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THE FUND FO R THE
FEMINIST
MAJORITY
8105 West Third Street, Los Angeles, CA 90048
Telephone (213) 651-0495 Fax (213) 653-2689
Testimony of Katherine Spillar
National Coordinator
The Fund for the Feminist Majority
Before the Independent Commission
on the Los Angeles Police Department
May 13, 1991
Introduction
Testimony of Katherine Spillar
National Coordinator
The Fund for the Feminist Majority
Before the Independent Commission
on the Los Angeles Police Department
May 13 , 1991
My name is Katherine Spillar . I testify today in my capacity
as the National Coordinator of the Fund for the Feminist Majority .
The Fund for the Feminist Majority is a national organization
specializing in research on the impacts of , and public policy
responses to, the under-representation of women in decision-making
positions and positions of authority in all sectors of society. I
am speaking on behalf of feminists everywhere who are concerned by
the extreme police violence displayed in the brutal beating of
Rodney King and the epidemic of violence against women.
In preparing this testimony, we have conducted extensive
research, including a review of the literature and interviews with
specialists nationwide on women in policing and police violence.
The research has profound implicat i ons for this Commission' s work
in examining and proposing solutions t o the problem of excessive
police violence within the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD),
and for saving taxpayer money now paid out in costly settlements
in police violence cases and sexual harassment and race and sex
discrimination lawsuits .
The eyes of the nation are upon this Commission and its work .
1
What you do will affect not only what happens here in Los Angeles,
but has implications nationally and internationally as well. By
focusing your inquiry around .the. impact Q.t. ~ gender make-up Q_f
tile. police force nn policing operations -- especially nn police
response .t.Q violence against women -- .filld rn .the. ™ Q_f violence
in policing, this Commission has an unparalleled opportunity to
recommend effective solutions to the problems of excessive use of
violence within the LAPD.
The research both in the United States and internationally
shows that women police officers ~ .le.s..s.. authoritarian fillli .u.s..e.
force ~ often than their ~ counterparts, are better at
defusing potentially violent confrontations, possess better
communication skills, and respond lllQ.I:.e. effectively .t..Q incidents Q.f.
violence against women -- a crime that accounts for as much as
half the incoming calls to police departments .
~ Independent Commission lll.U.s.t. examine police violence in
.the. ~ in ~ context Qf .the. gender ~ .filld ~ discrimination
.th.at. exist within ~ Police Department, in addition to racial
discrimination factors . Further, the costs Q.f. sexual harassment
.an.ct. ~ anQ. ~ discrimination cases against the LAPD must be
added together with the costs Qf police violence itself in
calculating the total unnecessary costs to the Los Angeles
taxpayer of a white- and male-dominated police force .
Until now, the integration of women into the Police
Department has been seen in terms of creating potential problems
and costs . Policemen feared more women would compromise the
Department's toughness and competency, and thus lead to decreased
Departmental morale. But after 20 years of exhaustive research,
2
the consensus of opinion is that women not only can do the job of
policing equally as well as men , but in fact hold the key for
substantially decreasing police violence and its cost to the Los
Angeles taxpayer, while improving the ability of the Department to
respond to violence in Los Angeles .
Therefore, The Feminist Majority calls for gender balance .Q.U
.t.ha .LAl:D. .a.t. .a.l..i r anks and in .a.l..i categories Q.f police functions.
Gender balance -- that is , equal numbers of women and men in the
police department in all decision-making and operational
capacities -- would accomplish two vital goals:
• police violence would be reduced while at the same time
increasing the efficiency of the LAPD, and
• the Department's ability to respond to the rising violence
against women would be enhanced .
The full integration of women into the LAPD .is. Qil opportunity
.f.Q.r. a constructive solution to the costly problems of police
violence and to the Department ' s inability to more effectively
respond to the rising violence against women. We call on the
Independent Commission to seek answers to the following questions
in order to seriously address the issue of police violence:
1 . How do incidents of police abuse of force and police
violence , citizen complaints , and complaints filed by domestic
violence/sexual assault victims break-down by gender and race
of the police officer involved?
2 . What is the break-down of the total monetary costs to
the City of Los Angeles and the severity of police violence by
gender and race of the officer involved?
3 . What is the incidence and cost to the City of Los
Angeles of sexual harassment and sex and race discrimination
lawsuits?
4 . What are the Department ' s policies on affirmative
action? Why have the current sex and race affirmative action
plans failed to meet their goal?
3
5 . Are there female citizen or policewomen complaints of
sexual harassment, rape and sexual assault against male police
officers? Is there a pattern of abuse? Are cases vigorously
investigated?
6. Is there a pattern of Departmental failure to respond to
sexual assault and domestic violence calls?
