THE EFFECT OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE LISTENING CONDITION ON YOUNG
CHILDREN’S MUSICAL UNDERSTADING OF FAMILIAR AND
UNFAMILAIR MELODY THROUGH RESEARCHER-INVENTED NOTATION
by
Jiwon Chang
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC THORNTON SCHOOL OF MUSIC
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
(MUSIC EDUCATION)
December 2009
Copyright 2009 Jiwon Chang
ii
DEDICATION
I cherish being able to dedicate this dissertation to my beloved and remarkable
family, mom, dad, parents-in-law, lovely sons, Junwoo and Sean, and especially my
husband, Joungho Rha who has always supported and walked beside me through every
challenge.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my deep appreciation for all the assistance received from
the members of my committee, Dr. Sheila C. Woodward and Dr. Joel Timm.
In particular, I would like to sincerely thank my advisor, Dr. Susan Helfter, for her
guidance, encouragement, constant support, and sacrificing her valuable time in
assisting me to complete this document.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES vi
ABSTRACT vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
Background 1
Need for the Study 3
Purpose of the Study 3
Research Questions 3
Statement of the Null Hypotheses 4
Definitions 4
Assumptions 4
Delimitations 4
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 6
Overview 6
Listening and Listening Condition 6
Young Children’s Movement 8
Young Children’s Musical Representation 10
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 13
Introduction 13
Restatement of Purpose 13
Sample 13
Dependent Variable 15
Independent Variable 16
Design 17
Internal Validity 17
External Validity 18
Procedure 18
Pilot study 18
Classroom set-up 19
Listening sessions 20
Control group 20
Treatment group 20
Pre- and posttests 21
Judging 22
Analysis 24
Time Table 24
Protection of Human Subjects 24
v
CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 26
Overview 26
Restatement of Research Questions 26
Restatement of Null Hypotheses 26
Data Treatment: Descriptive Results 27
Results 29
Figure 1. Gain scores for the number of tempo changes 32
Summary 33
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 34
Introduction 34
Purpose 34
Overview 34
Conclusion 35
Discussion 37
Number of subjects 37
Examining scores with no exclusion criteria applied to subjects 38
Spontaneous and instructional body movement 38
Implications for Music Education 39
Suggestions for Future Research 39
REFERENCES 42
APPENDICES 50
Appendix A: Music Examples 50
Appendix B: Drawing Examples 56
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Descriptive Judges Scores for All Children (n=67) 23
Table 2: Inter- rater Reliability: Correlation in Matrix of Judge Scores. 23
Table 3: All Students’ Scores for the Number of Changes Indentified Correctly 27
Table 4: Included Students’ Scores for the Number of Tempo Changes
Indentified Correctly 28
Table 5: The Gain Scores of Included Students for the Number of Tempo Changes 30
Table 6: The Difference of Gain Scores between Dependent Variables
by two-way ANOVA 31
vii
ABSTRACT
This study examined the effect of active and passive listening conditions on young
children’s musical understanding of familiar and unfamiliar melody through researcher-invented
notation.
All subjects in this study were Korean children from 3 to 5 years of age in a private
prekindergarten in Seoul, Korea. A pre- and posttest experimental design guided this study,
which was conducted for five consecutive weeks, including three treatment sessions between
pre- and posttest sessions in summer of 2009.
The following research questions for the study were posed: 1) Is there a significant
difference in young children’s apparent understanding of tempo when comparing active and
passive listening conditions? and 2) Is there a significant difference in young children’s
apparent understanding of tempo according to familiarity of the melody?
Listening conditions (independent variable) in this study were the presence or absence
of body movement while children listened to short musical examples. The children’s
apparent musical understanding of tempo (dependent variable) was captured through
children’s guided drawings that indicated where they understood tempo changes to occur in
the music. The drawings were evaluated by three independent judges who scored the number
of accurate tempo changes indicated in the drawings. Three judges scored four drawings for
each child: for familiar and unfamiliar melodies in both the pre- and posttest.
A two-way ANOVA was used to analyze the scores. The results revealed that there is
no statistically significant difference between treatment and control groups, between familiar
and unfamiliar melody, and no difference with the interaction of group and melody familiarity.
Therefore, the null hypotheses for this study were accepted.
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Background
Listening is a primary factor for all people who experience music through their lifetime,
and it is also critically important for all musical activities, such as making, enjoying, learning
and playing. In other words, to learn and to enjoy music begins with a foundation of
listening. Campbell (2005) states that when students become fully aware of the sounds
around them, they can build musical understanding and performance skills through listening.
In addition to the importance of listening in musical interaction in general, this underlines the
importance of listening in music education. Learning to listen begins in infancy and prior to
birth, when babies naturally begin listening for the voices of their mother, father, or caregivers.
Their listening ability starts to develop from this very early period. Research indicates that,
in the womb, a fetus is able to hear environmental sounds including music (Woodward 1992a,
1992b). Due to these reasons, music educators and researchers suggest that formal music
education, including the development of listening skills, can be effective for young children,
especially to children from 3 and 4 years of age (McPherson, 2005; Sims, 1988, 2002, 2005,
Suzuki, 1973; Young, 2003).
Music listening has been emphasized in music curricula across the world, informing
content and teaching strategies. In the USA, it is included as one of the nine standards for a
comprehensive music education in the National Standards for Art Education K-12 (MENC,
1994). Nevertheless, the author suggests that curriculum of music appreciation courses
might often not include listening skill associated with the student’s listening ability but rather
with the study of music fundamentals, historical background, musical style and musical form.
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Even though music listening has been identified as a very significant component of
music education, it is considered to be sometimes overlooked in school music classes
(Campbell, 2005). This is also suggested to be true, especially with music instruction for
young children where there may not be many programs for music listening, and efficient
listening conditions may not be readily provided. Sims (1991) states that music listening is
used mostly as a supportive tool for other activities to assist young children’s physical
development or as background music for naptime or playtime. It is much less common to
include singing or music listening with music education being the primary goal of the activity.
Moreover, Cusano (2005) states that there is considerably less research on listening and
listening ability for young children, in elementary school or earlier.
Music listening is utilized as a subsidiary tool for other activities, but it is also true that
other activities, such as movement and visual art, can be used as subsidiary tools for the
development of music listening. Dalcroze (1921) is known for incorporating body
movement to acquire knowledge and experience with various musical elements, such as
rhythm, beat and tempo. Dalcroze stresses the importance of body for rhythm through his
Eurhythmics methodology, and he insists that the body should be the child’s first instrument
through which each child can interpret and respond to the aspects of the music (1921). To a
lesser extent, movement is a part of the Orff and Kodály music education approaches as well.
With younger children, movement can be incorporated to increase the duration of children’s
attention to music listening (Sims, 1986, 1988). With this common association of movement
as a tool for young children’s music learning, it is worthy to consider aspects of movement as
they relate to music listening skills in young children.
