classified as English learners. Aloha High School
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had one EL teacher who had the dual role of serving as the EL coordinator. The EL coordinator
was responsible for coordinating EL services on behalf of the school, and testing EL students
each academic year on the WIDA ACCESS test. Increasing English language proficiency levels
had been a priority of the principal and EL coordinator.
The school was recommended by an administrator within the Hawai’i Department of
Education (HIDOE) who was responsible for language development as a Program Director for
EL. According to this administrator, Aloha High School has a sizeable population of English
Learners in this district that represent the vast range of EL students statewide. While 92 EL
students may be a small figure in comparison to national EL enrollment data at public schools, it
was a substantial figure in Hawai’i public schools in comparison to its peer institutions. Aloha
High School had the third largest EL population in the state. Another reason Aloha was
recommended was because this school received the largest portion of weighted student formula
funding for its EL population in its complex area (or local school district).
According to a Program Director for EL, some mainstream teachers at Aloha had
received increased professional development in the area of EL. Increased training resulted in
increased English language proficiency levels among its EL population in the last two years.
However, the Program Director for EL noted that there was a strong possibility that all
mainstream teachers have not undergone EL training given previous professional development
sessions were not school-wide, nor mandatory. Nonetheless, all mainstream teachers who had
EL enrollment were not in attendance at EL professional development sessions. Thus, making
this school’s teaching population a diverse sample as a result of training variations in EL, which
increased the possibility of differing experiences and perspectives on EL instruction.
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Population and Sample
Population
The population for this study consisted of mainstream teachers who were educating
students classified as English learners at Aloha High School during the 2018–2019 academic
year or had previously taught EL students within the last two academic years. Mainstream
teachers were selected as the appropriate population of this study given their instructional
decisions were supposed to result in increased student achievement, and professional
development in the area of EL may not be widely available. Also, teachers were responsible for
enhancing English language acquisition among EL students and delivering differentiated
instruction to meet their needs. There were a total of 75 classroom and non-classroom teachers
at Aloha High School.
Sample
Johnson and Christensen (2015) state that “sampling is the process of drawing a sample
from a population” (p. 248). A sample is a segment of an entire population, if one studied every
individual in a population it would be considered a census report (Johnson & Christensen, 2015).
This study aimed to have 12 participants to sufficiently represent the scope of variation among
the mainstream teachers in this setting. While a number of mainstream teachers expressed
interest in participating in this study, 12 participants were chosen due to time constraints in the
field and given 12 was an ideal number to reach saturation in homogeneous groups (Guest,
Bunce, & Johnson, 2006). In light of specified criteria, participants were selected non-randomly
and purposefully. This study used a purposive sampling technique due to the research questions
being very specific about the characteristics which the participants had to meet (Johnson &
Christensen, 2015). The characteristics for selecting participants in order to collect rich and
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relevant data for this study, included the study being conducted at a public secondary institution
within the state of Hawai’i. The second characteristic required participants to be mainstream
secondary teachers who were employed at Aloha High School. The third characteristic required
participants to have at least one EL student in attendance in their class during the 2018–2019
academic year, or have previously taught one or more EL students within the last two academic
years.
The sample aimed to include novice and veteran educators in the field to capture as much
variance as possible in terms of years teaching EL students and EL credits obtained. This
variance in years of service provided a variety of experiences with respect to professional
development, teacher efficacy, and support. Years of service was defined as the total number of
years in education, irrespective of school, district, or state. The sample represented a range of
race, professional development in EL, and years of service in secondary education educating
students classified as EL. This school had a total of 70 classroom teachers, 30 of whom were
mainstream teachers who educated EL students. The researcher of this study attempted to screen
25 of the 30 mainstream teachers who had at least one EL student, or had previously taught one
or more EL students within the last two academic years. The screener gathered demographic
data about participants to find the study’s sample (Appendix B). The recruitment letter indicated
the selection criteria that would preclude other teachers from taking the screener. The
demographics collected from the screener were used to purposefully select 12 participants to be
interviewed. As a result of the richness of data that the researcher sought to collect by interviews
with participants, a smaller sample size of the overall population was acceptable and sufficient
(Weiss, 1994).
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A screener was sent to mainstream teachers at Aloha High School as part of the
purposive sampling screening process via email by the researcher. The screener assists the
researcher in selecting participants who meet the criteria and characteristics for participating in
the interview based on their distinct experience and demographics (Creswell, 2014; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The screener is a tool for intentional criterion-based selection of participants to
represent the diversity and broad perspectives of the profession during the interview process
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Instrumentation and Data Collection
It is important to note that research questions drive or determine instruments of data
collection (Maxwell, 2013). The research questions for this study warranted an interview and a
document analysis of artifacts and written documents with each participant. These two data
collection methods were used to triangulate the data and increase validity of research findings
(Maxwell, 2013). Interviews appropriately determined how instructional strategies, if any at all,
were being implemented in class to enhance language development and reveal understandings of
how mainstream teachers educate EL students. Also, interviews attempted to capture the
feelings of whether mainstream teachers feel prepared to teach ELs based on having an
understanding of second language acquisition. Qualitative studies require open-ended interview
questions that are not compound, instead are focused and pointed to obtain specific responses to
enrich research findings (Creswell, 2014). The researcher of this study strived to collect rich,
detailed, and descriptive data by developing a laser-focused interview protocol.
Interview
Interviews are the most common data collection method used to conduct qualitative
research, and the main function of interviews is to understand participants’ thinking and meaning
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making about relevant subject matters (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Interviews are used when
observations cannot capture participants’ feelings, thoughts, and perceptions to the world around
them (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This study conducted one-on-one interviews with mainstream
teachers regarding their experiences and perceptions of what influences their instructional
decision-making in the context of teaching EL students. Participants were selected based on
having met the required characteristics, and their willingness to participate in the study. The
researcher interviewed 12 participants face-to-face in a classroom setting.
The interview questions were designed intentionally to extract rich description and data
from participants’ experiences with EL students, and their thoughts and perceptions about being
responsible for language development. This study used a variety of question types that explore
(1) experience and behavior, (2) opinion and values, (3) feelings, (4) knowledge, (5) sensory
experiences, and (6) background and demographics. For example, a question that was asked,
“What types of professional development have you attended specifically focusing on language
acquisition for EL students?” Follow-up questions that were asked during the interview were
used to clarify participants’ responses.
The interview approach was semi-structured. Semi-structured interviews allow questions
to be posed flexibly, there is no predetermined sequence of wording, and there is typically
specific information desired from respondents (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This structure permits
the researcher to respond to unforeseen situations at hand, whereas structured interview protocols
do not allow for flexibility or changes from predetermined plans (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
According to Maxwell (2013), it is important to develop interview questions that are relevant to
the research questions. Relevant and purposeful questions were asked during the interviews that
were directly related to the research questions and theoretical framework. For example, one
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question was, “What would be an example of an instructional strategy that you believe is
essential to support your EL students?” This question was a knowledge question aimed to
generate teachers’ beliefs of instructional strategies that support EL students (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). The theoretical framework Human Ecology Theory sought to make sense and understand
teacher behavior in relationship to how they supported EL student achievement. The questions
were designed to fit within the theoretical framework to examine the different forms in which
instruction was presented to EL students to enhance language acquisition and comprehension of
content. This interview protocol is in Appendix E.
Field testing is a process to evaluate the appropriateness of questions being asked based
on wording before entering the field to interview (Maxwell, 2013). Field testing occurred before
the researcher submitted questions to IRB and entered the setting of the phenomenon to conduct
interviews and gathered written data for document analysis. The researcher identified two
teachers who had interest in participating in the interview to participate in field testing who
would not serve as participants in this study. The researcher contacted participants via email
extending an invitation, and if participants agreed the researcher sent an Information Sheet
outlining the guidelines of the interview. The objective of field testing was to estimate the
duration of interviews and eliminate unnecessary questions or restructure questions for clarity.
Documents and Artifacts
Document analysis was used in this case study to determine mainstream teachers’
implementation of best practices to support EL students for the purpose of corroborating
interview responses. Also, this data collection method was implemented to capture teacher
perceptions on how to teach ELs and influences on instruction. Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
define documents as a variety of documents that display visuals or written data of some sort.
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Artifacts are different in that they can be objects or official records (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Mainstream teachers at Aloha High School were asked for lesson plans and syllabi featuring
instructional strategies or best practices for ELs to access content or modifications to help ELs
understand language of instruction. Other supplemental documents and artifacts that were
requested by the researcher were assessments for EL based on English language proficiency
levels; school-wide reports that discussed teachers’ involvement in EL language development; or
reflections from teachers on EL pedagogy. However, supplemental documents and artifacts were
not voluntarily supplied for document analysis, so lesson plans and instructional materials were
collected and analyzed to identify emerging themes and to address research question 1 of this
case study.
Data Collection Process
According to Johnson and Christensen (2015), there are six commonly used data
collection methods in education research: tests, questionnaires, interviews, focus groups,
observations, constructed and secondary or existing data. This study’s data collection took place
during the 2018–2019 academic year at Aloha High School in Hawai’i. The researcher of this
study sought approval to conduct this study by the Institutional Review Board (IRB). The
researcher contacted the principal of Aloha High School to schedule an in-person meeting
regarding gaining site clearance and entering into a data sharing agreement. The data sharing
agreement was between three parties: school site principal, researcher, and the Hawai’i
Department of Education (HIDOE) to collect data among mainstream teachers at Aloha High
School where participants and their responses were de-identifiable. The meeting with the
principal of Aloha High School allowed the researcher to begin contacting participants after the
Hawai’i Department of Education Data Governance and Analysis Branch approved the data
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sharing agreement. The researcher supplied the principal with a copy of HIDOE’s data sharing
agreement and memo of clearance, which was later sent to the faculty as a part of the recruitment
email by the researcher (Appendix A).
The researcher anticipated 25 mainstream teachers meeting the criterion of having EL
students in their classrooms during the 2018–2019 academic year or having previously taught EL
students within the last two academic years. Participants were given an Information Sheet
(Appendix D), which explained confidentiality terms to be interviewed. The 12 mainstream
teachers who met the criteria were recruited to participate in an interview and asked to
voluntarily provide artifacts and written data for document analysis purposes. Two weeks was
allotted to participants to submit screeners. The researcher sent reminder emails a week in
advance of the closing date of the screener to the principal to disseminate to the targeted 25
mainstream teachers. After the closing date passed, a thank you note was sent to participants
who responded to the screener and a separate email was sent to potential participants. The
researcher sent all emails to mainstream teachers at Aloha High School.
A total of 12 mainstream teachers voluntarily completed the screener and met the
selection criteria to participate in this case study. The research of this study selected all 12
participants and they received a scheduling email from the researcher to participate in the
interview and document analysis (Appendix C). The email included an attachment of the
Information Sheet explaining the purpose of the study, the participant’s role, a discussion of
confidentiality, and the timeframe of the study. Additional content embedded in the email
explained the role of the researcher. Within seven days, a follow-up email along with a visit to
their classrooms was made by the researcher to determine if the respondents had interest in
participating in the study. The researcher understood that all participants must voluntarily agree
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to be a part of the study without influence or coercion. The mainstream teachers who expressed
interest and agreed to participate were able to work with the researcher to determine a time and
date to partake in the interviews on campus. The researcher was very intentional about the
sequence of events regarding the interview protocol. It was important to interview all teachers
when they were not supporting students to reduce the likelihood of unexpected interruptions and
noise levels that may distort the voice recordings.
A confirmation email was sent to confirm the time, date, and specific location on campus
before the interview. The researcher extended gratitude and thanks to a sample of 12 participants
in the confirmation email for their willingness to take part in the study. An Information Sheet
and interview topics were shared in the email for reference. The Information Sheet clarified the
guidelines of the interview for participants and explained how the interview would be conducted.
Also, the Information Sheet made clear how confidentiality would be ensured by assigning the
campus and the participant a pseudonym, that the interview would be audio-recorded, that they
had the right to decline being recorded, and that they could end the interview at any time. The
researcher did not interview any participant who was unwilling to be audio-recorded as
stipulated in the Information Sheet due to concerns of potential human error resulting in
inaccurate transcriptions of interviews. All participants received a reminder email a week in
advance for a final confirmation of the interview.
An interview protocol directed and guided the semi-structured interviews (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The interview protocol contained specific open-ended questions that were
aligned with the research questions and theoretical framework of the study. All interviews were
transcribed verbatim, and the researcher coded all thematic topics accordingly in preparation of
data analysis. A hand-held voice recorder was used to capture the entirety of all interviews on
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the researcher’s iPhone. The researcher activated airplane mode on the mobile phone to prevent
interruptions. Before interviewing participants, the researcher ensured the mobile phone had
enough memory and battery life. Handwritten notes were taken during the interviews, if
necessary, and directly after them documenting researcher’s comments. Pseudonyms along with
corresponding numbers were assigned to each participant to ensure confidentiality of data
recorded and transcribed. The researcher respected the confidentiality agreement in the
Information Sheet and did not discuss or reveal the data sources with anyone during and after the
study.
Mainstream teachers were asked to voluntarily supply instructional materials and the
researcher analyzed potential influences on how each teacher made intentional decisions
regarding instruction. Some influences could be selected readings that correspond with English
language proficiency levels of each EL student or best practices to increase language
development. Lesson plans provided context to individual styles of delivering instruction to ELs
in a variety of content areas. The recruitment and scheduling emails clarified that all student
names must be removed from original documents or artifacts to comply with federal laws around
student rights to privacy. Documents and artifacts were used to enhance interviews.
The recorded data and the handwritten notes were stored in a locked cabinet. Electronic
devices with recorded data were password protected to ensure confidentiality of the participants
and to safeguard the interview responses. Subsequent to conducting interviews, the recordings
were forwarded to a reputable agency for transcription. Once the transcripts of the interviews
were retrieved and used, recordings were deleted from all electronic devices and notes were
shredded at a secure site. The settings of the interviews were in the classrooms of the respective
teachers and were approximately an hour in length. The questions were framed around
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instructional strategies, best practices, influences on instructional decision-making and
mainstream teachers’ perceptions of supporting EL students.
Documents and artifacts were requested from mainstream teachers showcasing their
understanding of EL pedagogy after each participant completed their interview. Mainstream
teachers were asked to photocopy documents with the understanding that documents and artifacts
would not be returned, but destroyed once analyzed. Teachers were required to remove student
names before supplying the researcher with documents or artifacts to comply with federal law.
The researcher asked each participant to supply a lesson plan containing instructional strategies,
practices, and instructional decisions used to support English learners. Lesson plans reflected the
knowledge and skills of mainstream teachers as they related to second language acquisition and
best practices to support English learners. All documents and artifacts were stored in a locked
cabinet, and shredded once the findings had been revealed in the study.
Data Analysis
It was important to use and collect multiple sources of data to create a valid study. As a
result, there was triangulation where reasonable inferences and conclusions could be drawn from
analyzing data (Creswell, 2014). All phases of data collection corresponded with qualitative
methods, and were independently analyzed to answer the research questions. Analysis of each
data collection method was briefly described here.
The first data to analyze was the data collected in the interviews. Interviews were
transcribed verbatim, and the researcher coded all thematic topics while analyzing research
findings after each interview. Notes and comments were taken on a separate document during
interviews to help the researcher probe, document thoughts, and organize emerging themes
(Creswell, 2014). In preparation of conducting the data analysis, the researcher organized all
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transcripts, researcher’s comments, and other notes (Creswell, 2014). Each interview was
assigned a number separate from their pseudonyms for organizational and easy accessibility
purposes. An open coding system was implemented to align with the study’s theoretical
framework and themes (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Hard copies of the coded
data were saved on the researcher’s flash drive and transferred to a laptop, which was password
protected.
Document analysis was the second instrumentation of data that were analyzed to
understand the experiences of mainstream teachers supporting EL students. Documents were
used to categorize, compare, and analyze trends with the data collected from interviews.
Ultimately, the researcher used multiple instruments of data collection to answer the research
questions with evidence and corroboration from participants (Johnson & Christensen, 2015).
The researcher disaggregated responses to assess commonalities and differences among
mainstream teachers regarding influences of instructional decision-making, strategies
implemented, if any, and perceptions of EL students. Inductive reasoning was used to interpret
the coded pieces of interview data through the lens of the theoretical framework of Human
Ecology Theory. Categories were created to code emerging themes that may be revealed in the
study’s findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). There was a consistent review of interviews and
data until saturation was reached. Saturation is defined as a description of no new information or
evidence in a data collection process when conducting a study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
researcher planned to compare and aggregate responses to assess commonalities among
mainstream teachers regarding instruction and assessment (Maxwell, 2013). The analytic tools
utilized to frame the data analysis were language, red flags, and making comparisons (Corbin &
Strauss, 2008).
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Validity of Findings
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), it is imperative that credibility and
trustworthiness is established through common strategies of validity, such as triangulation of
data sources and methods. This study triangulated data methods, not data sources. The only
respondent type that was studied were mainstream teachers who had EL students enrolled in their
classes. Johnson and Christensen (2015) claimed that providing multiple methods of data
collection will reveal several converging support for a single point. In addition, Johnson and
Christensen (2015) argued educational research is “about providing solid evidence for your
conclusions, and evidence is greater when you employ a logical mixing strategy” (p. 226). This
suggested that educational research prioritized triangulation to justify its findings or results with
evidence in order to have greater validity and credibility.
In this qualitative study, one threat to validity in this study may be researcher bias
(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Researchers have their own biases, beliefs,
ideologies, perceptions, and knowledge that may influence the research process and their
approach to making sense of data. It was the responsibility of this researcher to understand
personal biases and report any activities that could potentially skew data or interpretations of
data. For example, the researcher believed that educators should have growth mindsets and be
committed to continuous learning by virtue of undergoing professional development to increase
their competence in any given field or subject matter. Other biases the researcher held, included
teachers keeping English language proficiency levels in mind when supporting ELs or designing
lesson plans, and identifying best practices or instructional strategies to increase language
development over time. The researcher attempted to suspend judgement by thinking objectively
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and masking personal feelings. It was important to understand participants’ experiences and
feelings without any possibility of judgement and bias being present.
Trustworthiness was established by using triangulation and detailed records of interview
transcripts (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). There was rich
description of data to describe individuals who participated in the study, and a use of participant
quotes and field notes to support the description (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013). The
researcher implemented member checks with five participants during the data analysis process
requesting feedback on the study’s findings to verify if the findings were accurately documented
based on their experience (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Role of Researcher
The researcher of this study is a male educational practitioner who had six years of
experience in the classroom educating children at the secondary level. As a content specialist of
social studies, the researcher was responsible for designing lesson plans; delivering instruction;
evaluating student performance in accordance with content standards; differentiating instruction
and assessments; providing descriptive feedback to students; creating curriculum maps; and
supervising students. As a general education teacher in a mainstream environment, the
researcher made accommodations and modifications to content for EL students; and students
with special needs and disorders. The researcher of this study served as the Data Team Leader
for the subject matter of United States History and was charged with providing guidance on the
six-step data team process; and setting the agenda for meetings. In the capacity as Data Team
Leader, the researcher had spearheaded small professional development sessions on best
instructional strategies and practices to foster student learning and engagement; and disseminated
school-wide information items from administration to teachers.
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The researcher built strong working relationships with educators and administrators at
several K-12 schools in Hawai’i having attended several professional development sessions; and
served as a teacher union representative at the state and district levels. As a result, the researcher
built professional relationships with some teachers and staff at Aloha High School, including
having previously served on the faculty as a teacher. The professional relationships potentially
allowed participants to feel a sense of trust and comfort with the researcher that may have
yielded greater data to interview questions and increased validity of findings. The school was
selected on the basis of a Program Director for English learners indicating that this school had
the third largest EL population in the state. In addition, there was a possibility for this study to
document a range of perspectives from mainstream teachers on teaching EL students, given a
lack of school-wide training.
The researcher’s stance was observer as participant. Qualitative strategies, including
analytic tools, allowed the researcher to refrain from being biased, instead, listen to what people
were saying and doing as well as not take anything for granted (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).
Researchers are also observers of practices and processes. The interviews conducted answered
the research questions about implementing instructional strategies in the classroom to support
language development and what perceptions participants had about EL students. The researcher
used the data from interviews to determine teachers’ understanding of second language
acquisition, perceptions, self-efficacy levels, influences on instruction, instructional knowledge
of strategies and practices to aid language growth over time among EL students. This researcher
was aware that teachers have varying teaching styles to activate student learning, and analyzed
artifacts of instructional materials to understand teachers’ instructional decision-making and best
practices implemented to support EL students.
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Conclusion
This chapter explained the specific research methods that were used in this research
study. A qualitative research design was used to capture the narratives and experiences of
mainstream teachers supporting EL students. The data collection methods for this case study
were interviews and document analysis. This chapter made clear the steps that were taken to
gather data and to conduct the data analysis process. The researcher implemented member
checks of data collected and examined personal biases to ensure validity of the study. Chapter 4
presents research findings, to make sense of emergent themes from interviews with participants,
and analyze documents voluntarily supplied to the researcher.