7. And, finally, does the Department screen recruits for
personal views on the use of violence in gaining compliance
and the use of violence within the family?
The More Women in Policing Reduces Police Brutality
Holding significant implications for the Independent
Commission's investigation of police violence, the research over
the past two decades indicates that women police officers have a
less authoritarian and aggressive policing style and use force
less often than their male counterparts .
Lewis J . Sherman , in his research in the 1970s on women in
policing, hypothesized on how the full integration of women into
the police department would impact its policies and procedures.
Observing that "America's police forces remain bastions of male
supremacy and American-style machismo, " 1 he postulated that if
more women were hired :
• Policewomen would precipitate less violence than
policemen . ..
• By doing their jobs with less physical force,
policewomen would do much to burnish the public's badly­tarnished
image of police officers.
• The less violent behavior of policewomen would spill
over on policemen, who would learn that a decrease in
muscularity often leads to an increase in efficiency.
• Policewomen would be considerably more effective than
1 Lewis J Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women in Policing," Journal of
Police Science and Administration 1, 383.
4
policemen in settling problems reported by women, ... 2
Sherman stressed that a greater number of women would lead to
fewer violent confrontations between police officers and citizens:
"The experiences of women in other hazardous work, the performance
of policewomen in America and abroad, plus the social
psychological research evidence all suggests that women tend to
defuse volatile situations and provoke less hostility than men.n3
In a 1973 study, trained observers evaluated men and women
police officers of the Washington, D.C. Police Department on a
range of performance variables. The observers rode with the
officers, analyzed departmental performance statistics, and
interviewed citizens. The study found men and women police
officers :
. .. responded to similar calls and encountered similar
proportions of citizens who were dangerous, upset,
drunk, and violent .. . There were no reported incidents
that cast doubts on the women's abilities to perform
patrol work satisfactorily ... They [the women] seemed
more effective .t.fil!n ~ men in defusing potentially
violent situations [emphasis added]. Their policing
style was less aggressive.•
An expansive 1974 study by Peter Bloch and Deborah Anderson
sponsored by the Police Foundation concluded that introducing a
substantial number of women officers would positively impact
police operations :
A department with a substantial number of policewomen
may be less aggressive than one with only men . Women
act less aggressively and they believe in less
aggression. .'.I.he. presence .o..f... women m..a.y_ stimulate
increased attention .t.Q ~ ~ .Q.f avoiding violence .and
2 Ibid. I 384.
3 Ibid. I 393.
4 Joseph Balkin, "Why Policemen Don't Like Policewomen," Journal of Police
Science and Adininistration 16, 30.
5
cooling violent situations without resorting .t..Q .the. .:u.s..e.
.Qf force [emphasis added] . 5
Studies in the 1980s and early 1990s, have shown women to be
more effective in many facets of the policing discipline: women
police officers rely less on violence and more on verbal skills in
handling altercations, they are less likely to be involved in
"serious unbecoming conduct, " 6 and they are more effective in
handling female victims of violence.
In his 1983 study of the performance of women in the Los
Angeles Police Department, Kenneth Hickman made similar findings.
Hickman noted that women had superior communication skills, field
tactics , initiative and self-confidence, and were more adept at
public relations. The 1990 Claremont Graduate School study on the
selection, recruitment, training, appointment and performance of
women and minorities found that "females on probation were the
subject of significantly fewer citizen complaints than either male
or minority officers . " 7
In perhaps the most significant empirical research on the
differences in the use of force between women and men police
officers , Sean Grennan studied the 3,515 complaints filed against
the New York City Police Department in 1989. Women officers
received fewer complaints, were less inclined to use deadly force
and were involved in fewer shooting incidents, ~ though they
were involved in just as many violent confrontations as their male
s Peter D. Bloch and Deborah Anderson, "Police Women on Patrol: Final
Report," (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 1974), page 4, as quoted in The
Claremont Graduate School Study, "The Impact of Fanchon Blake v. City of Los
Angeles," July, 1990 .
6 Patricia W. Lunnenborg, Women Police Officers--Current Career Profiles,
(Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1989), 110.
7 The Claremont Study, 108.
6
counterparts. Grennan concluded :
The reality of the information related to the [lower]
proportion of shooting incidents involving female
officers and the [lower] number of civilian complaints
against female officers is that these figures have
remained, consistently, at the same levels for the past
seven years . This, of course, seems to indicate that
female officers have not accepted the overly aggressive
style of policing that has become the trademark of most
male officers. 8
In an earlier article entitled "Findings on the Role of
Officer Gender in Violent Encounters with Citizens," Grennan
writes:
Police officials and the public have speculated that
because women lacked the physical stature and body
strength of male officers a female officer may be more
inclined to use a firearm than her male counterpart.