Cusano (2005) states that a prevalence in the music listening research of upper
elementary aged subjects may be attributed to difficulties in measurement techniques with
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younger children. In particular, children in the primary grades or younger have limited
verbal and written competencies when in the primary grades (K-3) and younger. Given this
challenge, researchers have attempted to measure the musical understanding and learning of
young children using means other than verbal or written tests. Instead, children’s invented
notation has been used in a systematic way to communicate the children’s understanding
(Bamberger, 1980, 1982; Davison & Colley, 1987; Davison & Scripp, 1988; Upitis, 1987a,
1987b, 1990). Agreement on the accuracy of this measurement technique will require more
use and analysis, but the results of the studies to date reveal that, when young children
experience music, they can create invented notation that represents what they hear and
experience (McCusker, 2001; Fung, 2001; Gromko & Poorman, 1998a; Gromko, & Russell,
2002).
Need for the Study
Although the importance of listening in music has been emphasized in many studies,
there is a need for further investigation of listening skills for young children. Researchers
agree that listening skills can and must be developed in young children, but differ in
approaches and measurement of musical understanding. A key step in developing young
children’s listening skills is to further identify effective listening conditions and accurate
measurement to evaluate children’s musical understanding.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to explore the effect of active and passive listening
conditions on young children’s musical understanding of familiar and unfamiliar melody
through researcher-invented notation.
Research Questions
The research questions for this study are the following.
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1. Is there a significant difference in young children’s apparent understanding of tempo when
comparing active and passive listening conditions?
2. Is there a significant difference in young children’s apparent musical understanding of
tempo according to familiarity of the melody?
Statement of the Null Hypotheses
The null hypotheses for this study are the following:
1. There will be no statistically significant difference in young children’s apparent
understanding of tempo when comparing active and passive listening conditions.
2. There will be no statistically significant difference in young children’s apparent
understanding of tempo according to familiarity of the melody.
Definitions
Researcher-Invented Notation - notation created by the researcher that allows children to
depict their understanding of musical attributes while listening to musical examples.
Passive Listening Condition - a listening condition in which children listen to music
while sitting or lying on the floor without any activity.
Active Listening Condition - a listening condition in which children listen to music with
activity such as body movement, with or without props.
Assumptions
All subjects have similar music and art education backgrounds. Prekindergarten music
programs experienced by the subjects are likely to have focused on activities of movement
with background music rather than on listening to music. All students have the ability to
express their thinking through drawing, and they are able to draw movement of the line.
Delimitations
This study was conducted with young children ranging in age from 3 to 5 years, the
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majority of subjects being 3 or 4 years of age. Subjects attended a prekindergarten located at
the Mok-Dong district in Seoul, Korea, and the socio-economic status of these children was
similar amongst the group. This specific prekindergarten was primarily chosen for its
geographical location which was accessible to the researcher and for its availability, as
established in preliminary communications. The measurement for musical understanding
was inferred through children’s drawings according to the instructions given.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Overview
This study presents a review of literature related to listening and listening condition,
young children’s musical movement, and young children’s musical representation.
Secondary sources, such as review articles that summarize the research findings of various
authors as well as primary sources, such as articles, papers, dissertations, theses, and books on
the topic, are utilized.
Literature in this review addresses the role of listening in musical understanding,
effective listening conditions, and the relationship between movement and the development of
musical ability in young children. Lastly, literature has been included that explores
children’s ability to demonstrate their musical understanding through various representations
or notation systems.
Listening and Listening Condition
Listening is an essential part in music learning and enjoyment throughout a person’s
lifetime, but it has often been overlooked in music education research in comparison to other
research areas, such as music preference or music attitude. Some researchers have asserted
that music listening is an aspect of music education that has received minimal attention from
researchers (Baldridge, 1984; Cusano, 2005; Haack, 1992).
Campbell (2005) states that listening is sometimes an underrated activity in school
classes and ensembles, although it should be the heart and soul of music education, and she
notes that students who learn to listen well are then led by their ears into a refined
musicianship that is the basis of their growth as performers, composers, and analytical thinkers.
７
Sims (1987, 1991, 2005) shows that children have a critical window of time for learning to
listen to music with attention and understanding, and for building the foundation for ongoing
music learning and enjoyment.
Numerous studies have emphasized that young children’s attentive and perceptive
listening ability can and must be developed and practiced from early in life (Abeles, Hoffer, &
Klotman, 1984, Arnoff, 1968; Brand & Fernie, 1983; Ernst & Gary, 1965; Sims, 1986, 2005;
Smith, 1970; Swanson, 1981; Zimmerman, 1971). These studies have chiefly emphasized
the importance of ability development in young children. At the same time, the results of
these studies have revealed that listening abilities can be improved through education and
learning.
Nevertheless, Haack (1992) notes that there has been relatively little research aimed at
determining how and when skills and attitudes related to music listening develop. Sims
(2005) insists that one of the reasons for this gap in research is that ‘listening’ cannot be
observed directly, and this problem is magnified when working with young children. In
several studies, effective listening conditions for young children have been investigated
(Alvarez, 1982; Gromko & Russell, 2002; Scott, 1991; Sims, 2002, 2005), and some have
revealed that active listening, including movement or the use of visual aids, leads to greater
levels of on-task behavior during group listening experiences when compared with passive
listening (Cassidy & Geringer, 1999; Carper, 2001; Cohen, 1987; Fung 2001; Sims,1986).
Mack (1995) investigates the effects of using story book pictures during group listening
activities for preschool children on children’s listening duration and attention. The results of
the study show that when children follow along with one of these visual aids, some of the
children listen for longer durations than those in groups with no visuals. Sims (1986, 2005)
finds that active listening, including small hand movements in response to specified
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characteristics of the music during listening, achieves higher levels of attention than more
passive listening. The results of these studies indicate that the active listening condition
might provide more efficient listening environments for young children than passive listening
conditions.
Sims (2002) emphasizes that many music listening opportunities including exposure to
diverse musical genres are needed by young children. These children should be given the
opportunity to express what they hear in the music through movement, graphic representations,
and conversations about the music.
In summary, the author suggests that music educators need to know what young children
are hearing when they listen to music, and to understand how they express what they are
hearing, since listening is a vital aspect of music education. Furthermore, it is suggested that
investigations on student listening conditions may assist music educators in improving
listening abilities in young children.
Young Children’s Movement
In the listening condition, activities, such as singing, moving, visual aids usage, or
playing are considered significant attention honing factors. The results of many studies have
shown that activities requiring active participation are associated with higher levels of
attention compared to more passive types of activities, such as solely listening to music or
verbal instruction (Barclay & Newell, 1980; Bowles, 1998; Cohen 1997; Fox, 1991; Fung,
2001; Sims, 1986, 2005).
Movement can be an effective component of active participation in listening, especially
in young children. The importance of movement for young children’s physical and cognitive
development has also been suggested in the theories of Piaget (1962), Vygotsky (1978), and
Dalcroze (1921). Dalcroze (1921) says that the body should be the first instrument through
９
which to reflect and interpret movement and nuances in music. Hedden and Woods (1992)
state that the source of musical rhythm is the natural loco-motor rhythm of the human body.