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CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH FINDINGS
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to examine the influences on mainstream
secondary teachers’ instructional decisions and perceptions of supporting language acquisition
among English Learners (ELs). This study investigated the extent to which mainstream teachers
were implementing instructional strategies and receiving professional development to support EL
students at one Hawai’i public secondary school. Data were collected from participants through
semi-structured one-on-one interviews, and voluntarily supplied lesson plans that document best
practices used to support ELs. Additionally, this chapter presents research findings and themes
that were identified from the analysis of interviews and documents to address the research
questions. Human Ecology Theory was used to interpret data, and will be discussed in the final
chapter of this study, which aligns with the research questions. The research questions were:
1. How are mainstream teachers supporting students classified as English learners in a
Hawai’i public secondary school?
a. What influences mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions to support
students classified as English learners in a Hawai’i public secondary school?
2. How are mainstream teachers’ perceptions of supporting students classified as
English learners influencing their instructional decisions in a Hawai’i public
secondary school?
Participant Profile
The participant profile outlines participant characteristics and demographics. Participants
reported their years of teaching, race or ethnicity, attainment of EL credits, content area, years
teaching EL students, and administered EL services. A total of 12 mainstream secondary public
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schoolteachers at Aloha High School were selected to participate in this study. Nine of the
participants were female and three were male. Four participants identified as multiracial, three
as Caucasian, two as Japanese American, one as Native Hawaiian, one as Black, and one as
Chinese American. Participants had varying levels of experience teaching English Learners;
ranging from one year to over 31 years. Each participant met the selection criteria of having at
least one English Learner enrolled in their classroom during the 2018–2019 academic year and
serving as a mainstream teacher at Aloha High School. Mainstream teachers were defined in the
context of this study of not having been trained as EL-specific teachers or specialists, but rather
as content specialists teaching students in least restrictive environments.
Based on the screening survey information from participants, the average secondary
mainstream teacher at Aloha High School has undergone some form of professional development
or teacher preparation in the area of second language acquisition. Fifty-eight percent of the
selected teacher participants have earned at least three or more EL credits, which are an
indication of mainstream teachers’ ability to implement several scientific instructional strategies
and practices from their toolbox to support EL students. For further details on each participant
selected to participate in this study, refer to Table 2 to receive demographic information.