This research indicates that this belief is incorrect.
Women police officers .. . lack a need to project the
"macho" image that seems to be inherent in the
personality of most male officers . ~ female officer,
Ni.th heI. ~ aggressive personality , ~ ~ likely .t.Q
~ a potentially violent situation .and avoid injury .t.Q
all Q.f .the. participants [emphasis added] . 9
Patricia W. Lunnenborg, compiling the data from a variety of
studies on gender and policing styles, summarizes that data shows
women police officers :
•are less aggressive and less confrontational
•are more polite, gentle and compassionate
•depend more on verbal skills
•handle service and domestic calls better
8 Sean Grennan, "Who is More Violent: The Male or Female Police Officer,"
Article submitted to Glamour Maqazine for publication, April 1991, 4.
9 Sean Grennan, "Findings on the Role of Officer Gender in Violent
Encounters with Citizens," Journal of Police Science and Administration 15 : 1,
1987, 84 .
7
•have the edge in public contacts and community relations . 10
Studies show that because .Q.f_ their less authoritarian
personalities. there il less likelihood .Q.f. escalation .Q..f.
potentially violent situations liit.h women police officers .t.lliin
Researcher Carol Ann Martin found that "Women have
proven that they have excellent communication skills which can be
extremely helpful in police-citizen encounters where there may be
potential violence. Quite often if the male officer is of the
John Wayne-type he will provoke a fight or violence, instead of
calming down the situation."11
In an extensive review of the research on women in policing,
Joseph Balkin reports that "policemen see police work as involving
control through authority, while policewomen see it as a public
service . The women's orientation is more likely to result in
better relations with the public and a better image of police
departments . " 12 Balkin went on to suggest that \\ .. in. some
respects .QJ:. least , women ~ better suited .f.ru;: police ~ .t..hfill
m.e.n. •• . not all women are able to handle all police jobs--but
neither are men [emphasis added) . " 13
Katharine Van Wormer went even further, in an article
entitled "Are Males Suited to Police Patrol Work?" Although
written in a somewhat tongue-and-cheek manner, her theories are
solid. She found that the policeman's proclivity fQ£ violence .filll!
~ resistance .t..Q. women officers tends .t.Q. make him counter-
10 Patricia w. Lunnenborg, Women Police Officers--Current Career Profiles,
(Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1989).
11 Carol Ann Martin, "Women Police and Stress : Remarks," The Police Chief,
March 1983, 108.
12Balkin, 34 .
13Balkin, 35.
8
productiye. His attitudes jeopardize both community and inter-police
relations and threaten his ability to effectively serve his
community. Van Wormer concludes that policewomen meet the public
better and are better at dealing with rape victims and domestic
violence. To overcome the men's shortcomings, Van Wormer proposed
police departments create "special" selection and training
policies for male recruits.
The apparent differences in female/male police officer use of
violence reflects what we know generally about sex role
socialization and aggressive behavior. A number of studies have
shown males to be more aggressive and authoritarian than females:
The male gender role includes norms encouraging many
forms of aggression . . . Numerous public opinion surveys
document that men are more approving of aggression than
are women. Survey findings ... have shown repeatedly that
men have more favorable attitudes than women toward
aggressive and violent behavior in realms as diverse as
international relations and war, social control and law
enforcement, interpersonal relations, and the portrayal
of violence on television. 14
Th.e. Feminist Majority calls ..fQJ;: adding equal numbers .Q..f
women police officers !..Q .the. LA£ll .t.o. reduce police violence. Not
only would this decrease the level of police violence but it would
also bring
police work.
Times:
LAPD personnel more in line with the real nature of
As discussed in a recent article in The New York
"Police work used to be like a laborer's job .. . The only
requirement was that you had to be tough. Now, that's
not what we' re looking for . " . .. [The job] is all about
knowing how to talk to people. We screen for drug use,
criminal background, but we don't do much screening for
people who can get along with other people." .. . "a good
cop knows how to defuse the situation by talking it
1•Alice H. Eagley and Valerie J. Steffen, "Gender and Aggressive Behavior: A
Meta-Analytic Review of the Social Psychological Literature," Psychological
Bulletin 100 : 3, 1986, 310.
9
out . 111s
Although policemen continue to believe that "the women's
relative lack of physical strength ... could be a problem in
dangerous and violent situations, 1116 the reality is that 80 to 95
percent of policing involves non- violent or service-oriented
activities . And in defense of policewomen, Balkin points out in
his review of the research in this area:
... physical strength has. never b..e..en. shown t..Q. b..e.. related
t..Q. police function i ng (Sherman 1973). No research has
shown that strength is related to an individual's
ability to manage successfully a dangerous situation
(Bell 1982) . There are no reports in the literature of
bad outcomes because a policewoman did not have enough
strength or aggression (Charles 1981) ... Lehtinen (1976)
observed that the ability .t.Q. defuse a potentially
violent situation .is. preferable t..Q. .the.~ Q.f. strength.