However, is this also relevant to young children? Indeed, the ideas that music is
related to natural loco-motor rhythms of the body and that movement may be the source of
children’s perception of nuance and pattern in music have also been referenced in numerous
studies (Fung, 2001; Hedden & Woods, 1992; Jaques-Dalcroze, 1921; Lewis, 1998; Metz,
1989; Sims, 1986; Vygotsky, 1978). In a study with 29 elementary children, ages 7 to 12
years, Gromko and Russell (2002) examine whether children’s active involvement during
listening improves their ability to perceive the form of Gershwin’s Prelude No.3. Fourteen
children of the more active movement group in this study mirrored the teacher in performance
of movements that corresponded to the characteristics of the music and assembled the graphic
notation map from its parts. After listening, all children were asked to color code the twelve
sections of the Prelude during one final listening, using the same color sticker for sections that
sounded the same. The results show that children in the more active movement group
performed significantly better at the sticker task, which was designed to measure the children’s
perception of form. As stated above in the listening condition section, Sims (1986)
investigates the effect of active listening on young children’s (age 3 to 5 years) attention,
music preference, time spent listening, and piece recognition. Active listeners are instructed
to perform hand movements that correspond to the characteristics of the music while listening
to piano pieces by Mussorgsky and Bizet. Passive listeners are requested to hold their hands
in their laps while listening to the piano pieces. She finds that children are more attentive
during music listening activities when they perform hand movements that correspond to the
characteristics of the music listening. However, the results do not mention the relationship
between active listening condition and young children’s musical understanding or perception
１０
during listening, reporting measurement problems in investigating young children’s musical
understanding.
Nevertheless, some studies in music education have emphasized the importance of the
relationship between young children’s musical perception and their movements during
listening and have provided empirical support for this (Lewis, 1998; Metz, 1989; Mueller,
1993). Fung (2001) examines the effects of active versus passive listening condition on
music perception of children, ages 7 to 12 years. In the study, thirty- five elementary-level
children are divided into two groups, active and passive, where active listeners move
spontaneously while listening and passive listeners sit quietly during listening. The results of
the study show that children’s spontaneous movement in the active group enhanced their
perception of rhythm and phrasing, as reflected in the quality of the children’s invented
notation. Although Fung’s study does not deal with young children (under 6 years of age), or
the effect of listening condition on young children’s musical understanding, it provides a basis
for researchers who are interested in the measurement of young children’s musical
understanding.
Young Children’s Musical Representation
Several studies indicate that children have a rich and various repertoire of symbols and
strategies for notating rhythm and melody. They use words, icons, lines, marks, color, and a
number of other methods to represent the melodies they hear (Bamberger, 1982, 1994;
Gromko, 1976, 1994; Davidson & Colley, 1987; Fung, 2001; Korzenik, 1972; Smith, 1970;
Upitis, 1987a, 1987b, 1990). Upitis (1990) describes various symbols that fifty children,
ages from 6 to 9 years, use to notate two melodies. She finds the information they most
frequently choose to record is pitch, rhythm, duration, and less often mood and dynamics.
Children demonstrate in a variety of ways, as previously listed (e.g. icons, symbols, words, or
１１
discrete mark) to creatively denote the melody. Fung (2001) investigates the effect active
versus passive listening has on the quality of children’s invented notation. Children, ages 7
to 12 years, participated in this study, and the results show significant differences between two
groups of children regarding their referencing of certain parameters, such as in their invented
notation. Davidson and Scripp (1988) describe the importance of children’s graphic
representations this way “…for a more complete knowledge of children’s understanding of
music, their representations of music are critical ‘windows’ for viewing their musical
cognitive development” (p.196).
According to Davidson and Colley (1987), activities where children can create musical
representations using invented notations offer greater evidence of musical understanding.
They also state that children can convey their comprehension of music events through a
symbolic representation. However, it is the responsibility of researchers to develop more
child-centered measures. This idea of ‘child -centered measures’ is based on previous studies
by Bamberger (1980, 1982), where she observes children’s invented notations after listening to
simple rhythmic sequences. She finds that children can express through their invented
notation the differences among various rhythm sequences that they perceive.
Several studies in music education investigate the nature of children’s invented visual
representations or musical notations in order to gain insight into children’s development of
musical perception and use of symbols.
Numerous studies also suggest that as children develop their skills in perception of
music’s characteristics, such as pitch, dynamics, and timbre, their invented notations make
reference to more of these musical dimensions in much greater detail (Bamberger, 1991;
Barrett, 1997; Davidson & Colley, 1987; Davidson & Scripp, 1988; Fung, 2001; Gromko,
1994, 1998; Gromko & Poorman, 1998a, 1998b; Upitis, 1987a, 1987b, 1990). In Gromko’s
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(1994) empirical study involving sixty children, ages 4 to 8 years, the quality of children’s
invented notation is seen to be related to their in-tune singing and accurate playing of the song
notated, as well as to their discrimination of short and rhythmic patterns. Gromko and
Poorman (1998a) also investigate the relationship among children’s aural perception of tonal
patterns, children’s symbol use in their drawing, and selection tasks based on tonal
information. Sixty-four children, ages 4 to 12 years, participated in this study, and the results
show that their ability to use musical symbols is related to their aural perception of musical
sound. These abilities follow a developmental progression within and across perception,
selection, and drawing tasks. This result supports the ideas of Gromko’s previous research
that invented notations reflect children’s musical understandings, and that, as children’s
perceptions grow in musical detail, their notation grows in sophistication (1994).
As described above, numerous studies in music education show that young children’s
musical understanding during listening can be measured through their invented notation.
Furthermore, young children’s musical representations can be improved, based on their
physical ability and development of musical cognition and perception. Bamberger (1982)
claims that, in young children’s musical drawing, there is a typology of drawings (notations)
for simple rhythms, each associated with specific strategies that not only have developmental
implications, but also point to significant and contrasting structural aspects inherent in the
rhythms themselves. Clearly, young children’s visual representations can provide us with an
indication of their musical perception and can serve as a valuable tool for researching listening.
１３
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter presents the research methodology utilized for the study. It includes a
restatement of the purpose of the study, discusses the overall research design, and explains
sampling, procedures, data collection, and the method of data analysis.
Restatement of Purpose
The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of active and passive listening
conditions on young children’s musical understanding of familiar and unfamiliar melody
through researcher-invented notation.