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Table 2
Participant Profiles
Name
Years of
Teaching EL Credit(s) Race or Ethnicity Content Area
Ava 15 – 22 Years 0 Credits Caucasian Science
Donna 8 – 14 Years 21 Credits Multiracial English Language Arts
Emma 0 – 7 Years 0 Credits Multiracial English Language Arts
Julian 8 – 14 Years 3 Credits Caucasian Career & Technical
Education
Maria 31 Years or
More
18 Credits Japanese American World Languages
Michael 0 – 7 Years 0 Credits Chinese American Mathematics
Nancy 23 – 30 Years 6 Credits Japanese American Mathematics
Olivia 15 – 22 Years 0 Credits Black Fine Arts
Samuel 8 – 14 Years 0 Credits Multiracial Fine Arts
Valerie 15 – 22 Years 3 Credits Caucasian Social Studies
Victoria 31 Years or
More
5 Credits Native Hawaiian Social Studies
Wendy 8 – 14 Years 6 Credits Multiracial Physical Education

Mainstream Teacher Participants
In her 14th year of teaching English learners at Aloha High School, Ava was striving to
support her EL population and hoped to attend more professional development sessions to
acquire EL credits. She stated that there were three EL students in her science classes, and she
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provided illustrations and graphic organizers to support language acquisition. Ava had over 15
years of service in education.
An English language arts teacher, Donna, with over eight years of service in education
reported that she has enjoyed teaching English learners at Aloha High School. She supported 11
EL students and implemented reading strategies and differentiated instruction to increase EL
students’ Lexile levels. Donna had taught EL students for the past six years of her career.
A second year English language arts teacher, Emma educated one English learner in her
classroom at Aloha High School during the 2018–2019 academic year. She had no credits in
language acquisition, but stated she would be enrolling in coursework in the near future.
Julian was a career and technical education teacher in his 13th year of teaching English
learners at Aloha High School having acquired three credits in language acquisition. He had five
EL students enrolled in his class, and stated that there were additional teachers in his classroom
to support their needs.
A world language teacher at Aloha High School with over 31 years of experience in
education, Maria educated six English learners enrolled in her classes. She had taught this
population of students her entire career. With 18 credits in language acquisition to support EL
students, she reported she felt very well-equipped to teach EL students.
Michael was a first year mathematics teacher at Aloha High School and he taught 11
English learners. EL services provided to his students, included: usage of online translator and
printing images of content. Michael had acquired no credits in the area of second language
acquisition, but stated he would seek professional development in the near future.
A mathematics teacher at Aloha High School, Nancy had over 25 years of service in
education. Although, she had acquired six credits in language acquisition and language
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development over her entire career, she was committed to increasing her knowledge base to
improve her practice. In addition, she stated that she was motivated to increase her EL students’
English language proficiency levels. Nancy had five English learners enrolled in her classes and
had developed a word wall to support her EL students.
Olivia was a fine arts teacher at Aloha High School with over 15 years of teaching
experience. She supported two English learners in her classes, but had taught EL students for
five years. While she lacked credits in language acquisition, she stated she was well-equipped to
support this population citing coursework taken at the university level.
A fine arts teacher, Samuel had taught English learners at Aloha High School for 12
years. EL services provided to his 15 EL students included: pull-out classroom instruction
initiated by the EL coordinator on site, and dictionaries made available in a few target native
languages. Over his 12-year career, he stated that he had no credits in EL due to his keen interest
in strengthening his expertise within his content area as opposed to language acquisition.
Valerie was a social studies teacher who has acquired three credits in language
acquisition. She taught at Aloha High School for more than 15 years, and had educated English
learners her entire career. With 15 EL students, Valerie reported it was her goal to support all of
them educationally, linguistically, and culturally.
Victoria was a social studies teacher who had over 31 years of experience in education,
and had taught EL students for over ten years. She reported that she had five credits in second
language acquisition and supported six EL students this year at Aloha High School. EL services
were mostly provided to her students in the EL specific classes.
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With over 12 years of service teaching at Aloha High School, Wendy stated she had
undergone training to support English learners. EL services provided in her physical education
class, included: translators and one-on-one support.
Five themes emerged from this study examining mainstream teachers’ instructional
decisions and perceptions of English learners, including: (1) visual strategies; (2) teacher
empathy and motivation; (3) teacher efficacy and growth mindsets; (4) federal language
development targets; and (5) teacher perceptions.
Visual Strategies
The researcher of this study sought to make sense of qualitative data collected from
participants in response to the first research question. The first research question guiding this
study was, “How are mainstream teachers supporting students classified as English learners in a
Hawai’i secondary public school?” The intent of this research question was to explore how
mainstream teachers deliver instruction and support ELs in the microsystem of Bronfenbrenner’s
Human Ecology Theory.
Interview Data
All 12 participants interviewed at Aloha High School were able to indicate how they
support English learners by implementing instructional strategies and best practices that would
result in increased language acquisition and academic achievement. Mainstream teachers at
Aloha High School have gathered teaching strategies from professional development sessions
over time or have developed sound practices to allow EL students to access content in their
subject matter (see Table 3). Among the teaching strategies and practices reported by
participants, the use of visual aids was mentioned 43 times when interviewing participants,
which suggests it could be a school-wide strategy.
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Ten of 12 participants described how visual strategies, such as Thinking Maps, graphic
organizers, and the Frayer Model have been effective teaching tools to activate student learning
and increase English language proficiency levels.

Table 3
Common Instructional Strategies and Best Practices that Emerged from Interviews and
Document Analysis
Thinking Maps
Graphic Organizers
The Frayer Model
Visual Charts
Illustrations of Concepts & Content
Echo Reading
Sheltered Instruction
Drawing Activities
Verbal Exercises
Gestures & Physical Demonstrations
Exemplar Models of Student Work