Rogers ( 1987) argued that coolness .and skill .ar..e. lllQ.J:.e..
important .than strength .in. conflict situations [emphasis
added] . 1
'
The Claremont Study summarized :
The consensus of informed opinion is that effective
professional law enforcement requires a high level of
intelligence and less emphasis on physical strength .
.I.he. less-aggressive, interactive , progressive approach
generally .is. preferred .t..Q .the. traditionally aggressive,
confrontational , .aru:.l conf lict escalating approach
criticized .in. several Q.f. .the. studies . 18
In sum, adding equal numbers .Q.f women police officers .t.Q. ~
.LA£.Q liill reduce incidents .Q.f police violence .an.d enhance .t..he.
department's ability .t..Q. modify .it..s. policing style .in .l.in.e. lii.t.h
societal needs QilQ. realities .
15 Timothy Egan, "Image of 'Man' Behind Badge Changing," The New York Times,
April 25, 1991, Al4.
16 Balkin, 34 .
17 Ibid.
18 The Claremont Study, 77.
10
More Women Officers Improves Police Response to Violence
Against Women
The gross absence of women on the police force not only
contributes to the problems of police violence, but results in
violence against women being treated less seriously. Violence
against women is now a nationwide epidemic :
•Every six minutes a woman is raped in the United States .
•Every fifteen seconds a woman is beaten by her husband or
partner.
•Domestic violence is believed to be the most common yet
least reported crime in the United States.
•Battery is the single major cause of injury to women--more
significant than street rapes, muggings, or auto accidents.
Yet the majority of violent crimes against women go unreported,
uninvestigated, and unpunished .
Police departments have shown a lack of serious attention
given to domestic violence. As a result, women victims of domestic
violence are reluctant to call the police because they believe the
officers won't help or, worse yet, will side with the male
perpetrator of violence . The views expressed .by and. reinforced
within .t.h.e. male-dominated police department serve .t..Q. obstruct
justice .f.QJ;. women victims .
Jalna Hanmer and associates explain:
Research indicates that police attitudes towards crimes
such as rape, sexual assault, and battering include
assumptions about male rights and female blame . Police
attitudes ... are likely .tQ dissuade women from
complaining about men's violence19 [emphasis added] .
Victims of rape and domestic violence often report feeling
19 Jalna Hanmer, pages 65 and 52, respectively.
11
humiliated, accused and alienated from the criminal justice system
-- the very system that is supposed to help them. One study found
that in several cases the police officer who first reported to the
scene of a rape actually took advantage of the victim's vulnerable
situati on to sexually assault her.~
In many instances, there is s i mply no response by the police
to male violence against women . An internal investigation by the
Oakland Police Department found that 90% of the sexual assault
reports it ignored in 1989 and 1990 should have been investigated.
According to The Los Angeles Times , "police administrators called
for the investigation in January after The San Francisco Examiner
revealed that nearly one in four women who reported a rape or an
attempted rape were ignored. " 21
Again , differences between women and men police officers
suggest that increasing .the. numbers .Q..f women police officers would
dramatical ly enhance .the. LAPD ' s a b ility .tQ respond effectively .t.Q
violence against women. A 1983 study by Daniel Kennedy and Robert
Homant found "that policewomen were especially valued in domestic
disputes ... most important was the policewoman ' s ability to show
concern . " 22
A 1985 study by Homant and Kennedy found a strong correlation
between police officer gender and the amount of "involvement"
displayed by the officer reporting to a scene of domestic
violence . Women police officers believed more strongly in the
need to show sympathy and understanding in order to successfully
~ "Testimony Before the House Select Committee on Children, Youth and
Families , " Dean Kilpatrick, Ph .D., 1990.
21 "Police Were Wrong in Rapes , Chief Says," Los Angeles Times, 2/ 4/1991.
22 Balkin, 32 .
12
handle the dispute.
Additionally, women officers were more convinced .Q.:f. .t.h..e.
importance .Q.f responding .t.Q. famil y fights as. a crucial police .duty
and less apt to think "that a certain amount of physical fighting
between couples was to be expected. " 23 Women officers expressed
greater disagreement that marital rape should be legal .