Sample
There were 70 (n=70) research subjects ranging from 3 to 5 years of age, each attending
a private prekindergarten located in Mok-Dong, a southwestern region of Seoul, Korea in this
study. Seoul consists of twenty-five autonomous districts. One of these districts is called
Yangcheon-gu, or ‘Gu’, and the Mok-Dong area is a part of this district. According to the
2009 official information of the Yangcheon-district office (http://www.yangchon.seoul.kr), the
Mok-Dong area consists mostly of residential apartments that have been built since 1980 for
this somewhat new community of middle class families. The area of Mok Dong is 5,340
square kilometers (the total area of Seoul is 605, 520 square kilometers) and has a population
of 163,586 (Seoul has a population of 10,456,095). The average age of the residents ranges
from persons in their mid-30s to 40s (http://www.yangchon.seoul.kr), and most families of the
research subjects are middle class Korean. The families send their young children to private
prekindergarten with a monthly tuition equivalent to over US$900 because there is no public
１４
prekindergarten in Korea. Families who do not send their children to private prekindergarten
are able to use free government-provided day-care centers typically frequented by children
from low income families.
One of the significant features of Mok-Dong parents is that they tend to have ambitious
educational goals for their children. Due to being active and vocal about school systems and
educational opportunities for their children, parents have influenced the sustenance of these
high achieving schools. According to the statistics from Seoul Metropolitan Government
(http://stat-app.seoul.go.kr) for 2005, there were 1,300 private educational institutes registered
with the Gangseo District Office of Education, which includes the Mok-Dong area. This is
the third highest number of institutes if the 11 District Offices of Education in Seoul. Of the
1.300 institutes, 392 are classified as art institutes, and this number of art institutes also
represents the fourth highest number in the 11 District Offices of Education. For younger
children, this arts focus includes a variety of activities, such as music, sports, visual arts, a
second language, and so on. When children are 10 or 11 years of age, parents tend to stress
the main school subjects, such as Math, Korean, and English, rather than the arts,
discontinuing enrollment in these art-related activities.
A sample of convenience was selected for this study due to the geographical proximity
of the population to the researcher. The prekindergarten in this study was selected because of
the generally consistent socioeconomic and educational backgrounds of the majority of the
children. The principal and the music teacher in this school were contacted about the school’s
possible participation in this study, and they ardently agreed to participate and to initiate the
process of scheduling the treatment and pre- and posttests. There were a total of 120 students
in this school ranging in age from 2 to 6 years.
The children had a 50-minute general music class once a week with the music teacher
１５
and assistant teacher. The music program consisted of singing, dancing, playing, and
exploring sound in general, with Western music being used mostly frequently. Korean music
was taught only to children from ages 5 to 6 years, and they typically learned to play ‘Jango’,
a traditional Korean percussion instrument similar to Western drum.
The music teacher of this school holds a certificate in Kindermusik from the United
States, and had worked in this school for three years and other prekindergarten schools in
Korea for six years. She was selected to lead the music classes for this study as she was
familiar with the students and the school, and demonstrated a high level of capability.
There were 70 children (n=70) participating at the onset of the study, and the children
were assigned equally to control and treatment groups through a stratified random sampling
process by age. Stratification was performed according to age in order to make both groups
nearly equal in number. For example, the names of all 5-year-old children were randomly
selected for control and treatment groups. The same process was used for the selection of the
4- and 3-year-old children. This process facilitated a nearly equal age distribution in the two
groups.
Due to attrition, the final number of participants was 67 (n=67), as three participants
either did not take one of the tests or were absent from school during the course of the
experiment. Of the three students who did not complete the study, two were from the
treatment group, and one was from the control group, creating final participant numbers of 34
(n=34) in the treatment and 33 (n=33) in the control groups. The treatment group consisted
of nine 3-year-old, eighteen 4-year-old, and seven 5-year-old children. The control group
consisted of ten 3-year-old, seventeen 4-year-old, and six 5-year-old children.
Dependent Variable
The dependent variables were the pre- and posttest scores of the children’s drawings
１６
which represented their apparent understanding of tempo as they listened to music. This
system of measurement was adapted from a study by Fung (2001) in which children
demonstrated their understanding of tempo by drawing on paper as they listened to music.
The children were instructed to draw figures that corresponded to changes of tempo in music.
For example, instructions were to draw continuous ‘z’ or ‘wave’ patterns, having dense
intervals when the tempo was fast, and wider intervals when the music was slow. The
children drew on light grid paper in order to assist the researcher in comparing the respective
size s of ‘z’ patterns for each child.
The children were videotaped as they drew. The videotapes allowed judges to identify
changes in drawing with changes of musical element and evaluate student musical
understanding without disrupting the child’s concentration during testing.
Each musical example had four tempo changes and three judges assigned a numeric
value reflecting the number of accurate changes as indicated in the student’s drawing:
0 – No accurate changes or student didn’t understand instructions
1 – One distinct change corresponding with one musical change
2 – Two distinct changes corresponding with two musical changes.
3 – Three distinct changes corresponding with three musical changes.
4 - Four distinct changes corresponding with four musical changes.
Independent Variable
The independent variable was the listening condition for the young children, active or
passive. The active condition included movement guided by the music teacher, which
corresponded to changes in tempo while listening to music. Children assigned to this
treatment condition participated with their teacher in moving arms, legs, and their bodies to
represent musical characteristics they heard in the music. The movements also included
１７
using props, such as colorful ribbons or chiffon scarves.
In the passive listening condition, children listened without movement to guided
instructions concerning changes in tempo. Children assigned to the control group listened to
the music while comfortably sitting, lying down, or leaning against a wall, while the music
teacher pointed out changes in the musical aspects of tempo.
All subjects participated in a total of three listening sessions for this study. These
sessions were incorporated into their general music classes once a week for three consecutive
weeks. Each listening session lasted approximately 40 minutes.
The music classes for the treatment groups and control groups contained 6 to10
children per class for a total of eight classes (four control and four treatment). Grouping
children in these smaller classes of 8 to 10 students is consistent with the regular class
structure at the school.
Design
The design of this study was a pre- and posttest experimental design. All subjects
took a pretest, participated as members of the three listening sessions of either active or
passive listening conditions, and then took a posttest.
Internal Validity
Subjects were selected from one private prekindergarten in order to reduce diversity in
educational experience, situation, and program. The school music teacher led the treatment
and control groups to eliminate intervention of the researcher in the experiment. This also
provided a familiar environment in which the subjects could feel comfortable during the
experiment. The treatment occurred at the same time and the same duration as regular music
class in order to maintain consistency for subjects and uniformity in scheduling. Treatments
were scheduled on every Monday in June, 2009.
１８
The subjects of both control and treatment groups took pre- and posttests. While
higher scores on the posttest may have resulted due to experience gained from taking the
pretest, this factor influenced both groups equally. The desired number of subjects was 60
for the analysis of this study. Therefore, an additional 10 subjects were included in the study
to make up for attrition due to student absence.
Three independent judges scored the dependent variable. A blind process was used in
the judging to shield the identity of the children.
External Validity
The school selected for this study was a typical prekindergarten in the Mok-Dong
District as far as population distribution, economic status, general educational goals, and
student achievement. Adults in the Mok-Dong District are 30-40 years on average and most
hold professional jobs with high educational goals for their children.
Procedure
With the assistance of the school principal, participants were recruited from the school
population, and permission forms were completed by their parents and the school principal.