When asked about instructional strategies that are essential to supporting EL students,
participants responded with several visual strategies. For example, Donna, an English Language
Arts teacher, explained,
One of the things I do specifically for my ELL students, I do lots of visuals. I do lots of
hand gestures, body movements. In addition to that, I also use lots of illustrations and
drawings. I kind of have to act things out, and illustrate things. I’m always performing
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because if the ELL student sees the word, they need to make a connection with that, so in
their own language, they can make that connection and understand the word better in
English.
Valerie, a social studies teacher, discussed a research-based strategy to support her EL
students. The instructional strategy, known as the Frayer Model, was a visual tool she used
regularly to help English learners generate ideas about vocabulary terms. Valerie believed this
strategy made EL students’ thinking visible when defining terms in context. For EL students
who had low English proficiency scores or could not write in the target language, drawing visual
representations to express their ideas or thoughts of terminology was permissible. Valerie
included the Frayer Model in her lesson plan to help her EL students organize information and
deconstruct academic language. This strategy was recommended at a professional development
session to increase English language acquisition and help all students organize content. It also
contributed to EL students becoming comfortable with speaking English when asked to
participate in discussions. Valerie reported ELs used it as visual aids. She said,
An instructional strategy that I use a lot would be visual strategies for vocabulary, like the
Frayer Model or making a word wall, also using closed sentences. So some kind of . . . I
don’t know how to describe this, some kind of hands-on strategy for them to do
something else, so getting down to talk. I learned that that is a very important thing.
They can speak it before they write it down and that helps.
Victoria, a social studies teacher, shared a common understanding that is similar to
Donna and Valerie. Victoria emphasized the value of visual aids to support comprehensible
input of English learners when mainstream teachers deliver instruction verbally before students.
She made clear that,
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The number one instructional strategy to support ELL students, and actually all students,
is that if you’re doing oral speaking that you always have visuals to support; whether it be
pictures, whether it be a video, whether it be notes on the board.
Additionally, she identified Thinking Maps as critical cognitive tools to support language
acquisition and help English learners organize content. Victoria said Thinking Maps create
visual aids for EL students that help them address high order questioning, while allowing them to
document their thoughts in the content area of social studies. She elaborated,
We use Thinking Maps. So it is on the board. I’ve also given lecture notes where it’s on
top of PowerPoints that they can literally copy it out or while I’m talking doing question
and answer I put it on the board and then I ask them to transcribe those notes into a
Thinking Map. And so I would say that one thing that I find, and again, it’s not just for
ELL it’s for all the students, is the use of Thinking Maps.
Ava, a science teacher, reported how she supported EL students by integrating pictures of
her classroom content into graphic organizers. She used repetition of vocabulary terms to
increase language acquisition and to promote academic language. Ava helped English learners
with pronunciation through verbal exercises and sounding words out in the format of syllables.
In addition, she explained that she pointed to visuals of words written down on the whiteboard to
provide additional context to ELs. Ava recounted,
I keep referring back to the picture, which is the dependent variable, or the numerator of
the equation that we’re using, and that is mass, and those are the subatomic particles, the
protons, the neutrons. I’ll bring those pictures on the screen. I had the kids use a graphic
organizer to organize the pictures with the academic terms and also with the equation.
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Additionally, Julian, a career and technical education teacher, used several visual
instructional strategies in his class like Ava. Julian supported English learners by validating the
usage of visual aids coupled with clearly listing classroom instructions in steps to help English
learners complete classroom assignments. Julian asserted,
Instructional strategies for ELL students I really believe is to have visuals. You need to
have some kind of visual on the television. Show a video. Go over [and] do a
demonstration. Show student work that’s been [done in the past]. So, having visuals,
and having hands-on if they don’t get it. Auditory, visually seeing the words on the
board, watching it kind of happen. It’s them walking through the steps, and doing it
along with them.
Julian’s interview responses indicated that he has strived to provide students with clarity.
For example, he said, “One-on-one kind of stuff really kind of helps, to make sure that they get
it. And then also asking questions, like any student. Making sure that I understand where
they’re stuck.” Questioning techniques and providing one-on-one assistance allows Julian to
resolve any confusion or existing roadblocks that were prohibiting students from accessing
content.
Wendy, a physical education teacher, displayed charts and visuals of step-by-step
physical exercises on her walls in class. These teaching practices were congruent with Julian’s.
She affirmed the strategy of using visuals to communicate with English learners. In physical
education, Wendy reported that she has little trouble with supporting EL students. She
demonstrated fitness tasks or assignments visually before allowing EL students to work
independently. She exclaimed, “There is no language barrier in sports or physical education. I
believe it’s a universal language. With exercise and PE, everybody in the world could do these
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things. You know, it’s not something that we only do in America.” Wendy’s assertion that
physical education was a universal language suggested ELs understood assigned fitness tasks by
sheer observation of exercise routines and visual demonstrations.
Wendy had a firm belief that physical education was not a content area where language
served as a barrier to learning among her EL population. Nevertheless, she explained her
approach to supporting English learners, stating, “So, we have all these charts over here,” as she
pointed to visuals on the wall in her classroom. “There’s different exercise equipment that we
use. It shows them what direction they would need to pull the weights, or what direction their
arms need to go, what direction their feet need to go.” She continued explaining, “We also have
muscle charts that show specifically where the muscles are on the body, so those types of visual
aids are definitely helpful.”
Visual Strategies Found in Document Analysis of Lesson Plans
The purpose of gathering documents and artifacts from mainstream teachers at Aloha
High School was to allow the researcher to analyze how participants were supporting English
learners. Lesson plans were voluntarily supplied by participants. Syllabi, assessments taken by
EL students, teachers’ reflections on EL pedagogy, and school-wide reports documenting
teachers’ involvement in language development were not given to the researcher. The metrics to
evaluate lesson plans were developed by the researcher, which included: identifying language
learning outcomes, dissecting best practices that would allow EL students to access content, and
analyzing teaching strategies that would yield language development from professional
development sessions. The researcher analyzed lesson plans with language of instruction in
mind. In addition, the researcher sought to evaluate whether participants would outline English
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language proficiency levels by each EL student in their respective classrooms. Findings from the
document analysis are featured below in this section.
Through document analysis, best practices were identified to triangulate how mainstream
teachers at Aloha High School were supporting English learners with their interview responses.
Five participants voluntarily supplied lesson plans indicating how they supported language
acquisition and implemented teaching strategies that would allow English learners to access
content.
Among the five participants, Nancy documented in her lesson plan how she developed a
word wall to support language development among her EL population. Her word wall included:
definitions of terminology and visual charts of how to solve equations in gradual steps. The
word wall was observed by the researcher during her interview. Furthermore, English learners in
Nancy’s mathematics class work in cooperative learning groups where ELs and non-ELs
collaborate to complete assignments. Cooperative learning is an instructional strategy that is as a
part of sheltered instruction (Hansen-Thomas, 2008). Students were allowed to translate phrases
or instructions to understand content in their native languages as documented in her lesson.
Nancy did not include: language learning outcomes, nor English language proficiency levels of
EL students in her class. The EL coordinator on site has scores and is expected to relinquish
scores each year upon classifying ELs after administering screening tests.
Donna documented how she supported her English learners by implementing several best
practices that would result in increased Lexile levels gathered at trainings. These practices and
strategies, included: echo readings and decoding of terms. Much of Donna’s lesson plans and
additional documents supplied focused on differentiated instruction. In Donna’s interview, she
indicated that these strategies were responsible for increasing English language proficiency
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levels among her ELs. She did not devise a language learning outcome, nor indicated English
language proficiency levels by student.
Additionally, Valerie provided a language friendly lesson plan highlighting EL students
by native language with corresponding English language proficiency levels. Valerie indicated in
her interview that she had undergone professional development where she received a lesson plan
that was specific to supporting English learners. She expressed that this lesson plan helped her
to keep language acquisition in mind when planning content. Also in Valerie’s lesson plan were
both content learning outcome and language learning outcome, unlike other participants. English
learners were permitted to brainstorm with elbow partners when completing the Frayer Model.
Students could explain ideas in writing and through visual representations.
Ava and Maria supplied lesson plans listing several instructional strategies and best
practices to support language development. However, the similarities among lesson plans were
that both participants did not explain how reported teaching strategies and practices were
implemented to support EL students, and did not outline language learning outcomes. EL
student languages were not stated, nor were English language proficiency levels. It was clear
that Ava and Maria both supported EL pedagogy and language acquisition, but did not document
key information.
Document analysis revealed that participants at Aloha High School were supporting
English learners with best practices collected from trainings. Nonetheless, it was unclear if all
teachers were receiving English language proficiency levels from the EL coordinator to plan for
language development. Also, most mainstream teachers who supplied lesson plans failed to
write language learning targets to indicate how they planned to increase language development.
For example, there was a greater emphasis on content learning outcomes as opposed to language
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learning outcomes. Lastly, the researcher observed that lesson plans were not supplied from
content areas that particularly promoted hands-on learning, including fine arts, physical
education, and career and technical education.
Teacher Empathy and Motivation
Teacher empathy was a critical factor in influencing teacher motivation to support
English learners. Empathy is defined as an idea that an individual can share and understand the
feelings of others. Participants reflected on their own personal encounters to have a deeper
understanding of what it is like to be English learners in an educational setting in Hawai’i when
lesson planning and delivering instruction in their content areas.
Empathy allowed teachers to understand the inequities and inequalities English learners
endure while learning through their own personal lens. Eight of the 12 participants noted that
having a sense of empathy influenced their instructional decisions and served a source of
motivation when supporting English learners. Ava stated,
I think what motivates me to teach ELL students is just my sense of pride and amazement
in their ability to not only learn a new subject, but to try to learn that new subject in a
new language. I think they must be pretty brilliant, and that motivates me to want to help
them.
Ava’s response implied that learning a new subject matter in a new language was a
daunting task within itself. She clearly thought English learners deserved recognition for
linguistic and academic victories. Empathizing with ELs influenced Ava’s instructional
decisions and increased her motivational levels to teach this population. It can be implied that
she had empathy due to having reflected on the academic challenges, linguistic hardships, and
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inequities ELs face in comparison to non-ELs. This led to her having a sense of admiration for
their resilience and persistence.
Julian agreed, explaining, “Honestly, the biggest thing that motivates me to teach any
student, especially ELL, when I find out that they’re ELL, it’s just I am terrible at other
languages.” He further elaborated,
So, I have this extra caring for them, almost, to make sure that they do understand
because I don’t understand any kind of other language. So, trying to break it down more,
to use visuals. I really give them a lot of respect and appreciation how hard that they try.
It’s harder for them, I feel like, than any other students that I have in class, because they
don’t even understand what I’m saying. [The great thing] about teaching in the shop, is
they can visually see things.
In addition, Donna took the influence of empathy a step further. Having shared
experiences as Julian with respect to not comprehending statements in foreign languages, she
personally had to endure how language can serve as a barrier to learning when she was an
exchange student in Europe. Donna candidly reported that she did not understand classroom
instructions from teachers, which led her to feel alone and scared. These experiences informed
Donna’s frame of reference when lesson planning and teaching English learners. Empathy was
the driving influence when Donna made instructional decisions that ranged from how to increase
EL students’ Lexile levels to selecting instructional strategies that would enable English learners
to access content. Donna had similar sentiments as Ava and Julian, arguing,
I put myself in the student’s place, actually, because I was actually in that student’s place
before when I went to another country in Europe, and the teacher walked in and spoke a
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foreign language I had no clue what it was, and it sounded just like gibberish. To have
that feeling of not knowing anything the teacher is saying, it’s very scary.
Nancy, a mathematics teacher, claimed that having attended a professional development
session contributed to her developing a sense of empathy that influenced instructional decisions
and classroom practices to teach EL students. At a training, Nancy had a paradigm shift when
faced with the inability to understand classroom instructions in Japanese. Immediately, she
began thinking about her previous approaches to teaching ELs, and fully understood the
inequities ELs were plagued with in order to be afforded a quality education that was equal or
comparable to their non-EL counterparts. Nancy realized that language is a barrier to learning
for EL students. She professed,
I think from this [professional development] day it made me feel like an ELL student.
How they would feel or how I would feel going to Japan or not knowing the language,
trying to find my way around the island, trying to sit in a classroom, trying to understand
what the teacher is trying to tell us. Just take out a paper. I would not know what that
meant if she said it to me in her language. I think it made me realize that although I
could be giving them the instructions a little slower, that doesn’t make a difference. I still
would not understand what she meant by taking out a paper. So it helped me realize that
just talking slower, writing down instructions on the board is not always the best way to
help your ELL students.
Unlike Nancy, Maria, a world language teacher, did not need to attend a professional
development session to feel compelled to empathize with English learners. Maria reported that
her entire career, spanning over three decades, she has taught and empathized with EL students.
Over the academic years, she has used English learners’ motivation to become proficient in
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English along with learning another foreign language to positively influence her motivation
levels to remain committed to providing this population with academic support. Maria claimed,
I believe that I’m motivated to teach them because I want to share the culture and the
language with my students. I think because they elected to study another language
beyond English, which is what they’re learning, too, shows that they themselves are
motivated. So I need to be motivated more to help them be able to be successful
language learners.
This study identified teacher empathy as a positive influence on teacher motivation and
teachers’ instructional decisions. Most participants made their experiences and realities clear by
inserting themselves in the predicaments of English learners to become mindful of injustices and
inequalities their students experience as a result of not being proficient in English.
Teacher Efficacy and Growth Mindsets
Teacher Efficacy
Teacher efficacy is an educator’s beliefs in his or her ability to successfully execute
required tasks or actions, particularly relating to pedagogy (Bandura, 1997). This study aimed to
understand if teacher efficacy influenced instructional decisions of mainstream teachers based on
their individual professional knowledge of second language acquisition and instructional
strategies to support English learners access content. Having efficacy to teach EL students could
have the ability to increase English language proficiency scores.
At Aloha High School, approximately 66.6% of mainstream teacher participants
indicated high levels of teaching efficacy in a general education setting to support English
learners. These participants cited prior learning experiences at teacher preparation programs and
trainings as the main sources that contributed to having increased teacher efficacy to support
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ELs. As a result, eight participants have argued that teacher efficacy positively influenced their
instructional decisions as stated below of this section.
On the contrary, four participants reported that they lack adequate professional
development in the area of second language acquisition to feel competent teaching English
learners. Nevertheless, these participants have provided evidence of supporting their EL
population, but recognize room for growth and improvement.
Throughout the data analysis process, it was evident that participants who attained credits
in the area of language acquisition indicated high levels of teaching efficacy to support ELs.
This suggests professional development increases efficacy and influences mainstream teachers’
instructional decisions. For example, Donna, who earned 21 credits in the area of second
language acquisition, expressed high levels of competence and efficacy when making
instructional decisions to support her EL population. She explained how Aloha High School
mainstream teachers can elevate their low levels of teaching efficacy related to educating EL
students:
We as educators can start thinking about using basic strategies, like I stated earlier,
repetition, illustrations, acting things out, just for all of our students. Because I’ve found
that those strategies help all of my students because all of my students have varying
levels of education and understand things in different ways. Maybe incorporating more