The Homant and Kennedy study concluded "that policewomen have
a different set of values and goals for dealing with family
fights . " Battered women "who had had contact with policewomen had
a more favorable evaluation of police in general, and policewomen
in particular, than did those women without policewomen contact."~
Clearly, police officer attitude plays a pivotal role in how
that officer approaches incidents of violence against women.
Daniel Saunders and Patricia Size , in a 1986 study, report that:
traditional views of women were associated with holding
rape victims accountable for their rapes ... attitudes
determine the extent of officer action, Hi.th stronger
sexist attitudes and greater general approval .Q.f marital
violence associated ~ a lessened tendency .t.Q. arrest.
counsel. Q..t:. refer in domestic violence cases. 25 [emphasis
added]
Sexist attitudes .and approval .Q.f. marital violence among
police officers correlate l:l.i.t..h greater police violence: it should
be noted that the same LAPD officers who beat Rodney King so
severely, referred to an earlier domestic violence call as a scene
out of "Gorillas in the Mist."
~ Robert J. Homant and Daniel B. Kennedy, "Police Perceptions of Spouse
Abuse: A Comparison of Male and Female Officers," Journal of Criminal Justice
13 : 29-47.
2
' Homant and Kennedy, 42.
25 Daniel Saunders and Patricia Size, "Attitudes About Woman Abuse Among
Police Officers, Victims, and Victim Advocates," Journal of Interpersonal
Violence 1, 19&6: 25-42
13
Increasing ~ number .o.t.. women in the police force ltl.J.i
decrease ~ prevalence QL. anti-woman . victim-blame attitudes
which preclude .tllil appropriate .and critical handling QL. domestic
v i olence .and sexual assault cases. Women victims of violence will
be less hesitant to report incidents of violence to police, as
they will be more confident their pleas for help will be taken
seriously.
Increasing .the. nu!Dber .Q.f women officers . lii.t.h their stronger
verbal mediation skills, .lii.l.l. reduce .tllil amount .Q.f force needed .t.Q
resolve incidents .Q.f. domestic violence. As a result, the
Department will increase its efficiency in responding to the
profound problem of violence against women .
Sex Discrimination in Police Department Solidifies
Dangerous ~Pack Mentality"
~ ~ .Q.f women police officers .in ~ lJ1fQ reinforces fill.ct
exaggerates .tilll authoritarian .and traditional personalities which
t h r i ve .QD.. v i olence . Composed of people who have a common
background and a common set of social attitudes and values, the
police department reflects a "male fraternity" society where
unacceptable behavior not only receives little peer scrutiny but
is actually reinforced by other members of the group.
Susan Martin describes this "police subculture" as being
based, in part, .QD.. .a s h a r ed def init ion .o.f. t..h.e.. members'
masculinity. She writes :
This solidarity is in the service of ameliorating the
men's sense of isolation from the public and the
dangerousness of their work . Women in policing
undermine this solidarity . They are not like them, and
14
are opposed . 2
'
Women and minority officers present a force which can
challenge the white male-dominated structure and value system of
the police institution. In his 1973 article, Lewis J. Sherman
noted that:
Introducing new kinds of people--women--to the patrol
forces would diversify their attitudes arui breakdown
what Chief John Nichols of Detroit calls "the. squadroom
.s.et_ Q.f. values" or help in what Chief Bernard Garmire of
Miami calls "the humanizing of policemen" 21 [emphasis
added].
There must be enough women, however, so they can withstand
what Jalna Hanmer and associates call :
... the power of masculinity within the organization of
policing. Women who enter the force can be overshadowed
by an institution that rigorously reinforces a gendered
male view of policing and of men and women ... The
presence of a small number of women in contemporary
police forces cannot dent a male-dominated institution
committed to securing the gendered status quo. The
presence of a few women off ice rs cannot alter the fact
that in most policing situations police officers
intervene as male gendered subjects. 21
As tokens within the department, women (and their different
policing styles) are "perceived as 'in' but not 'of' the
organization . " 29 As a result, the few women in the department are
highly visible and receive excessive scrutiny and little respect
from their peers. As summarized in the Claremont Study:
2i
Despite their adequate performance as police officers,
as long as women from all ethnic groups remain few in
Susan Martin, "The Police Subculture and Policewoman," paper delivered as
summarized by Joseph Balkin, 35.
27 Lewis J . Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women in Policing," Journal of
Police Science and Aciministration 1:4, 1973, 393.
28 Jalna Hanmer et al . , 191
~ Eric D. Poole and Mark R. Pogrebin, "Factors Affecting the Decision to
Remain in Policing: A Study of Women Officers," Journal of Police Science and
Ac:lministration 16:1, 1988 , 49.