The music classes for this study were led by the music teacher, and the study was conducted
over a five-week period on successive Mondays in June 2009. Week one included the pretest
followed by three weekly music classes, with the posttest in week five. The following
describes details regarding the pilot study, music classes, pre- and posttest procedures, analysis,
and timeline.
Pilot study
A pilot study was conducted with a smaller sample (n=52) of similar students ranging
from 3 to 5 years of age. The pilot study was conducted in two private pre-schools in Seoul
in November, 2008. A total of four music examples consisting of eight measures were used
１９
for the treatment sessions, the pre- and posttest. A pretest, one treatment session, and a
posttest were administered consecutively on the same day for the pilot study. A digital piano
was used to play the music examples live, and the piano player and other music teacher
participated in judging the children’s drawings. Two judges evaluated the children’s
drawings according to the number of tempo and dynamic changes depicted in their drawings.
The data were collected after one treatment session.
The current format for measurement and procedure for collecting data was modified
after the pilot study. The procedures were formalized, adding two additional treatment
sessions and extending the duration of each treatment session. The number and length of
musical examples were altered to allow for greater changes in tempo. In addition, changes in
dynamics were eliminated from the melodies so as to remove another variable. Finally, it
was decided to lessen further variables by using recordings rather than live music during
treatments and tests.
The scoring system was adjusted in measuring the children’s apparent understanding of
tempo changes in their drawings. The judging system was also adjusted, increasing the
number of judges, participation of judges being restricted to evaluations only (without
participation in treatment sessions or the pre- and posttests), and watching of videos while
scoring, as every test session was video recorded for accurate matching points between real
tempo changes in music and changes in children’s drawings.
Classroom set-up
The general music classroom in the school was used for the music classes in this study.
This large room included a CD player, and two speakers for listening. The room was
spacious enough for the subjects to move about freely while listening to music. Colorful
tapes and chiffon scarves were available for the students to use in the treatment group.
２０
Listening sessions
Listening sessions occurred on three consecutive weeks for both the active and the
passive listening groups. Each session lasted for 40 minutes. In the first and second session,
recorded versions of two melodies were played for the subjects: one familiar melody (Twinkle,
Twinkle for the first listening session and London Bridge for second session), and one
unfamiliar melody. Each melody was played three times. The familiar melodies were
selected from those previously taught to all of the children in their music class. The
unfamiliar melodies were composed specifically for this study and were based on similar
phrasing, length, melodic shape, and harmonic structure. The third listening session included
recorded versions of three melodies for the subjects: two familiar melodies used already in the
first and second session and one unfamiliar. Each melody contained four musical changes
in tempo.
Control group
Participants (n=33) of the control group were divided into four small groups. Each of
the four groups experienced the same content and instruction during the music listening
classes. The control condition consisted of music teacher-guided listening activities. The
teacher played recorded musical examples as the students sat quietly, relaxed, and listening.
The teacher guided the students in understanding the musical concepts of tempo in the
recorded examples. Tempo changes in the music were pointed out for students’ recognition
and understanding.
Treatment group
Similar to the control group, participants (n=34) of the treatment group were also
divided into four small groups. Each group experienced the same content and instruction in
the music listening class.
２１
The treatment condition consisted of the music teacher guiding listening activities with
movement. The teacher played recorded musical examples and modeled movements that
corresponded to the tempo of the music. The teacher used props with the children, such as
colorful scarves and ribbons. When the music was faster, the teacher modeled faster gestures
and encouraged the children to do the same to represent the tempo of the movement. Special
attention was given to those who needed more encouragement to imitate the movements.
Both familiar and unfamiliar melodies were included in each music class, introducing students
to new music and allowing them to transfer skills in listening to unfamiliar music.
Pre- and posttests
The pre- and posttests followed the same procedures. The pretest was administered on
week one, and the posttest on week five. Testing occurred during the regularly scheduled
music classes, with each student being tested separately and consecutively. The individual
tests lasted for 2 to 3 minutes duration, resulting in a period of 20 to 30 minutes for all
students in one class to be tested.
Each classroom contained children who had been assigned to the treatment and control
groups. The classroom teachers, unaware of which children were assigned to the control and
treatment group, sent the children for testing in an order that provided the least disturbance for
the class. The test was administered to each student individually while the other students in
the class played, read, snacked, or listened to story-telling by their classroom teacher. The
result was that the children were tested in an order that interspersed children in the control
group with those from the treatment groups. The order of children being tested was the same
for the pre- and posttest.
The testing procedure for each class began with instructions provided for all
participants. Testing each student began with abbreviated instructions to clarify and help
２２
children remember the instructions. In the directions, the music teacher demonstrated by
drawing a continuous ‘z’-shaped figure representing changes in the tempo that were heard in
the short, familiar musical example played. When the music was faster, the ‘z’-shape was to
be drawn densely, and when the music was slower, the ‘z’-shape was to be drawn sparsely.
The children were instructed to begin their drawing on a pre-drawn dot on the page and to
continue drawing until the music stopped.
For each test (pre- and posttests), two different short recorded melodies were played on
a CD player: one familiar melody and one unfamiliar melody (Appendix A). Each of the two
melodies was played once. The children selected a colored marker, listened to each melody
played, and drew on a large piece of paper according to the instructions they had received.
The entire process of the pre- and posttests was videotaped for evaluation by the judges at a
later time.
Judging
Three judges with extensive experience in music education for young children evaluated
the drawings. The judges underwent training, in order to ensure accurate calibration of the
measurement system, and were trained separately on different days. The training was
provided by the researcher and provided judges with information about assigning appropriate
scores. The judges were trained to watch sample videos of the researcher drawing and to
independently assign two scores to each drawing.
Once the sample drawings were evaluated accurately by each of the judges, and the
research was convinced that the judges clearly understood the system, evaluation of the study
data commenced.
The children’s drawings were judged in the same order in which the children took the
pre- and posttests, with children from the control group interspersed with those from the
２３
treatment group. The judges did not know the group affiliation of each child or if they were
judging a pretest or posttest. See Appendix B for samples of children’s drawings.
After collecting the raw scores, consistency among the three judges’ scores was
determined through a correlation test. A threshold of r>=.60 indicating a substantial
relationship (Best & Kahn, 2006), was established for inclusion of the scores. This
demonstrates that the three judges evaluated the pre- and posttests consistently. A results of
r<.60 would indicate less consistent scoring among the three judges and call into question the
reliability of the measurement and the findings.
The results of a Pearson Correlation test indicated that all of the judges’ scores met
these criteria, and consequently all scores were included in the analysis.