of these techniques, and not just labeling them as ELL techniques, it would be more
acceptable and easier to understand, and maybe easier to incorporate into a regular
lesson.
Valerie acquired three credits in the area of second language acquisition and has over 15
years of teaching experience. She said, “I’m just beginning to feel like I know what to do.” She
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described how she usually lesson planned and made instructional decisions to support EL
students, explaining,
[I evaluate] what resources are available to me and what strategies I think will work with
this particular mix of students, because everyone is in my classes, I can’t just [use an]
ELL strategy and some other strategies. Like, I have numerous strategies because of their
different languages, and different levels of literacy, different personalities, different
motivations to be at school, so I don’t know, I guess I think about all the students, not just
the ELL students and their needs when I’m choosing strategies.
Maria, a world language teacher who has earned EL credits, suggested her content area
has enabled her to believe she was well-equipped to teach English learners. She was confident,
having learned two foreign languages coupled with having undergone training to acquire
learning strategies. As a world language content specialist; not specific to EL, it was clear that
Maria was efficacious for a number of reasons. She stated, “I feel that I am in a better position to
instruct them because I’m teaching world language, and when you learn another language you
also have to know the culture and countries that speak the language.”
Maria elaborated on how she came to believe she had the ability to teach EL students,
describing her accounts at professional development sessions as primary influences on her high
efficacy levels to teach EL students. Professional development sessions and teacher preparation
programs allowed her to gather necessary tools to teach the EL population. Maria recounted,
Recently, the workshops, or conventions that I’ve been attending have been for world
language acquisition, but there’s always reference to ELL also, and so if there’s an
opportunity to sit in or get information from speakers, I try to get handouts, or dialog with
them because it’s important for me because I always have some ELL in the world
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language classes. Prior to this, through my college courses and beyond college, post-
college, attending workshops, conferences, conventions, I’ve accumulated 18 credits for
ELL.
Olivia, a fine arts teacher with no EL credits, was an anomaly in comparison to other
participants in this study. She had no training in the area of second language acquisition, which
typically resulted in mainstream teachers having low confidence to teach English learners at
Aloha High School. However, Olivia stated she felt efficacious teaching EL students,
referencing her credentials. She cited school-level trainings and university coursework to defend
her ability to make sound instructional decisions in the best interests of EL students. When
asked, “Do you have the expertise to support English learners and do you feel well-equipped to
teach them?” Olivia declared, “Yes, I do! In the performing arts I feel very, very, very equipped
and very comfortable to teach them.”
In addition, Olivia explained how she made instructional decisions in her classroom to
support her ELs. She reported,
I plan for all my students. When I don’t make any differentiation in the classroom in
terms of that is [an] ESL student, and that is a [non-ESL student], because all my students
need the breakdown. [I want] my ESL students to feel that they are in [an] inclusive
classroom. Because they’re getting the background exactly the same way somebody else
is getting it in terms of the movement phrases, in terms of how they’re creating their own
dances. It’s broken. They are extremely integrated into the classroom.
Moreover, some mainstream teachers lacked Olivia’s confidence in their teaching ability
in the area of EL. Emma, for instance, when asked the same question above, stated, “No.”
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When asked how she had drawn that conclusion, in spite of providing sound evidence of
supporting English learners. Emma explained,
Just zero training. Zero training does not make me feel confident in my abilities and not
knowing who they are and how far along on their journey they are, whether they’ve ever
taken ELL, whether they should have been taking ELL, whether they should be taking
any ELL class right now. So, yeah. Just not knowing my students well enough and
having zero training.
Emma’s response suggested that there was a direct connection between professional
development and teacher efficacy. Professional development positively increases teachers’
efficacy levels to support second language acquisition among English learners. Ideally, trainings
serve as a function of providing teachers with learning techniques, best practices and
instructional strategies to increase student achievement and deepen student understanding of core
content. Acquiring professional knowledge from undergoing professional development in the
area of second language acquisition was not a requirement among mainstream teachers in the
Hawai’i Department of Education, but rather a recommendation. Recommendations are
toothless and will yield very little different results in terms of mainstream teachers feeling
efficacious and prepared to educate a needy student population — English learners.
Ava, who lacked professional development and teacher preparation credits in second
language acquisition, felt ambivalent when asked about her level of efficacy to support EL
students. She responded, perplexingly, “I really am not certain.” When probed on this response,
she did not provide a clear answer initially, but ultimately referenced having no EL credits and
insufficient training to feel confident in her abilities to adequately support the ELs as a
mainstream teacher.
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Growth Mindsets
Having a growth mindset is determined by an individual who aspires to grow;
understanding their schema is not static, but has the ability to change (Dweck, 2000). All
participants of this study indicated a willingness to learn new techniques, instructional strategies,
and practices to remain effective educators, irrespective of teaching a particular student
population. Several teachers explained their motivation to seek professional development and
desire to grow professionally was grounded in the idea that they would like to make sound
instructional decisions to increase student achievement.
While five of 12 participants did not earn credits in the area of language acquisition, all
expressed the need to continue growing professionally to deliver quality instruction to all
learners. Donna directly professed that she valued learning and growing professionally, stating,
“I definitely have a growth mindset. Again, I’m always willing to learn because whatever I learn
and I’m confident in, I like to share.” She reflected aloud, stating why she believed she has a
growth mindset. She explained,
Professional development is an ongoing process. You never stop learning because life
never stops teaching. I think communication is one of those very important things to
develop professionally, so I like to keep open communication with my students and their
parents and guardians, other teachers, learning other teaching techniques. Finding out
how my students are doing in their classes, what helps in their classes, and vice versa.
Donna’s statements noted that professional development was an essential part of
professional growth. She explicitly acknowledged professional development as an ongoing
process, which indicated that she had a desire to continue strengthening her teaching practice. It
was evident from her statements that learning was perceived as an endless journey, and Donna
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also suggested that learning was a social activity. Communication with several stakeholders
within her school community appeared to have contributed to her learning additional teaching
techniques, and having gained insight into how she should develop her instructional plans.
Separately, Julian expressed a commitment to continuous improvement by seeking out
knowledge and professional development to remain effective in education. He said,
There’s always a way to get better at everything I do. So, the more I can learn about
what other people are doing, then I can pick and choose to see what’s going to work best
in every kind of situation. So, [professional development] is super important.
Julian asserted a need for more training in the area of language acquisition in order to
acquire new practices and teaching strategies that could result in increased English language
proficiency scores among ELs. He reported having three EL credits, and minimal training to
support English learners. Julian stated, “Just making time for [professional development] is hard
sometimes.” However, he believed most mainstream teachers at Aloha High School needed
more training, stating, “I mean, we just did our WASC self-study, and in [the report] that was
one of our lowest scoring populations, was [English learners]. Doing the self-study, we found
out they need help.”
Samuel agreed with Julian’s statement about undergoing additional training. As a fine
arts teacher with no EL credits, Samuel referenced his willingness to learn as a critical influence
over his instructional practice when supporting ELs. He stated, “I still am an artist. I do it
professionally, so I seek out my own [professional] development in the field which obviously
aids [my] teaching.” When asked about his instructional practice, he described how he supports
ELs, reporting,
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The big thing, like I said, is visual instruction. I do write things on the board, and I do
have reflection sheets or little mini-rubric[s]. Then that can be at times difficult for them,
but usually I always have a visual example or visual techniques, or I physically show
them visually and then kinesthetically how it’s done. Then they just repeat it. It’s like
visual to kinesthetic, and the last part is the auditory part. I repeat things, but I also write
them visually. I use visual images.
Meanwhile, educational trends and new research findings were of interest to one teacher:
Maria. She explained her desire to remain up-to-date having been in the Hawai’i Department of
Education for over 31 years. Maria explained,
I have always valued professional development and with world languages, there is a need
to keep up your skills and knowledge of the trends because there’s been different
methods of how to teach another language and improvements in the methodology, as well
as incorporating technology and different approaches. So from when I learned my
language, to where we are now, there’s been so many changes and I try to keep up with
the changes incorporating a combination of what works for me, as well as for my
students.
Olivia shared how she enjoyed learning and attending professional development sessions
to improve her practice. However, Olivia claimed professional development opportunities
sponsored by the Hawai’i Department of Education often lacked the voices of teachers in the
field. Furthermore, she asserted, trainers or consultants were more interested in selling their
books, then recommending sound practices to increase student learning and engender language
development. Olivia agreed with the idea that there needs to be more training on the matter of
language acquisition, expressing,
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I do, but the correct professional development, not top down professional development.
Development that’s needed in the classroom that specifically is going to help my students
grow, not something that is given out by some book and publisher, and that the
department use for the classroom, specific professional development that helps my
student. So I definitely see that professional development must be diversified.
Professional development emerged as a critical influence in increasing teacher efficacy to
support language acquisition and served as an indicator and metric for teachers having growth
mindsets. Several participants cited professional development as a sole source of feeling well-
equipped and having high levels of efficacy to teach English learners. Teachers felt as though
they could elevate standardized test scores among English learners. This section established that
participants addressed interview questions strongly suggesting their desire to grow as
professionals, while some participants criticized professional development sponsored by the
Hawai’i Department of Education.
Federal Language Development Targets
Nine of 12 participants at Aloha High School reported that federal policies, such as the
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), had little influence on their instruction. While some
participants concurred with the idea that all teachers are literacy teachers, some believed the EL
coordinator was responsible for elevating English language proficiency levels. However, as
established by U.S. Supreme Court case Lau v. Nichols, mainstream teachers have a legal
obligation to move EL students from the classification of non-English proficient to fully-English
proficient. In Table 4, several factors of influences emerged from interviews in which impact
mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions, excluding federally mandated language
development targets.
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Under the K-12 education policy known as ESSA, a provision mandates public schools
receiving Title III funding must show evidence of language development among their EL
population. ESSA characterizes this form of language development as “adequate yearly
progress” targets. In Hawai’i, adequate yearly progress targets are measured by both
standardized testing, and an annual WIDA ACCESS assessment where EL students are assessed
on their English language acquisition in four language domains: reading, writing, speaking, and
listening comprehension.
Several participants were either unaware of a policy requiring schools to show English
language development among students who were not proficient in English, or not pressured by
the accountability measure as content specialists, not EL specialists. Nancy, who has over 31
years of teaching experience, stated, “Based on my experiences as far as the federal policies,
there has really been no pressure I think to me directly. There may be pressure to the ELL
[coordinator], the one instructor that we have here.” This response was indicative of EL
specialists or coordinators having argued that mainstream teachers were disconnected from
advancing language acquisition, and rather were perceived to believe their primary responsibility
was delivering content knowledge. In addition, mainstream teachers may feel no pressure to
meet federally mandated language development targets because they were unaware of English
learners’ current English language proficiency (ELP) scores in speaking, writing, listening
comprehension and reading. There were only two mainstream teachers who provided English
language proficiency scores and there was a mixed response on whether participants had
received their English learners’ ELP scores from the EL coordinator on site. This suggested that
these teachers at Aloha High may have misplaced their students’ scores or ELP levels were not
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supplied to each mainstream teacher. The two teachers who had ELP scores said they received
their students’ ELP levels because they asked the EL coordinator.
Donna was in agreement with Nancy. As a mainstream teacher, Donna claimed teaching
strategies were integrated into her instruction to advance English language acquisition and to
support EL students. She argued,
For me, it has very little impact on my instruction. If anything, other educators might
feel a little more pressure, but for me as far as what I teach, addressing the needs of the
ELL students has always been embedded into the program. The strategies that I was
taught I’ve been using them, and they’ve been effective. I know they’ve been effective
because of Lexile scores are increasing. Personally, it hasn’t really affected me too
much.
Samuel was not pressured by the accountability measure to increase language acquisition,
explaining his classroom instruction would remain the same. When asked if he was responsible
for language development among ELs, he shared,
No, because I don’t do that regardless. Like I said from the beginning, if you’re in my
class, it’s the way the class is. Doesn’t matter who you are. This is what we’re going to
do, and you’re going to do it.
Samuel, also restated how he has supported his EL students. He clarified, “Yes, there may be
accommodations. Yes, there may be things that I adjust for [English learners], but I still expect
[them] to pretty much produce what everyone else is doing.” It was evidenced in Samuel’s
statement that he misunderstood the intent of the question, and had conflicting responses about
supporting English learners. He clarified that EL students received support and accommodations
to be successful in his class, but he admitted to having been wedded to his content, and not
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committed to meeting language development targets. In addition, he made clear that EL students
were held to the same standard as non-EL students in his class.
Ava claimed that students who were not proficient in English were outnumbered by non-
EL students, and therefore, were not on the forefront of her mind. She stated, “I have to be
honest, I don’t have them on the forefront of my mind. Just to reiterate that, they’re three out of
130 students.” Nonetheless, English learners are high priorities for every teacher, but one
mainstream teacher at Aloha High School disregards ESSA, suggesting it is a toothless federal
policy deprived of accountability. Victoria quipped, “Is it impacting my practice? Honestly, no.
And a huge part is because there’s no accountability even behind [this language development
mandate] that’s impacting us.” Michael agreed with this statement, saying, “No, I don’t think
those policies are affecting my content area.”
While Julian reported how he was committed to supporting EL students by ensuring they
have access to content and understand the English language, he would like them to work on the
basic fundamentals of navigating through public schools in Hawai’i. He was unaware of public
schools having to show language development, and his instructional decisions were not
influenced by federal policies. Julian shared,
If [English learners] can learn how to follow procedures and steps, that’s my main goal as
a teacher. It’s not like a disregard the federal stuff, but I don’t even know what the heck
this stuff is, honestly. I have better things to do than worry about what they’re doing.
Emma, a second year teacher at Aloha High School, was also not aware of federally
mandated language development targets to advance English language proficiency scores among
EL students, much less Title III funding public schools received. She candidly stated, “I think, I
don’t know too much about this, but more I feel pressure to not even get the language
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acquisition, but it’s that pressure to pass students when you know that they’re not understanding
the content.”
Valerie attempted to meet federal language development targets. Her instructional
decisions have been influenced by federal policies as an advocate for the voiceless. She asserted,
“Of course I feel pressure to [increase English language proficiency scores], and that’s why it
upsets me that I just don’t feel that I’m adequately being able to teach them.” Valerie claimed,
“If I were an ELL student not getting the resources that I need, I’d be demanding it. I don’t think
that the ELL students are getting all of their educational rights that they should be getting.” She
felt strongly about EL students receiving a world class education that is comparable or equal to
non-EL students, suggesting, “I think there’s more resources available that would help them.”
Maria agreed with Valerie, stating, “Sure, I feel the pressure.”
The EL coordinator at Aloha High School and EL specialists monitor English language
proficiency scores among their EL population annually. This qualitative case study revealed that
most mainstream teachers at Aloha High School were not concerned about meeting federally
mandated language development targets as a result of being wedded to their content areas. As
reported by some mainstream teachers, there were teachers who were unaware language
development targets were mandated by the federal government in relation to the EL population.
Also, some teachers were unaware of the provisions stipulated in federal policies in general.
Ultimately, federally mandated language development targets were found to have very little to no
influence on mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions.