15
numbers within the law enforcement and traditionally
male dominated service agencies , they will remain as
"tokens" They will continue to be viewed as
stereotypes by their male counterparts, and they will
continue to be subjected to the closest scrutiny . 30
To overcome the problems of tokenism, the LAPD must have
enough women police officers so they can make contributions and
exert their ™ style .Q.f policing within the Department while
withstanding the pressure of the Department's "gendered male view"
of policing to overpower them. Enough women police officers and
racial minorities would be able to interrupt .t.h.e. IIl.Q.J:.e. violent .a.rui
authoritarian white ~ "pack mentality" and make for _g_ better
police force overall.
Costs of Gender Bias in the Police Department
To create a full understanding of the "gendered' male view" of
policing, the Commission must also examine and address male police
officer attitudes toward policewomen. Studies indicate that the
majority of male police officers still hold traditional,
stereotyped views of women as of the "weaker" sex, and treat them
accordingly.
This treatment takes the form of exaggerated gender
harassment .a.rui uneQual promotional opportunities. The harassment
is pervasive: an overwhelming sixty-eight percent of women police
officers in NYC surveyed by Samuel Janus in 1988 had experienced
sexual harassment on the job . Similarly, William Timmins and
associates, in their 1988 study of women in law enforcement , found
that open ~ discrimination .a.mi sexual harassment .!tiLS.. .s..Q
~The Claremont Study, 37.
16
peryasiye .t.ha.t. supervisors .and commanders llilt. ~ tolerated .5..llC.h
practices .mt. others bY.t. ~ freguently perpetrators themselves.
Such treatment is an expression of hostility and discrimination
and works to deter women from entering and excelling in the field.
The extensive research on policewomen reveals that the
biggest problem they continue to face is the negative attitudes
and treatment by policemen. A 1987 study by Cynthia Brewer on the
role of women in police work "found that the main obstacle
confronting women continues to be male attitudes towards them as
well as the influence of stereotypical role models in law
enforcement. " 31
According to a 1983 study reviewed by Balkin, " ... the single
greatest source of stress for the [police) women was the negative
attitudes of policemen . " 32 How do these negative attitudes
manifest themselves? Balkin describes a 1983 study by Wexler and
Logan which documented:
... anti-woman remarks (in their presence), comments
about a woman's sexual orientation, and refusals to talk
to the women at all. A policewoman reported that the
men were very interested in whether policewomen were
lesbians . If not, the men flirted or teased
them ... Women described spending eight hours in a patrol
car with policemen who did not say a word to them. Wong
(1984) reported widespread sexual harassment, seeing it
as an expression of hostility and degradation. Martin
( 197 8) said that policemen show their dominance by
cursing, putdowns, and "affectionate" terms of address.
Nonverbal means included touch and "chivalrous
ceremonies . " 33
In a 1988 study, the majority of members of the International
Association of Women Police surveyed felt they were underutilized
31 The Claremont Study, 27.
32 Balkin, 33.
33 Balkin, 33.
17
and had fewer opportunities than their male peers. Women police
officers seem to be facing an entire structure geared against
them . Poole and Pogrebin write of their study:
After just three years on the force , only a small
proportion of women officers still aspire to rise in the
police organization. It is likely that these officers
have recognized in a relatively short period of time that
few women actually get promoted; consequently ,
policewomen lack a variety of female role models in
higher ranks who they could realistically strive to
emulate. " 34
One article in Law Enforcement News concludes that to recruit
more women, police departments must overcome the serious problem
of : " . . . traditional stereotypical views concerning the nature of
police work in general, that is, it is still dominantly perceived
as a male oriented profession with a major emphasis on physical
strength . " 35
Examples of "traditional stereotypical views" of women in
policing can be found at the highest levels of the LAPD. The
Independent Commission must examine the extent to which Police
Chief Daryl Gates' public comments on women on patrol reinforce
"existing anti-female prejudices . " 36
Additionally, the extent to which Assistant Police Chief
Robert Vernon's participation in a series of audiotapes entitled
"The True Masculine Role" reverberates throughout the LAPD must be
assessed. According to the Los Angeles Magazine May 1991 issue,
in these tapes Vernon instructs that "the woman is to be
submissive to the man" and encourages men to " recognize the
~ Poole and Pogrebin, 54
"The Claremont Study, 77.
~ Kenneth Hickman, 1983, as reviewed in The Claremont Study, 36.
18
concept of disciplining followers, whether it be your son,
employees or anyone under your control--your wife."
advocates administering "beatings" to rebellious children .
Gender Balance Needed in the LAPD
He also
The LAPD is under a 1981 Consent Decree to increase the
numbers of women hired onto the police force . But, over the past
decade, the LAPD ~ failed miserably .in recruiting filld promoting
women within it..s_ ranks . Women still hold only a token status in
the Department . Even the Claremont Study, which concluded that
the LAPD had "exhibited a good faith adherence to the Decree's
mandates," admitted the Department fill significantly behind in
recruiting .and promoting women .
