Archeological and historical evidence point to Africa shortly after
S000 B.C. as the place and time of birth of a number of scientific devices
which later became crucial in the development of technology in the
rest of the world."1 If for a number of centuries African technology remained rather stagnant, if not downright backward, the reasons could
be derived more from the normal up-and-down cycles which typify
human technological development than from racial inferiority, as some
might wish to conclude.
The present upsurge of educational interest in Africa will revive
rather than initiate the African involvement in scientific pursuits.
Formnl and Informal Education
Education can be conveniently classified into two types: formal and
informal. All human societies have both types in different degrees. All
societies tise more of the informal than of the formal methods of
educating their young, for obvious reasons. In some societies informal
methods of education do predominate over formal ones, but to the
unpracticed eye the latter do not seem to exist. Formal edtication can
simply be equated with schooling; while informal education consists in
overt training by elders, in the emulation of older children by younger
ones, in observation at ceremonies where only the mature are active
participants, or in sitting by while parents or their surrogates go about
their daily tasks and watching what is done. The latter form of education includes the inculcation of moral values and proper conduct, by
the correction of an infringement of an accepted code by admonition,
ridicule, or corporal punishment. This system tises both positive and
negative measures in bringing up a child. In many African societies
praise is lavished on the child who successfully performs an act, and
various ways of encouraging him to do things he may be hesitant to
try are also used.8 In some West African societies bells are attached to
the ankles of an infant who is learning to walk, so that he will increase
his efforts.
When the author of this paper was a young child, he was taught the
history of his clan informally,.through practical inferences relating to
actual situations which he was experiencing. In many African societies
the name of every newly born child lias to be related to a historical
event or situation or to that of an important member of the clan. As
the child grows lie is given every opportunity to know and respect,
sometimes love, the individual after whom he was named. If the
child's namesake was an outstanding individual, which is most often
the case, lie is encouraged to live tip to his standards.
In simple rural communities, this system of education is adequate in
preparing the young adolescent to fit into the day-to-day living of his
society. Bui as sorict\ grows |;J
become inadequate, it is nccci
educating   the   young.   In    \
thousand years ago. cm* < i,d|\
regions of the continent.  | ]lv J
initiation  schools,  prevalent   J
African secret soar tics petin
sidered as embryonic formal I
the young. Every sec ret MMJcftl
amount  of   social   knmvlcdgt
dividual to cope with his imJ
"bush"  schools, such  as the  I
undoubtedly the veritable id 1
such within their community
and girls into fuhMledgcd nit nJ
is to convert the individual it]
terms imply within the given *
Among many African sex it i
a combination of symboli\ and
example, is made to imagine
as he enters the bush, as m,
spirit's teeth. At the end o] It J
spirit  and  reborn.' The di*
"bush" school includes stros i
and to the social regulations
bv various impressive way* Im
Kenneth A. Little puts it, ' i
is taken to enhance the- imsn i
Poro spirit itself in the ininti
lessons in this atmosphere, an
they are absorbing something
connection with the spirit, tin
world,  and  hence with  .1  ^; 1
stamp of validity. A thing i^ it]
in Poro." 8
The ciders and senior nam'
are responsible for effecting rl
monies and rituals that lite •• |
sible the social life of the bin
of the larger community; th <•!
in an immature world ol ihcitl
would one wisli to have e\rii
In many ways the organi/ai
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