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Table 4
Influences on Mainstream Teachers ’ Instructional Decisions from Interviews
Teacher Empathy
Teacher Motivation
Efficacy
Professional Development
Growth Mindsets
Teacher Perceptions

Teacher Perceptions
This study also aimed to understand mainstream teachers’ perspectives of English
learners at Aloha High School. The second research question guiding this study was, “How are
mainstream teachers’ perceptions of students classified as English learners influencing their
instructional decisions in a Hawai’i public secondary school?” The intent of this research
question was to explore the varying perceptions mainstream teachers have about English learners
in the macrosystem of the Human Ecology Theory.
The perceptions of English learners differed by each teacher participant. With a sample
size of 12 mainstream teachers, each participant provided their own accounts of English learners
based on personal experiences, and how each participant constructed meaning of their own
realities. Some participants discussed stereotypes of particular ethnic groups in the EL
population at Aloha High School in relation to their academic abilities, while other participants
denounced misconceptions of English learners in Hawai’i. Fifty percent of teacher participants
in this study allowed their perceptions to determine which EL students needed more one-on-one
support and accommodations than other EL students based on subjective viewpoints. Teacher
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responses revealed how teacher perceptions frame their instructional practices and influence their
instructional decisions.
Nancy, a Japanese American mathematics teacher, explained her worldview of English
learners is biased based on an EL student’s origin or nationality:
My perception about ELL learners is stereotyped because depending where the ELL
students come from as far as math skills, I would assume that they’re stronger because
the ELL students came from a certain country. Could be the East or Asia, and if they’re
not, if they’re from Micronesia, I would assume that they come in and they may have not
gotten a real formal education there. It could have been they only went to school to fifth,
fourth grade. That’s just my perception.
She admitted that these were stereotypes of Micronesians, but maintained that opinion of
Micronesians. Nancy further expanded on her perceptions of students arriving to Hawai’i from
Japan or Korea, and suggesting these EL students would be traditionally well-equipped to
perform at a higher rate in her mathematics class in comparison to Micronesians. Nancy said,
If I know they’re from Micronesia or something, I definitely would just take it a little
slower for them knowing that their background as far as their math skills is not up to par
as far as what we do in Hawaii. But if they came from someplace like Japan, Korea,
expectations for those students would be much, much higher. I’m a little bit more
tolerant as far as just the students in general. I know it’s a stereotype, but that’s what I
have been doing.
Not all participants have a monolithic view of particular English learner ethnic
populations in Hawai’i. Maria, a Japanese American world language teacher, stated that she
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made individual judgements about different ethnic groups, typically based on individual
experiences. Maria discussed her Filipino population, saying,
You have the other students that, coming from maybe the Philippines, and because they
tend to be shyer, they won’t ask for as much help or they’ll come after class or after
school, which is okay because as long as they come. So sometimes it might be an ethnic
thing, but by the same token I’ve had students from the Philippines that have been really
strong students, motivated, they do very well, speaking, writing, culturally, so I tend to
look at them individually.
When the researcher asked Olivia, a Black fine arts teacher, about whether teachers
should question an English learner’s academic abilities based on English language acquisition,
she rebuked this monolingual perception plaguing the American education system. She
expressed strong resentment to such beliefs and linguistic marginalization, stating,
I think that is [an] arrogant perception, because they don’t speak American English,
therefore they are not smart. That is really, really ridiculous, and I think many of the
educators have to change that perception. The only way they’re going to do this is
they’re immersed in this environment, and it’s taught to them and shared. Maybe we can
have professional development where ESL students are sharing their culture. We should
welcome their culture into our classroom. How would you like to go to them and see you
don’t speak that language?
Similar to Olivia, Emma, a multiracial English language arts teacher, embraced pidgin
English when spoken by her students. Pidgin English is perceived by many to be broken-
English, but in Hawai’i it is a part of the cultural norms. Emma reported, “Pidgin [English] is a
dialect, and so in class we read pidgin poetry. In my choir, I also teach choir alongside English,
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and we have not sung a song in English yet.” Emma was thrilled to express her belief in
multicultural and multilingual instruction, stating, “So we’re only singing songs in other
languages for now.”
One participant at Aloha High School attended a professional development session to
advance her understanding and knowledge of different ethnic groups and cultures. Wendy, a
multiracial physical education teacher, explained her new-found understanding of how to refrain
from being culturally insensitive toward her Micronesian students having a better understanding
of what is culturally acceptable. She explained,
I learned that in [Micronesian] culture, they’re not used to confrontation. Especially
during class, you know, they don’t like to be called on in front of other students and
things like that. They will go home and deal with that at home, but they will not . . . even
friend to friend, uncle to uncle, they will not confront each other with what the real issue.
This study sought to understand mainstream teachers’ perceptions of English learners in
Hawai’i. Teacher perceptions emerged as a positive and a negative influence on mainstream
teachers’ instructional decisions. Viewpoints are subjective, and can carry bias. Also,
perceptions can presume the best about EL students and confront falsehoods about students who
speak different languages. However, teachers’ perceptions framed their instructional practices
and influenced their instructional decisions. As indicated in this study, teachers’ perceptions of
certain EL students’ place of origin led some teachers to make assertions about EL students’
academic abilities without conducting diagnostic assessments to substantiate their preconceived
notions. Lastly, this study found that mainstream teachers at Aloha High School were not
influenced by a monolingual culture in the United States, instead embraced linguistic diversity.
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Conclusion
In this chapter the researcher of this study presented research findings and emergent
themes. Mainstream teachers who were interviewed and voluntarily supplied documents in the
format of lesson plans at Aloha High School, noted a variety of instructional strategies and best
practices to support English learners. Qualitative data were examined to answer the first
research question of this study.
In addition, the researcher of this qualitative case study addressed the first sub research
question when examining interviews, which revealed several factors that influenced mainstream
teachers’ instructional decisions to support language acquisition. These influences included:
teacher empathy, teacher motivation, efficacy, and growth mindsets. Documents of lesson plans
indicated that instructional strategies and best practices recommended at professional
development sessions influenced mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions. Lesson plans
supplied to the researcher demonstrated mainstream teachers’ preparation to teach ELs, but most
lesson plans lacked language learning outcomes to support English language acquisition and
English language proficiency levels of EL students.
This study aimed to understand mainstream teachers’ perceptions of English learners as a
part of its second research question. The second research question was answered from
conducting interviews with participants. A theme emerged from this study demonstrating that
teacher perceptions of English learners frame their instructional practices, and influence their
instructional decisions.
In Chapter 5, Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecology Theory will be used to interpret and
analyze data. The following chapter will also discuss the research findings, provide implications
of the data gathered, and suggest recommendations for future research.
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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
This qualitative case study was conducted to understand the influences on mainstream
teachers’ instructional decisions to increase English language proficiency levels, and capture
their perceptions of English Learners (ELs) at a Hawai’i public secondary school. This study
also examined how mainstream teachers supported language acquisition among the EL
population at Aloha High School. The motivation to conduct this study was due to the dearth of
published research on these topics, including the rising EL achievement gap plaguing the
American educational system, undetermined factors influencing secondary mainstream teachers’
instructional decisions while supporting EL students in the State of Hawai’i, and underdeveloped
literature on perceptions that mainstream teachers have about EL students in Hawai’i public
secondary education.
This chapter begins with a review of major findings outlined in Chapter 4. The next
section will focus on Human Ecology Theory, which was used to analyze the data collected. The
theoretical framework explained how mainstream teachers have been influenced by their
ecosystem or work environment based on the research findings. Lastly, this section makes
connections between the research findings and the existing literature on the topic of study. The
chapter concludes with recommendations to increase mainstream teachers’ practice with respect
to educating students who are not proficient in English, and recommendations for future research
based on delimitations of the study.
Research Questions
1. How are mainstream teachers supporting students classified as English learners in a
Hawai’i public secondary school?
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a. What influences mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions to support
students classified as English learners in a Hawai’i public secondary school?
2. How are mainstream teachers’ perceptions of supporting students classified as
English learners influencing their instructional decisions in a Hawai’i public
secondary school?
Summary of Findings and Discussion
Five major findings were revealed from teacher responses in this study: (1) visual
strategies; (2) teacher empathy and motivation; (3) teacher efficacy and growth mindsets;
(4) federal language development targets; and (5) teacher perceptions. Findings indicated six
influences on mainstream instructional decision-making, including: teacher empathy, teacher
motivation, efficacy, professional development, and growth mindsets. This study found that
federally mandated language development targets and a monolingual culture in the United States
had little to no influence on teachers’ instructional decisions. However, mainstream teachers’
perceptions were an unexpected factor of influence for the researcher of this study. Findings
suggested that teachers’ perceptions framed their instructional practices and influenced their
instructional decisions in the classroom.
Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecology Theory (1994) includes four interconnected structures,
including the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Human Ecology Theory
is comprised of various contexts that correspond to different characteristics and influences on
humans (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). This theoretical framework posits the idea that humans interact
with their environment to create an ecosystem, and the ecosystem influences their human
development (Bronfenbrenner, 1976). The developing person of this human development
framework is the mainstream teacher at the center of the ecosystem. Using this theory, this study
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analyzed influences on mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions and perceptions based on
data collected from 12 teacher participants.
Review of Findings
This section examines emergent themes in relationship to the research questions, and
analyzes research findings of the study through the lens of the theoretical framework.
Aloha Mainstream Teachers Support English Learners
Research question 1 guiding this study explored how mainstream teachers supported
students classified as English learners in a Hawai’i public secondary school. The intent of this
question was to understand how mainstream teachers delivered instruction to English learners,
and to determine which best practices were used with this population of students, if any at all, in
the microsystem of Human Ecology Theory where the classroom is located. Mayer (2011)
claimed that teachers have a responsibility to increase student achievement over time by using
best practices to activate student learning.
This study found that 100% of mainstream teacher participants supported English
learners at Aloha High School by using instructional strategies to enhance acquisition of
knowledge and engender language development. Instructional strategies and best practices
commonly used by mainstream teachers at Aloha High School included Thinking Maps, graphic
organizers, visual charts, illustrations of concepts and content, sheltered instruction, and the
Frayer Model. For example, a social studies teacher named Valerie stated, “An instructional
strategy that I use a lot would be visual strategies for vocabulary, like the Frayer Model or
making a word wall.” Participants of this study unanimously reported using visual strategies to
support English learners. According to Pang (2013), visual aids and pictorial strategies support
EL students’ understanding of vocabulary, coupled with English translations. Also, Pang (2013)
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asserted that teachers who encouraged EL students to draw pictures on worksheets to assess
students’ comprehension of concepts and content were deemed effective educators. This
suggests that mainstream teachers at Aloha High School were delivering quality instruction as a
result of implementing visual strategies to support English learners.
Each teacher participant in this qualitative case study detailed one or more of the
following accommodations made to support their English learners, including translation of
words, scaffolding of content, and one-on-one academic support. Accommodations were
reported in interviews and documented in lesson plans. Participants of this study stated that
accommodations were acquired from best practices suggested at professional development
sessions and years of professional practice educating EL population in the field. Some 58% of
teachers in this study cited professional development as the sole source of elevating their
understanding of second language acquisition to support their ELs. Little (1993) defined
professional development as a process of changing teacher practice in ways that increase student
outcomes, regardless of language barriers. Research findings of this study corroborated Little’s
definition of professional development having a high effect size on teacher competence to
support students, resulting in students accessing content and acquiring skills.
Professional development emerged as a factor of influence on teachers’ instructional
decision-making in the microsystem of Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecology Theory. Trainings
take place in the microsystem, whether it be at faculty meetings or at district sponsored
workshops. In addition, instruction is delivered to English learners in the microsystem. The
purpose of professional development is to improve teacher practice and expand their knowledge
in order to increase student achievement (Guskey, 2000). In this study, research findings
indicated that professional development positively influenced teachers’ knowledge and practice,
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resulting in mainstream teacher participants acquiring best practices to support EL pedagogy
with the intention of increasing EL student achievement and language acquisition.
Influences on Teachers ’ Instructional Decisions
This research question examined how mainstream teachers were influenced by their
ecosystem in Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecology Theory. Findings of this study showed
mainstream teacher participants’ instructional decisions were influenced in the center of the
ecosystem and in two ecological settings of the theoretical framework as teachers strived to
support English learners at Aloha High School.
Two issues, efficacy and teacher motivation, influenced mainstream teachers’
instructional decisions in the center of the ecosystem of the Human Ecology Theory. Efficacy
and teacher motivation were directly connected to the developing individual at the core of their
behaviors and interactions with stakeholders in the school setting.
The first ecological setting that influenced mainstream teachers’ instructional decision-
making was the microsystem. The microsystem includes the school community, classrooms, and
the campus library. Stakeholders in the microsystem are parents, guardians, teachers, EL
students, non-EL students, administrators, EL coordinator, and district personnel. Data from this
case study suggested professional development to have had a positive influence on mainstream
teachers’ instructional decisions to support ELs.
Additionally, this study found that participants were heavily influenced by interactions
with the macrosystem. Three factors of influence on instructional decision-making were