Analysis of the current police force by gender, ethnicity and
rank speaks volumes to the failure of the Department in meeting
even the minimal affirmative action requirements set forth in the
1981 Consent Decree. Women are only 13% of the police force , with
virtually no or only token numbers of women at the higher ranks .
The numbers and percentages for African-American, Latina, and
Asian-American women are even worse (see attached chart) .
In short, with only men serving in the higher ranks of the
Department, .t.h.e. LAPD .i.a. a mostly white, authoritarian male­dominated
fraternity that il creating huge costs .Qil. ~ L..Q..s_
Angeles taxpayer, while increasing violence a.n.d jeopardizing
women's lives .
Of course, the LAPD is not alone in its failure to integrate
women into the police force. In fact, the countless studies
reveal that even until this day, women have made only limited
19
gains in law enforcement, and the majority of women still hold
traditional female jobs . One 1986 study concluded "There is no
reason to believe that time alone will rectify the underuse of
women across police functions . n
But the LAPD and this Independent Commission today have an
opportunity to change the situation in Los Angeles once and for
all. Up until now , increasing the numbers of women police
officers was seen as problematic : more women would weaken the
force, it was asserted, compromising the police department's
ability to serve the community and damaging police morale.
But, to the contrary, the data is overwhelming and
conclusive: not only can women excel at the job of policing, but
increasing women on the police force will reduce the police
violence that is plaguing the LAPD . And, more women on the force
will enhance the Department ' s ability to serve the entire Los
Angeles community by increasing its responsiveness to violence
against women.
Thus , the full integration of women into the LAPD can only be
seen as an opportunity, and policewomen themselves can only be
seen as an asset to policing. Simply stated, the full integration
of women into the LAPD is a solution to the costly problem of
police violence .
This Commission cannot. solve the problems of police violence
within the Los Angeles Police Department without issuing ~ mandate
.f.Qr. gen der balance .Qil. t.h.e. police force . The decades of foot-dragging
and resistance to change must end.
current gender illld racial makeup Qi. ~ force unfair , .i.t. .i..s.
37 Carole G. Garrison and associates, "Utilization of Policewomen," The
Police Chief, 33
20
ineffective in handling .Q.D.e. .Q..f. .the. Ill.Q.S.t. peryasiye crimes in Q!.l.r.
society - - violence against women -- .arui .i.s. costly in terms Qi_
b.Q.t.h human lives .a.nd safety .and taxpayer dollars.
Formal Structures Needed for Gender Balance
The goal must be a police force that reflects the community's
entire population. But in order to increase the numbers of women
in the Police Department across all police functions, .it. will ~
necessary .t..Q haY.e. formal plans .and administrative structures .f..Q.r.:
mandated change .a.nil. gender balance.
Experts emphasize the need to create a "formal administrative
structure" established specifically to achieve social equity for
women in policing . Susan Martin, in Women on the Moye, recommends
police departments:
• concentrate voluntary affirmative action efforts on
enlarging the pool of women recruits
•alter promotional standards to eliminate criteria that
are irrelevant to supervisory ability or potential
• adopt stringent policies for dealing with sexual
harassment
•alter work conditions to increasing the number of women
in recruitment training and assignments
•periodically monitor departments to ensure that women
are not tracked into clerical (or "female") assignments.
Michael Hennessey, the Sheriff of San Francisco, writes: "the only
way we can · overcome the mistakes of the past is by implementing
pro-active policies today ." He concludes:
It is not enough to announce a commitment to equal
opportunity: We must reach out and bring these
opportunities directly to those who have been
21
traditionally underrepresented. 38
Conclusions
The Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police
Department IlU!..S.t. .c.aJ.J.. .f.Q..r. .the. L.AE.Q .t.o. IDQ.Y.e. rapidly .in achieving
equal numbers .o..f. women fill.d ID.fill fill.d racial parity Qil. .t..h.e. police
force -- fil. Q.U levels Qllil ranks if police violence is to be
reduced and if Los Angeles is to ever deal effectively with the
epidemic of male violence against women.
Merely complying with the 1981 Consent Decree that mandates
20% women on the LAPD, lii.l.l IlQt. b..e. enough .t.o. achieve t.h.e. impacts
.s..e..e.n in .the. social psychological fill.d empirical research Qil. women
in policing . What's more, the Department ~ failed miserably in
achieving .e..Y..e.n .the. minimal goals for women police officers set
forth in the Decree .
We must again call attention to the fact that a decade has
passed since the Consent Decree went into effect. In these past
ten years, the Department has progressed less than half way toward
meeting its goals. At this rate, it will take another ten years
to achieve the 20% women in the force mandated in the Decree. The
deliberate footdragging and stonewalling within the Department
mean that the chances of reaching 50% women police officers under
the status quo are nonexistent. Clearly. .Yill.a.t. .i.s. being .dQnn for
integration .is. inadequate and .is. costing .L.Q.S. Angeles citizens a
high price -- in money, human suffering, and women's lives.
If the LAPD is to attract substantially more women in an
effort to reduce violence and enhance the Department's ability to
~Michael Hennessey, Law Enforcement News , 2/28/1989, 8-9.
22
effectively respond to violence against women, this Commission and
the Department must:
•First, determine that the goal is equal numbers of women
and men at all ranks and for all LAPD assignments not the
token 20% women set out in the 1981 Consent Decree.
• Secondly, the City must immediately contract experts to
develop a plan to achieve gender balance and full racial
integration on the LAPD.
Without concrete and positive steps, the costs of police
violence, sex and race discrimination, and sexual harassment will
only escalate . We urge this Commission to move quickly and
decisively.
23
LAPD Personnel by Rank, Gender and Ethnicity
Total Black His~anic Asian Caucas i an
Rank
Chief
Male 100% (1) 0 0 0 100% (1)
Female 0 0 0 0 0
Deputy Chief II
Male 100% (2) 0 0 0 100% (2)
Female 0 0 0 0 0
Deputy Chief I
Male 100% (6) 17% ( 1) 0 0 83% (5)
Female 0 0 0 0 0
Commander
Male 100% ( 19) 5% (1) 10% ( 2) 0 86% ( 16)
Female 0 0 0 0 0
Captain III
Mal e 86 . 4% (27) 11% (3) 7% (2) 0 79% (22)
Female 3.6% (1) 0 0 0 4% ( 1)
Captain II
Male 100% ( 1 7) 0 0 0 100% (17)
Female 0 0 0 0 0
Captain I
Male 100% (21) 9.5% (2) 9 . 5% (2) 0 81% (17)
Female 0 0 0 0 0
Lieutenant II
Male 95.3% (122) 6% ( 8) 10% (13) 1% (1) 78% ( 100)
Female 4.7% (6) 0 .73 % ( 1) 0 4% (5)
' Lieutenant I
Male 98% ( 99) 6% (6) 8% (8) 1% (1) 83% (84)
Female 2% (2) 0 0 0 2% (2)
Total Black Hispanic Asian Caucasian
Detecti ve III
Male 96% (2 95) 6.5% (20) 10% (30) 1% ( 2) 79% (24 2)
Female 4% (12) .33% ( 1) 0 0 3. 6% (11)
Detecti ve II
Male 94% (558) 4.7% (28) 13 . 5% ( 80) 1% (8) 74% ( 4 4 0)
Female 6% (33) .7% ( 4) 0.7% (4) 0 4.2% (25)
Detecti ve I
Ma l e 88% ( 450) 7.3% (3 7) 15 . 5% ( 7 9) 3% ( 16) 62% (315)
Female 12% (60) 2.2% ( 11) 2 . 6% (13) .2% (1) 6.8% (35)
Sergeant II
Male 98% (2 91) 10% (30) 12% (35) 1% (2) 7 5% (22 4)
Femal e 2% (8) 0 0 0 2% ( 6°)
Sergeant I
Male 96% (551 ) 8.5% ( 4 9) 11% (54) 2% (12) 74% ( 4 23)
Female 4% ( 2 4) 1% ( 6) .4% (2) 0 2. 8% ( 16)
Police Officer III
Male 87% ( 192 8) 12% (272) . 18% (392) 2% ( 4 7) 54% ( 1201)
Female 13% (2 93) 2 . 3% (52) 3.2% (7 0) .2% (4) 7 . 3% ( 161)
Police Officer II
Male 83% (2068) 13% ( 322) 23% (580) 2 . 4% (61) 44% (1087)
Female 17% ( 422) 3.5% ( 8 6) 4 . 3% ( 10 6) . 6% (15) 8 . 7% (217)
Police Officer I
Male 7 6% (781) 16% ( 1 62) 2.,6% (2 64) 3% (38) 30% (309)
Female 24% (24 5) 4.6% ( 4 7) 5:7% (58) .9% ( 9) 12.5% (128)
TOTAL 14% ( 1150) 22% (1805) 3% (21 7) 6 1% (5112)
Black Hispanic Asian Caucasian
13% (110 9 ) Female
Source: LAPD Per sonnel Department (March 24, 1991)
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