Table 1. Descriptive Judge Scores for All Children (n=67)
M SD Range
Judge 1 1.83 1.70 0 - 4
Judge 2 1.45 1.43 0 – 4
Judge 3 1.63 1.64 0 - 4
Table 2. Inter-rater reliability: Correlation Matrix of Judge Scores
Judge 1 Judge 2 Judge 3
Judge 1 ______ ______ ______
Judge 2 r=.71* ______ ______
Judge 3 r=.73* r=.60* ______
*p<.001
２４
Analysis
The drawings of all subjects were collected to score the children’s apparent music
understanding, according to the procedure described in the Dependent Variable section. The
mean scores of all three judges’ scores were collected. The pretest scores were subtracted
from the posttest scores, producing a gain score. The gain scores reflect the change in
apparent student understanding after the treatments. Once calculated for each student, each
gain score for the children in the treatment group (active listening group) based on the familiar
and unfamiliar melodies were compared with the gain scores for the familiar and unfamiliar
melodies in the control group (passive listening group) using the two-way ANOVA test.
The result of the test indicated whether the treatment based on familiarity had had any effect.
This analytical procedure was used to determine if the treatment had an effect on
children’s musical understanding of tempo.
Time Table
This five-week study was conducted in June and July, 2009. Data for the pretest were
collected in week one, and data for the posttest were collected in week five. Between pre-and
posttests, three treatment sessions were processed on three consecutive Mondays in July,
2009. Judging was conducted in July of 2009, immediately after the experiment had
concluded.
Protection of Human Subjects
This study was conducted in Seoul, Korea with 70 children ranging from 3 to 5 years of
age. Children were assigned to a treatment group according to random stratification. The
children were mostly right-handed, healthy, and from upper middle-class families.
Agreement for participation in the experiment was obtained from the principals and parents.
All had signed and returned letters of approval for their children to participate. The letters
２５
indicated that the treatment session would last for approximately 40 minutes, and if the
children (or parents) wished to discontinue participation in the study at any time, they could do
so freely.
This study was considered non-human subject research for the following reasons: 1) The
experiment occurred during the children’s regularly scheduled music class, and 2) the
identities of all subjects participating in this study were secured by the music teacher. Each
child was assigned a code that replaced his or her name. These codes were created and held
by the music teacher who provided the researcher and judges with coded number identification
only. The identities of the children were never revealed to the researcher or to the judges, as
recommended by the Institutional Review of Board (IRB) at the University of Southern
California (USC). The researcher received a “Non –Human Subjects Research” letter of
approval from the IRB on May of 2009.
２６
CHAPTER 4
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
Overview
This study investigated young children’s apparent understanding of tempo in familiar
and unfamiliar melodies when comparing active and passive listening conditions.
Chapter 4 includes a restatement of the two research questions and related two null
hypotheses that guided the study. Data treatment and results are then discussed and are
followed by a chapter summary. For purposes of reporting, the limit for identifying statistical
significance was set at p<.05. The software programs employed in the data analysis were
Microsoft Excel 2007, and SPSS 16.0.
Restatement of the Research Questions
There were two research questions for this study related to young children’s musical
understanding. One question asked if there is a significant difference in young children’s
apparent understanding of tempo (dependent variable) when comparing active and passive
listening conditions (independent variable). The second question asked if there is a
significant difference in young children’s apparent understanding of tempo according to
familiarity of the melody.
Restatement of the Null Hypotheses
There were two null hypotheses for the study. Hypothesis one states that there will be
no statistically significant difference in young children’s apparent understanding of tempo
when comparing active and passive listening conditions. Hypothesis two states that there
will be no statistically significant difference in young children’s apparent understanding of
tempo according to familiarity of the melody.
２７
Data Treatment: Descriptive Results
As discussed earlier, for the testing sessions, the children each contributed two drawings
which represented their apparent musical understanding of tempo: one drawing in response to
a familiar melody and a second in response to an unfamiliar melody. Three independent
judges evaluated the children’s drawings and provided scores that represented the number of
accurate tempo changes reflected in their drawings. When considering the pre- and posttest
sessions, this resulted in four drawings per child and a corresponding four scores from each
judge. With sufficient inter-judge agreement, as outlined in Chapter 3, the mean of the
judges’ scores was calculated for each drawing and included in the analysis.
The results for all children who completed the study are included in Table 3 below.
Table 3. All Students Scores for the Number of Tempo Changes Indentified Correctly
n Range Mean SD
Pretest Familiar melody 34 0.00-4.00 1.87 1.46
Treatment Unfamiliar 34 0.00-4.00 1.07 1.34
Posttest Familiar 34 0.00-4.00 2.76 1.33
Unfamiliar 34 0.00-4.00 2.18 1.24
Pretest Familiar melody 33 0.00-4.00 1.38 1.34
Control Unfamiliar 33 0.00-3.00 .84 .99
Posttest Familiar 33 0.00-4.00 1.64 1.38
Unfamiliar 33 0.00-3.67 1.32 1.28
Table 3 indicates that for the pretest, the scores for all children were between .84 and
２８
1.87 and for the posttest, between 1.32 and 2.76. While all the scores are numerically higher
for the posttest, many of these individual scores did not meet the inclusion criteria for the
remaining analysis.
The children’s scores had to meet the inclusion criteria of at least 1.00 on the pretest to
be included in further analysis. A pretest score of less than 1.00 indicated that a student did
not understand the drawing system of the experiment, and the score could not be included.
Although 70 children participated in this study, three did not complete the study, and scores
for an additional 27 children did not meet the inclusion criteria. The scores for these 30
children were excluded from further analysis. Scores from the 40 remaining students were
included, and information about the scores is included in Table 4.
Table 4. Included Students’ Scores for the Number of Tempo Changes Identified Correctly
n Range Min. Max. M SD
Pre Familiar 20 2.33 1.67 4.00 2.98 .71
Treatment
Post
Unfamiliar
Familiar
12
20
2.67
4.00
1.33
.00
4.00
4.00
2.69
2.97
.90
1.35
Unfamiliar 12 4.00 .00 4.00 2.25 1.50
Pre Familiar 18 3.00 1.00 4.00 2.41 .95
Control
Post
Unfamiliar
Familiar
13
18
2.00
4.00
1.00
.00
3.00
4.00
1.92
1.44
.64
1.19
Unfamiliar 13 3.67 .00 3.67 1.31 1.36
２９
Table 4 shows descriptive statistics according to the children’s scores that met the
inclusion criteria. In the treatment group, the scores from 20 children met the inclusion
criteria. The scores from all 20 of these children met the inclusion criteria for the familiar
melody and the scores from only 12 children met the criteria for the unfamiliar melody. In
the control group, the scores from 20 children met the inclusion criteria. Of these 20 children,
18 earned scores that met the criteria for familiar melody and only 13 children met the criteria
for unfamiliar melody.
The results in Table 4 indicate that the pretest scores range from 1.92 to 2.98 and the
posttest scores range from 1.31 to 2.97. These scores are higher in the pretest than the
posttest, contrary to Table 3. Similar to Table 3, these scores are numerically higher for the
familiar melody than for the unfamiliar melody.
Only student scores meeting the inclusion criteria were used for the remaining
analysis and results in this chapter.