identified in the macrosystem, including (1) teacher empathy; (2) growth mindsets; and
(3) teacher perceptions. Bronfenbrenner described the macrosystem as a phase of human
ecology that fosters culture and norms among institutional systems, including social, economic,
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and political systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1976). The primary function of this interconnected
structure of the Human Ecology Theory is to advance ideologies, values, and perceptions.
Influences that emerged from the macrosystem have implications of serving as school-wide
norms that impact instructional decisions and perceptions of mainstream teachers in relation to
supporting their English learners.
Eight of 12 participants reported that teacher empathy influenced their motivational
levels to teach EL students at Aloha High School. Motivation is an internal condition that
propels learners to meet goals and aspirations (Mayer, 2011). Empathy manifested by virtue of
mainstream teachers reflecting on their encounters with English learners, and putting themselves
in their shoes to understand how ELs feel. Darling-Hammond (2000) argued teachers learn by
doing and reflecting on their practice. Empathy cultivated a new worldview that encouraged
some 66% of teacher participants to critically reflect on the language of their instruction and
evaluate instructional strategies that do not provide ELs access to content. Teacher empathy
influenced teacher motivation and their instructional decisions. Effective professional
development and evaluation of teacher practice require teachers to be students. Through
reflection and professional development, most teachers in this study stated that they understood
the academic challenges, injustices, and inequities associated with not being proficient in English
as students in Hawai’i.
The next two factors of influence on mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions in the
macrosystem were growth mindsets, and in the center of the ecosystem was efficacy. The
research found that the underlying cause of mainstream teachers feeling efficacious to teach EL
students or having growth mindsets was directly associated with professional development and
teacher knowledge. First, efficacy is defined as the practitioner having the ability to believe that
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he or she has the knowledge, skills and tools to successfully execute a given task (Bandura,
1997). Research found that mainstream teachers who have high levels of teaching efficacy
believe they have the professional knowledge and skills to support their students (Haworth,
2009; Onafowora, 2004). In this study, 66.6% of mainstream teachers indicated high levels of
teaching efficacy to support English learners in a general education setting. Professional
development and coursework at the university level were responsible for teachers feeling well-
equipped to educate ELs. Seven of 12 teachers in this study had acquired EL credits.
While all participants reported best practices to increase language acquisition and elevate
EL student achievement, four participants stated lack of teacher preparation to support language
development made them feel ill-prepared to teach ELs. The data suggested that teacher
participants who lacked EL credits, with the exception of one, reported low levels of efficacy.
These participants associated their low levels of efficacy with little to no training in supporting
second language acquisition, leading them to report having marginal understanding of EL
pedagogy.
Having growth mindsets and valuing professional development led all teacher
participants in this study to state that they have the ability to grow and improve their teacher
practice (Dweck, 2000). Growth mindsets positively influenced mainstream teachers’
instructional decisions, which contributed to teachers attending workshops to gather new best
practices. Teacher participants in this case study stated professional development gave them new
ideas and techniques to support ELs, such as recommendations on visual instruction, kinesthetic
learning, and how to integrate technology into their instruction.
Finally, this qualitative case study revealed that mainstream teachers’ instructional
decisions were not influenced in the exosystem. The exosystem encompasses social conditions,
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economics, but also federal policies, such as ESSA and evaluating language development via
WIDA assessments. Seventy-five percent of teachers in this study did not feel pressured by
accountability measures by the federal government mandating ELs show annual language
development. Nine participants stated that prioritizing language development targets mandated
by the federal government was not among their top priorities as content specialists. Some
participants at Aloha High School suggested that language development was the duty of the EL
coordinator on campus. Research found that general education teachers believed language
development and increasing English language proficiency levels among ELs was the
responsibility of EL-specific teachers, and their duty was to teach content (Constantino, 1994).
Teacher Perceptions of English Learners in Hawai ’i
Research question 2 guiding this study aimed to understand perspectives mainstream
teachers have about students classified as English learners at Aloha High School and how their
perceptions influenced their instructional decisions. The intent of this research question was to
examine the various perceptions mainstream teachers have about ELs and to examine if
participants were influenced by a monolingual culture in the macrosystem. Teachers’
perceptions were the final factor of influence on mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions
found in this study. While perceptions of English learners varied, each participant had
constructed views of this student population based on places of origin, nationality, personal
experiences, and stereotypes of ethnic groups.
Gay (2002) argued that culturally responsive teaching is classroom instruction that
integrates cultural characteristics, experiences, and perspective of ethnically diverse students as
conduits for quality teaching. Fifty percent of teacher participants claimed that they integrated
students’ cultures into their instruction. Teachers of mathematics, career and technical
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education, and physical education understood student cultures, but had yet to coordinate
classroom activities focusing on cultural diversity among their students. However, one
mathematics teacher used students’ place of origin and nationalities to draw conclusions about
students’ academic abilities upon entering her class. She suggested that EL students from
Micronesia underperformed in comparison to EL students from Japan or Korea. This perception
influenced her instructional decisions as it related to determining teaching strategies and
accommodations. Fifty percent of teacher participants relied on their perceptions to determine
which EL students needed more one-on-one support and tutoring than other students who were
not proficient in English.
Meanwhile, mainstream teachers like Olivia, who taught fine arts, rejected the idea of
cultivating preconceived notions about EL students’ academic abilities solely based on their low
English proficiency scores. This practice perpetuates the monolingual culture plaguing the
American educational system, which devalues broken English (Tamura, 1996). Olivia claimed
she suspended judgment about EL students and reported that she did not categorize students
based on English language proficiency scores. Olivia’s perceptions led her to believe all
students, irrespective of language barriers or cognitive impairments, were in need of the same
instructional support that scaffolds content. This study found that participants were not
influenced by a monolingual culture in the United States, and that teachers’ perceptions
influenced their instructional decisions and framed their instructional practice when supporting
English learners in Hawai’i.
Recommendations for Practice
To effectively support English learners in Hawai’i public secondary education and
increase EL student achievement in Hawai’i, three educational practices are recommended based
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on the findings of this research. The first recommendation encourages teachers to integrate EL
students’ cultures and customs into their teaching. The second recommendation focuses on
increasing teacher knowledge in second language acquisition by requiring a minimum level of
professional development to support students who are not proficient in English. The third
recommendation suggests the Hawai’i Department of Education (HIDOE) should re-examine the
responsibilities of educational assistants to include language development as an additional duty
to support teachers in mainstream educational settings.
It is important to note that the implementation of these recommendations will be at the
discretion of school, district, and state level administrators, not mainstream teachers. If
implemented as policy, these directives to mainstream teachers and educational assistants would
result in differing views and opinions among stakeholders in HIDOE. While professional
development in second language acquisition is likely to increase teacher practice and English
language proficiency scores, this policy may be met with some resistance. Requiring each
mainstream teacher in Hawai’i to acquire at least twelve credits in language acquisition to
support English learners access to core content has the potential to be controversial, given
English learners are among the minority in student demographics. However, HIDOE and the
American educational system must begin to address the EL achievement gap and the reality that
mainstream teachers may not be prepared to educate EL students.
Recommendation 1: Adopt Culturally Responsive Teaching as a School-Wide Practice
Gay (2002) defined culturally responsive teaching as integrating cultural characteristics,
experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse students as conduits for delivering quality
instruction that increases student outcomes. Culturally responsive teaching fosters inclusion in
learning environments that allows ELs to form perceptions of familiarity and relatability to their
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personal narratives (Gay, 2002). Findings of this study revealed that 50% of mainstream teacher
participants were implementing culturally responsive teaching practices while supporting second
language acquisition. Culturally responsive teaching should be a school-wide practice. Research
has proven that culturally responsive teaching results in students becoming proficient in content
standards at higher rates when their teachers have an understanding of their backgrounds and are
culturally sensitive (Gay, 2002; Howard, 2001). Mainstream teachers have the ability to increase
EL student achievement and language acquisition by using these practices.
Recommendation 2: Implement a Policy that Requires Training in Language Acquisition
The American Association for Employment in Education (2005) found mainstream
teachers to be ill-prepared to teach students who are not proficient in English. This is a result of
lack of professional development in the area of second language acquisition to provide teachers
with instructional strategies and best practices to teach the EL population. In this study, findings
showed that participants have knowledge gaps about language development metrics under
WIDA and some participants rightfully acknowledged the need to undergo additional training in
second language acquisition to deliver quality instruction to English learners. Also, this study
found that teachers who reported low levels of teacher efficacy with respect to supporting ELs
had received little or no professional training. The Hawaii Department of Education should
adopt a policy requiring all teachers to attain a minimum of 12 credits in EL to improve teacher
practice and increase their knowledge base to support ELs. The EL achievement gap is widening
in comparison to non-EL students in the United States (Kim & Garcia, 2014). The EL
population has been marginalized, overlooked, and inadequately supported by the American
educational system for decades.
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Recommendation 3: Train Educational Assistants to Be Agents of Language Development
In the United States, roughly four million students were in the process of becoming
proficient in English and were classified as ELs (NCES, 2015). In Hawai’i, there were
approximately 19,092 students who qualified for EL services (Ryan, 2013). According to Ryan
(2013), mainstream teachers in Hawai’i had to support English learners who spoke over 53
languages in the 2010–2011 academic year. This study found that language development targets
were not a top priority from most of its participants, and mainstream teachers supported the idea
of educational assistants helping English learners in inclusion settings to elevate English
language proficiency levels. Re-examining the duties of educational assistants in HIDOE to
include language development and increasing the number of educational assistants could
significantly reduce the EL achievement gap and help Hawai’i public schools meet annual
language development targets by the federal government.
Recommendations for Future Research
This qualitative case study focused on the influences that impact mainstream teachers’
instructional decisions and perceptions of supporting language acquisition among English
learners in Hawai’i. This study was prompted by the problem of practice related to challenges
with underprepared mainstream teachers who are responsible for educating English learners.
This study contributed to the underdeveloped literature on whether secondary mainstream
teachers understand second language acquisition to intentionally implement instructional
strategies and best practices to support ELs in the State of Hawai’i. In addition, this study found
that several factors influence on mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions in relation to
delivering instruction to English learners.
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Future research should continue to explore how English learners are being supported at
every level of Hawai’i’s K-12 public education, not just the secondary level. The researcher of
this study recommends that future research should prioritize multiple stakeholders and sources of
data, besides mainstream teachers, to investigate how ELs are being supported in Hawai’i public
education. For instance, another researcher could examine how administrators or parents support
ELs students. This study could seek to understand the efficacy levels of administrators or
parents in relation to supporting second language acquisition among English learners. Also,
future researchers have the ability to triangulate data sources to strengthen the validity of
research findings by including: administrators, EL students, and parents in their studies.
In addition, future qualitative research can examine administrative support as a possible
factor of influence on instructional decisions made by mainstream teachers. Future qualitative
studies can aim to understand how English learners’ home life positively or negatively influences
the EL achievement gap in the United States. Prospective quantitative studies can examine
effects on low English language proficiency scores among ELs and evaluate the language
primarily spoken at home by ELs. Lastly, future researchers can conduct a systematic gap
analysis to determine root causes for secondary mainstream teachers in Hawai’i not being
influenced by federally mandated language development targets, and gather their perceptions on
federal policies intended to measure EL students’ learning.
Conclusion
This study identified six factors of influence on mainstream teachers’ instructional
decisions in a Hawai’i public secondary school when supporting students who were not
proficient in English. The factors of influence, included: teacher empathy, teacher motivation,
efficacy, professional development, growth mindsets, and teacher perceptions. Research
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findings indicated that federally mandated language development targets and a monolingual
culture in American academia had little to no influence on mainstream teachers’ instructional
decisions with respect to educating English learners.
In addition, this study found that the macrosystem of Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecology
Theory had significantly influenced mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions to support
English learners. For the most part, data from this study demonstrated that the macrosystem
positively impacted mainstream teachers’ interactions with ELs in the microsystem of the
theoretical framework. In addition, this study found that the macrosystem positively and
negatively influenced mainstream teachers’ perceptions of ELs.
Five themes emerged from the research findings in Chapter 4, addressing all research
questions that guided this study. Research findings found that mainstream teachers at Aloha
High School Hawai’i implemented best practices to increase EL student achievement and
English language proficiency scores as documented in lesson plans and reported in interviews.
Through document analysis, the researcher found that most mainstream teachers were unaware
of English language proficiency scores among their current ELs, and did not write language
learning targets in their lesson plans. In addition, teacher participants in this study had
constructed differing viewpoints regarding English learners in Hawai’i, which influenced their
decisions in the classroom and framed their practices.
In conclusion, it is critically important to continue examining the educational conditions
of how mainstream teachers support English learners in K-12 public institutions in the United
States. English learners are entitled to a world class education that is equivalent to their non-EL
counterparts. In addition, ELs should be afforded equal opportunities to successfully complete
high school with college and career readiness skills, and tools to compete in the global economy.
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APPENDIX A
RECRUITMENT EMAIL
Greetings,

