P point to Africa shortly after
i .1 number of scientific devices
loj.nunt ol technology in the
rntuiM n African technology re-
fi{ (i.:K'kward, the reasons could
jtn! down cycles which typify
h«»m racial inferiority, as some
ititc rest in Africa will revive
in m in s( icntific pursuits.
r,! into two types: formal and
i ivpes in different degrees. All
• i, o! the formal methods of
,nv In some societies informal
m< j formal ones, but to the
to twist. Formal education can
informal education consists in
n «>! older children by younger
ir onh the mature are active
it* oi their surrogates go about
[one. 1 he latter form of educa-
i lilies .uul proper conduct, by
utcptccl code by admonition,
< steni uses both positive and
iU\ in man) African societies
i f vs|ul!>  performs an act, and
thm^> lie may be hesitant to
um jc tics bells are attached to
> a.ill., so that he will increase
voiuii' child, he was taught the
practical inferences relating to
ting. In mam African societies
is to he related to a historical
►ttatlt member ot the clan. As
kittintt)  to know and respect,
n  he  was  named.    If  the
liviclual, which is ino^t often
standards,
in «»{ education is adequate in
lo the da\-to-da\  living of his
society. But as society grows large and the simple means of production
become inadequate, it is necessary to develop more formal systems of
educating the young. In Africa this situation developed several
thousand years ago, especially along the Nile river valley and in various
regions of the continent. The earliest of these systems are the so-called
initiation schools, prevalent in so many African societies. Also the
African secret societies perform the same functions and can be considered as embryonic formal institutions in which schooling is given to
the young. Every secret society provides, in its initiation rites, a certain
amount of social knowledge and instruction which enables the individual to cope with his immediate environment. The initiation or
"bush" schools, such as the Poro and Sonde societies of Africa, are
undoubtedly the veritable educational example, formally recognized as
such within their communities. Their object is to turn immature boys
and girls into full-Hedged members of the adult community. Their aim
is to convert the individual into a man or woman with all that these
terms imply within the given society.0
Among many African societies the psychological effect is secured by
a combination of symbolic and practical means. The Poro initiate, for
example, is made to imagine that he is being swallowed by the spirit
as he enters the bush, as marks are made on his back signifying the
spirit's teeth. At the end of his period of training he is delivered by the
spirit and reborn.7 The discipline imposed on the initiates in the
"bush" school includes stress upon obedience to the rules of the society
and to the social regulations of the larger community. This is achieved
by various impressive ways beginning with the entry into the bush. As
Kenneth A. Little ptits it, "Throughout the session every opportunity
is taken to enhance the mysterious and terrifying characteristics of the
Poro spirit itself in the minds of the initiates. The boys learn their
lessons in this atmosphere, and are made to feel at the same time that
they are absorbing something of the spirit's own qualities. Through
connection with the spirit, they have intercourse with the supernatural
world, and hence with a special source of power which carries the
stamp of validity. A thing is true, therefore, because it has been learned
in Poro." 8
The elders and senior members of the society act as teachers and they
are responsible for effecting the proper psychological basis of the ceremonies and rituals that the voting initiates undergo. As much as possible the social life of the bush school must approximate the social life
of the larger community; that is, the initiates learn their roles as men
in an immature world of their own. What sounder pedagogical method
would one wish to have even in present-day education?
In many ways the organization and the method of the African secret
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