Results
To identify changes in student understanding between the pre- to posttest, gain scores
were calculated for the variables of familiar and unfamiliar melody. The gain scores were
calculated by subtracting each child’s pretest scores from each posttest score.
Prior to conducting tests of significance, descriptive data of the gain scores is shown in
Table 5 for the helpful interpretation of further analysis.
３０
Table 5. The Gain Scores of Included Students for the Number of Tempo Changes
The mean gain scores indicated in Table 5 are less than zero with the exception of the
familiar melody in the treatment group which is .02.
The study was framed by two key research questions, and the results are presented in the
same order as the research questions.
Research question 1:
Is there a significant difference in young children’s apparent understanding of tempo
when comparing the active and passive listening conditions?
The results were calculated with a two-way ANOVA using the student gain scores.
According to Educational Research (Gall et al, 2003), “ANOVA is a procedure for
determining whether the difference between the mean scores of two or more groups on a
dependent variable is statistically significant” (p.618). A two-way ANOVA was selected for
this study because of the two independent variables, listening conditions and familiarity of
n Min Max Mean SD
Treatment Familiar melody 20 -.68 .71 .02 1.62
Unfamiliar 12 -1.34 .45 -.44 1.77
Both Combined 32 -1.34 .71 -.16 1.67
Control Familiar melody 18 -1.70 -.23 -.96 1.38
Unfamiliar 13 -1.48 -.24 -.62 1.42
Both Combined 31 -1.70 .24 -.82 1.39
Treatment Total Familiar 38 -1.70 .71 -.45 1.57
& Control Total Unfamiliar 25 -1.48 .45 -.53 1.57
３１
melody, and one dependent variable, musical understanding in melody.
The two-way ANOVA compared the treatment and control groups, the familiar and
unfamiliar melodies and the intercept of groups and familiarity, and the results are indicated
below in Table 6.
The results in Table 6 indicate that there is no significant difference (p=.15) between the
results of the treatment and the control groups. Therefore, the listening condition did not
have an effect on the young children’s apparent understanding of tempo. Whether active
and passive listening, this did not affect the children’s understanding of tempo.
The first null hypothesis for this study was the following:
There will be no statistically significant difference in young children’s apparent
understanding of tempo when comparing active and passive listening conditions. This null
hypothesis is accepted, based on the results of this study.
Table 6. The Difference of Gain Scores between Dependent Variables by Two-way ANOVA
Source Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig
Corrected Model 9.40 3 3.14 1.31 .28
Intercept 15.09 1 15.09 6.32 .02
Group treat/cont 4.99 1 4.99 2.09 .15
Familiarity .05 1 .05 .02 .89
Group/Familiarity 2.47 1 2.47 1.03 .32
Error 140.76 59 2.39
Total 164.72 63
Corrected Total 150.17 62
３２
Research question 2:
Is there a significant difference in young children’s apparent understanding of tempo
according to familiarity of the melody?
A comparison of the gain scores for familiar and unfamiliar melodies also reveals no
significant difference (p=.89), as shown in Table 6. The familiarity of the melody had no
effect on the children’s apparent understanding of tempo. The second null hypothesis was as
follows:
There will be no statistically significant difference in young children’s apparent
understanding of tempo according to the familiarity of the melody.
The results of the study allow us to accept this null hypothesis.
Figure1 shows, visually, the interaction of group and melody and is helpful in
understanding this result.
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
Gain scores for the number of tempo changes
Familiar Unfamiliar
Figure 1. Gain Scores for the Number of Tempo Changes
Treatment
Control
３３
Finally, when comparing the children’s apparent understanding of tempo in the case of
familiar and unfamiliar melodies in related to active and passive listening conditions, there
was no significant interaction effect.
The treatment group gain scores were higher than those of the control group and, while
getting close to intersection, the lines remained independent of each other. The interaction of
group and melody familiarity resulted in no significant difference (p=.32).
Summary
This chapter has been concerned with data analysis and the results of that analysis.
Statistically significant differences were not found among gain scores including groups and
familiarity. All null hypotheses were accepted, and all research questions were answered in
the negative. These results are discussed in Chapter 5.
３４
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Introduction
This chapter begins with a review of the purpose of the study, followed by a section
with an overview of the entire study. The conclusions of the study follow, based on data
analysis. Finally, a discussion on the results, suggestions for future research, and
implications for Music Education conclude the chapter.
Purpose
The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of active and passive listening
conditions (independent variable) on young children’s musical understanding (dependent
variable) of familiar and unfamiliar melody through the researcher’s invented notation.
Overview
Numerous studies have emphasized the importance of young children’s music learning
in improving their musical abilities, while also asserting the importance of developing
listening ability from early years (Campbell, 2005; Cusano,2005; Sims, 1991, 2005; Suzuki,
1973; Young, 2003). In this line of thinking, body movement has been considered and used
as one of the most efficient tools for music learning in young children (Dalcroze, 1921; Fung,
2001; Sims 1986, 1988). Nevertheless, there have been some difficulties in testing young
children’s musical understanding in listening due to the problems of finding appropriate
measurement systems.
The effect of the listening condition, related to the presence or absence of body
movement, on young children’s musical understanding was considered to possibly improve
their musical ability, especially, as regards understanding tempo changes in familiar and
３５
unfamiliar melodies, giving rise to this study. Young children’s notations, drawn after
instruction on representation in specific design related to changes in tempo, were used with the
assumption that this provides an adequate measurement for evaluating young children’s
musical understanding.
Children ranging from 3 to 5 years of age in a private prekindergarten in Seoul, Korea
participated in the experiment for 5 weeks in the summer of 2009 for this study. The pre-and
posttests were videotaped for later evaluation, and three judges scored the number of
tempo changes identified correctly by the children. The gain scores were calculated for the
children’s drawings that met the inclusion criteria. A two –way ANOVA was used to
compare the scores of the control and treatment groups, and the familiar and unfamiliar
melodies.
The results obtained through the ANOVA test revealed that there is no statistically
significant difference between groups, familiarity, or the interaction of groups and familiarity.
Therefore, the null hypotheses were accepted, based on the results of this study. These
results and acceptance of null hypotheses are examined more closely in relation to each of the
two research questions in next section.
Conclusion
The results of this study indicate two primary conclusions which provide ideas for
further research. In addition, the researcher offers a suggestion about a measurement system
of young children’s musical understanding during listening based on the procedure used in this
study. These conclusions are specifically explained below.
Research question one: Is there a significant difference in young children’s apparent
understanding of tempo changes when comparing active and passive listening conditions?
３６
The most appropriate conclusion to be drawn from this question is that incorporating
body movement into the musical instruction of children does not affect children’s
understanding of tempo. No significant difference was found between the scores of the
children in the treatment and the control groups with regard to the number of correct tempo
changes identified in musical examples.
Although studies have suggested that activities such as body movement during listening
can be useful tools for young children to learn musical elements (Dalcroze, 1921; Fung, 2001;
Gromko and Poorman, 1998b; Sims, 1986, 2002), the results in this study do not support this
idea. Rather, the results of this study support the findings of Gromko (2002), who found that
active listening using activities including body movement does not enhance young children’s
perception of musical details.
Research question two: is there a significant difference in young children’s apparent
understanding of tempo according to familiarity of the melody? The results in this study
revealed no significant difference in the apparent understanding of tempo when comparing the
results of the familiar melody with those of the unfamiliar melody. It did not matter if the
children knew the melody previously or if it was new to them, their understanding of tempo
appeared to be the same.
Further results indicated that for melody familiarity, it did not matter if the children
were in the treatment or the control group. Active listening did not appear to be an effect on
children’s apparent understanding of tempo in relation to ether familiar or unfamiliar melodies.
The conclusion drawn for this research question regarding melody familiarity mostly
supports the findings of Fung (2001), who found that 7- to 12-year-old children’s musical
perception during listening is affected more by specific musical features of melody, such as
rhythm and phrasing significance, than melody familiarity.
３７
Discussion
The conclusions of this study suggest three topics for further discussion including the
number of subjects, the measurement system, and spontaneous and guided body movement.
Number of subjects
The scoring system used in this study was adapted from previous studies and was
further influenced by lessons learned in the pilot study. The scoring system was structured so
that a score of zero would indicate either that the child’s drawing represented no correct tempo
changes or that the drawing did not indicated that the child understood the directions for the
system. If children scored less than one on their drawing for the pretest, the scores were
excluded from further analysis. It is important to note that 27 children’s scores or 40% of the
possible scores were excluded from the analysis because they did not meet the inclusion
criteria.
This reflects two issues that quite likely have influenced the results of the study.
Firstly, the drawing system used to collect information about the children’s musical knowledge
was not understood clearly by many students at the beginning of the study. It may have taken
several classes of repeated instruction to ensure that most of the children understood the
intended representations of the drawing styles. Secondly, the scoring system should account
separately for the children’s understanding of the drawing system and of the tempo changes.
Each of the two criteria might have been scored separately to provide more specificity.
Inherently, there are challenges in the accurate measurement of young children’s
musical understanding. Measurement systems used in a new context need testing to ensure
reliability and validity. The application of the drawing system in the current study has
provided a first step in this process.
３８
Examining scores with no exclusion criteria applied to subjects
The descriptive results in Chapter 4 indicate that when looking at all student scores
(included and excluded), the numeric scores are higher for the posttest for every measurement.
These scores include the students who scored zero on the pretest and for whom great
improvement on the posttest was possible. While the reported increase in the posttest scores
cannot be interpreted as an effect of the treatment, it does suggest that the children better
understood the drawing system during the posttest. It appeared that, through practice,
experience, and repeated instructions, the children were better able to represent their musical
understanding through this drawing system for the final test.
This finding is in agreement with the idea of Davison and Scripp (1988) that music
educators need to know young children’s representations of music because this provides
information about young children’s understanding of music. Their idea is also that children’s
representations of music provide a “window” into the understanding that children can express
as they listen to music. Although measuring young children’s musical understanding or
perception during listening has been considered one of the most difficult areas in music
education, some studies (Barrett 1997, 1999; Fung, 2001; Gromko, 1994) suggest that children
from age 4 to 12 years can describe to their understanding or perception of musical
characteristics through invented notations they listen to melody. The results of this study
support and extend these earlier findings as the children in the current study were younger,
ranging in age from 3 to 5 years.
Spontaneous and instructional body movement
During music classes for the control group, simple spontaneous movements were
observed in many of the children. These occasional movements included tapping their
fingers and feet, nodding their heads, or lightly moving their bodies to the rhythm of the music
３９
from a seated or lying position. The children in the treatment group followed movements
guided by their teacher for the majority of the class. The children and teacher kept moving
with the music for the duration of the class even though the children became distracted by the
movement or tired of the activity. It is possible that the light and spontaneous activity of the
control group enhanced their concentration on the music, unlike the constant movement of the
treatment group that seemed to over stimulate the children.
The results inspire the consideration of an alternative approach to movement with regard
to children’s musical understanding. The observations of movement in the treatment and
control groups may inspire listening conditions that combine elements of both guided and
spontaneous movement. Perhaps, in future studies, children’s natural movements could be
examined and then integrated into a similar study.
Implications for Music Education
It is important to consider that the children participating in this study attend the same
school, which is located in the community in which the researcher resides. Also, the number
of students in the analysis was considerably lower than intended due to the number of students
whose scores did not meet the inclusion criteria. With these limitations, the specific findings
of this study will apply more to the local community in which the data were collected and less
to the broader population. When the current study is placed alongside other related studies,
the broader themes and valuable information gathered from the collective whole can inform
the pedagogy of young children and the measurement of their musical understanding.
Suggestions for the Future Research
Three suggestions for future research that are directly related to the results of this study
are explained below.
４０
Firstly, a replication of this study is suggested with increased instruction and practice
time with the drawing system for all of the children before the treatment sessions begin. It
seems that most children were eventually able to understand the system but needed more
initial practice. The effect of the treatment can be identified more accurately with this
additional instruction for the children.
Secondly, the number of listening sessions should be increased. The children
participating in this study experienced three treatment sessions. If the number of sessions
was increased to six or seven, the children could experience the movement as part of their
music class and the novelty of the new activity would be minimized.
Thirdly, the variables of age and previous experience of music were not included in this
study, and should be considered for future research. The variance in musical understanding
due to these factors is worthy of study, particularly with the current drawing system as a
measurement of musical understanding. A study including these variables may reveal
limitations in age for the current drawing system as a measurement of musical understanding.
Three suggestions for future research that extend from the results of this study are
described below.
Firstly, a descriptive research design in a natural setting should be considered to explore
children’s spontaneous light body movements to the music similar to those observed in the
control group of the current study. Does the light body movement while listening to music
enhance the children’s music understanding? It would be useful to examine musical
understanding resulting from listening activities with guided compared to spontaneous body
movement.
Secondly, it was observed that the order of the tempos may influence children’s accurate
identification of the tempo changes. Do children identify the sequence of tempo changes of
４１
moderate-fast-slow-fast-slow more accurately than moderate-slow-fast-slow-fast? This was
observed by the researcher and may provide valuable insight into children’s understanding.
Thirdly, further research is recommended for measurement tools that accurately identify
young children’s comprehension of music. These tools could allow children greatly expression
and provide teachers with additional assessment tools.
４２
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５０
APPENDIX A
Music Examples
Familiar melody for pretest
５１
Unfamiliar melody for pretest
５２
Familiar melody for posttest
５３
Unfamiliar melody for posttest
５４
Familiar melody for treatments
５５
Unfamiliar melody for treatments
５６
APPENDIX B
Drawing Examples
fast-slow-fast-slow pattern
Example 1
Example 2
５７
slow-fast-slow-fast pattern
Example 3
Example 4
５８
excluded-score pattern
Example 5
Example 6
Example 7