My name is Dalvin Butler and I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern California. I
am currently conducting a study on the factors that influence mainstream teachers’ instructional
decisions and perceptions of English learners (ELs) in a Hawai’i public secondary school.

The purpose of this study is to determine if teacher motivation, self-efficacy, mindsets, and
instructional strategies from professional development influence secondary mainstream teachers’
instructional decisions and perceptions of supporting ELs.

I am looking for volunteers to participate in both a one-on-one interview and document analysis
of instructional material(s), such as a lesson plan showcasing intentional planning to support
EL(s). In order to comply with FERPA, teachers are required to remove all identifiable
information corresponding to EL students before voluntarily supplying documents or artifacts.

To participate, you must have at least one EL student in attendance in your class during the
2018–2019 academic year, or have previously taught one or more EL students within the last two
academic years. Mainstream teachers are defined in the context of this study of not having been
trained as EL-specific teachers or specialists, but rather subject-matter teachers.

If you meet the criteria above and agree to participate, first you are invited to complete an online
screener that contains multiple choice and short answer questions that is embedded in this email.
[INSERT LINK TO SURVEY HERE.]

Once you have completed the brief survey, I will contact you to schedule an interview and
determine a time to collect documents and artifacts for document analysis. All participants in
this study will be purposefully and non-randomly selected. Each interview is anticipated to last
roughly 60 minutes in length and will be audio-recorded with your permission.

Thanks so much for your valuable time! Please do not hesitate to contact me directly with any
questions or concerns at dlbutler@usc.edu. Enjoy your day!

Dalvin Butler

INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

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APPENDIX B
SCREENER
1. What subject do you teach?
Math
English
Social Studies
Science
Physical Education or Health
Fine Arts
World Languages
Career Technical Education

2. How long have you been teaching?
0-7 years
8-14 years
15-22 years
23-30 years
31 years or more

3. What is your ethnicity?
Short Response

4. How many English learners (ELs) are enrolled in your classes this academic year?

5. Have you previously taught EL students within the last two academic years?

6. What EL services do your students receive?

7. How many EL credits have you earned either from a teacher program or professional
development?

8. How many years have you taught students classified as English Learners?

9. Are you interested in participating in a 60-minute interview and supplying the researcher
with instructional materials, such as lesson plan(s) and syllabi?
Yes
No

10. If so, please provide me with your email address and phone number below.
Short Response

INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

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APPENDIX C
SCHEDULING EMAIL — INTERVIEW
Hello (TEACHER NAME),

Thank you for completing the online screener! You have been selected to participate in an
interview regarding factors that influence your instructional decisions and perceptions of English
learners (ELs), including your understanding of second language acquisition.

Kindly respond to this email with your availability for the one-on-one interview during the
weeks of (TIMEFRAMES HERE). A location on Aloha High School’s campus will be reserved
for your convenience, and the duration of the interview will be roughly 60 minutes. The
interview questions are attached below along with the Information Sheet, which explains
confidentiality, participant’s role and the timeframe of this study.

Please bring a lesson plan and syllabi to the interview. These documents will allow the
researcher to collect additional data about the factors that influence your instructional decisions
as you plan to support EL students, in lieu of conducting classroom observations. In order to
comply with FERPA, teachers are required to remove all identifiable information corresponding
to EL students before voluntarily supplying documents or artifacts.

It is important to explain the role of the researcher in this interview and document analysis
process. The researcher will use the data from interviews to determine teachers’ self-efficacy
levels, influences on instruction, knowledge of instructional strategies, and practices to aid
language growth over time among EL students.

If you have any questions or concerns, please do not hesitate to contact me directly at
dlbutler@usc.edu.

I look forward to your written correspondence and working with you!

Thanks so much for your valuable time. I truly appreciate you being a part of this study.

Best,

Dalvin Butler
USC Doctoral Student

INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

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APPENDIX D
INFORMATION SHEET
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
A CASE STUDY ON INFLUENCES OF MAINSTREAM TEACHERS ’ INSTRUCTIONAL
DECISIONS AND PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS IN HAWAI ’I PUBLIC
SECONDARY EDUCATION
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Dalvin Butler under the
supervision of Dr. Tracy Tambascia, at the University of Southern California because you are a
secondary mainstream teacher who teach or have taught one or more EL students. Research
studies include only people who voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains
information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this qualitative case study is to examine the influences on mainstream teachers’
instructional decision-making and their perceptions of teaching English learners in one
secondary school in Hawai’i over the course of one academic year.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss of
benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time and
discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or
remedies because of your participation in this research study.

If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked not to disclose aspects of the study with
the public until its published. You will be asked to participate in a 60-minute audio-recorded in-
person interview. Participants will be asked about instructional strategies, self-efficacy,
mindsets, motivational levels, and a monolingual culture in U.S. as a set of factors that may
influence their instructional decisions and perceptions of English learners. Participants are
encouraged to be honest, given that rich insight into their personal experiences will help inform
this study. You do not have to answer any questions you do not want to; if you do not want to be
taped, you cannot participate in this study.

The researcher of the study can discontinue and end your participation in the study at any time.
There are a series of reasons why the researcher may need to end your participation in the study.
Some examples are:

✓ The researcher believes that it is not in your best interest to stay in the study.
✓ You become ineligible to participate.
INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

145
✓ Your condition changes and you need treatment that is not allowed while you are taking
part in the study.
✓ You do not follow instructions from the researchers.
✓ The study is suspended or canceled.

ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is to not participate. Your relationship with your employer will not be affected
whether you participate or not in this study.

ELIGIBILITY
1. Participants must be mainstream secondary teachers who are employed at Aloha High
School during school year 2018–2019.
2. Participants must have at least one EL student in attendance in their class during the
2018–2019 academic year, or have previously taught one or more EL students within the
last two academic years.

RISKS
There are minimal risks in this study. A possible risk is participants feeling uncomfortable about
the interview process. To decrease the impact of any risks, you can skip any question you feel
uncomfortable answering, or you can stop participation at any time during the study.

Another possible risk to you is being a participant in more than one research study at the same
time, or even at different times. It may affect the results of the studies. You should not take part
in more than one study without approval from the researchers involved in each study.

BENEFITS
If you decide to participate, the findings of the study may provide valuable information about the
factors that influence mainstream secondary educators’ instructional decisions and perceptions of
supporting English learners. While you will not receive any direct benefits; financial or
otherwise from this study, the research findings may contribute to existing research.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained from interviews or document analysis will remain
confidential.

Identifiable data will be kept in a password-protected computer until data analysis is complete
(approximately 2019). Transcripts of interviews will be available upon request. After the data
analysis is complete, all identifiable information will be destroyed. Pseudonyms will be used in
place of your real name to ensure privacy.

Anonymous data will be retained by the investigator and may be used in future research studies.
If you do not want your data used in other studies, you should not participate. Findings for this
study will be shared with Hawai’i Department of Education (HIDOE), though pseudonyms will
be used in place of identifiers. The institution will not be given access to interview transcripts
transcribed by Rev.com.

INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

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The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Principal
Investigator Dalvin Butler at dlbutler@usc.edu, or Tracy Tambascia, Ed.D. at
tpoon@rossier.usc.edu and (213) 740-9747.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complains about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 1640 Marengo Street, Suite 700, Los Angeles, CA 90033-9269. Phone (323) 442-
0114 or email irb@usc.edu.

INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

147
APPENDIX E
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Interviewer: Hello. How are you, today? Thanks for agreeing to talk with me. I appreciate it.
I would like to ask you some questions about your teaching practice as it relates to you
supporting your EL students as a secondary mainstream teacher. It is important to let you know
that pseudonyms will be used for any of your identifiable characteristics, such as your name.

The purpose of this qualitative case study is to examine the influences on mainstream teachers’
instructional decision-making and their perceptions of teaching English learners in one
secondary school in Hawai’i over the course of one academic year. Additionally, this study will
explore several other factors that influence mainstream teachers’ instruction and perceptions of
ELs, such as teacher motivation, self-efficacy, mindsets, instructional strategies from
professional development and a monolingual culture plaguing U.S. academia.

Please feel free to be as honest and precise in your answers as you possibly can, and ask any
clarifying questions during the interview. If you feel uncomfortable with a question, just let me
know and I will ask the next question. Are you comfortable with me audio recording this
interview for the purpose of addressing my research questions? Do you have any questions
before we start? Let’s begin.

1. Tell me what motivates you to teach EL students.

2. Tell me what discourages you from teaching EL students.

3. What would be an example of an instructional strategy that you believe is essential to support
your EL student(s)?
a. How is it essential?
b. Tell me about a time when you used that strategy?

4. If there is a single strategy you would point to as “most” helpful in enabling EL students to
access content, what would that be?

5. What is it about that strategy that makes it possible for students to access content? Walk me
through an example that you think demonstrates what you are talking about.

6. What shows you that the instructional strategies and/or practices you use are helping your
students acquire the skills you want them to acquire?

7. Are there specific types of tools (e.g., graphic organizers, visual aids) that you believe are
helpful to increase ELs’ language acquisition?

INFLUENCES OF TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS

148
8. What types of professional development have you attended specifically focusing on language
acquisition for EL students, if any?
a. What did you learn?
b. What did you do with what you learned?
c. Explain your approach to growing as a professional. Do you believe professional
development aids growth?

9. What are your perceptions about teaching English learners?

10. Tell me a time when you believed that you could help EL students increase their performance
in your class.
a. How did this belief influence your instructional decisions?

11. What are your perceptions about how EL students are treated?

12. How do you integrate EL students’ cultures into your instruction?

13. What are influences on your instructional decisions while lesson planning for EL students?

14. How have federal policies, such as ESSA or NCLB influenced your instruction with ELs?

15. Think about one or two of your EL students. What did you do with them during class time?
Walk me through that.
a. What would I have seen?
b. What would I have heard?

16. If you were me, is there anything else that I should have asked you?

Thanks so much for your valuable time! I will speak with you again in the next couple of
months as I want to ensure I am accurately analyzing your responses in my data analysis. I plan
to visit you on campus, what days are best to meet?

Thanks so much again! Take care.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This qualitative case study examined influences on mainstream teachers’ instructional decision-making and perceptions of English Learners (ELs) in Hawai’i public secondary education. Several influences on mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions were explored in this case study, including federal policy, teacher motivation, teacher perception, efficacy, mindsets, teacher empathy, and a monolingual culture in the American educational system. Additionally, this study investigated the extent to which mainstream teachers were implementing best practices and receiving professional development to support students who were not proficient in English. Mainstream teachers at a public secondary school in Hawai’i participated in semi-structured one-on-one interviews, and five participants voluntarily supplied lesson plans for document analysis. The study found that federally mandated language development targets and a monolingual culture in American academia had little to no influence on instructional decisions of mainstream teachers in Hawai’i. This study identified six factors of influence on mainstream teachers’ instructional decisions, and aimed to understand the differing perceptions mainstream teachers have about English learners while supporting second language acquisition. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecology Theory was used to interpret and make sense of data collected. Recommendations to increase teacher practice were discussed based on research findings to support English learners as well as recommendations for future research.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Butler, Dalvin L., Jr. (author)

Core Title A case study on influences of mainstream teachers' instructional decisions and perceptions of English learners in Hawai'i public secondary education

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 06/05/2019

Defense Date 05/07/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag achievement gap,best practices,education,efficacy,English learners,instructional strategies,Motivation,OAI-PMH Harvest,professional development,second language acquisition,teacher perceptions

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tambascia, Tracy Poon (committee chair), Picus, Lawrence O. (committee member), Samkian, Artineh (committee member)

Creator Email dalvinbutler@gmail.com,dlbutler@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-170990

Unique identifier UC11660092

Identifier etd-ButlerDalv-7457.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-170990 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-ButlerDalv-7457.pdf

Dmrecord 170990

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Butler, Dalvin L., Jr.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA